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FOR THE PEOPEE
FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE

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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Department Bulletins
Nos. 51-75,

WITH CONTENTS
AND INDEX.

Prepared in the Division of Publications.

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WASHINGTON:
' GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFPIOE.
1915.

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CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 51.—A BacTERIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL STUDY OF

CoMMERCIAL Ea6Gs IN THE PRopucING DISTRICTS OF THE CENTRAL WEST.
MaLOUUCMONS ze Mas ose ete e snot ese red zea ke dks ya<teeessseees 62
RRERINC HOSE Seo te EAE ee epneteehsyaparcieeyren dldiads os OSE Pees eee Aes

@Remiced composltioni-5. «iar ce bee eG ie oe eee Scie seated
gaNiankeipireshy? Goose: 22 aso hope acu padtesace ts ta segaht
Relation between bacterial multiplication and chemical changes. ... .
Examination of eggs opened aseptically in the laboratory. .........--.
LCI OO Serna te otek Lyeetclannl moe enol laes silt omens try ht esters
Hoosmavanorsettled yolks:.-.222-5- Use eeet ks Saemecise cated se cect -
Heowchanaed nyaincubatlony 22052546 5. s1ah es eek eee 5s eee ete
Bersnavamerdirty shellses ese.) 26 a2 Joes. een costes preheater
nepshavanc cracked shells £2 226. 522.42422-t6 2 a tatiaseree lise cee
Eggs having the yolk seeping into the white. ................-------
WV LDTIG) SHO BS et cee le ao eee ls, 7 neta Me pai ae es
Eggs having yolk adherent to shell (spot rots).........-.------------
Rol dliyac code eee ein mens. Bees ee 2s Eee t ee ee mee
IZ IBIGIS TOUS A pe, Rene SA eR ee ae ee RO ae a ae, SOA
Composite samples of eggs opened commercially in the packing house....-
hiMbvactn me An OUStiinstsy sno a2 ii oie er = tee ee i ete Sees
DECOM Stee sa see miants tra a aan Ra es Wee hs AN Ee ea
Hons invin onciiriya shells. 7.722 nein el ten c ateere EMA Heme ote beer
Hegsaavancvoracked«shella: 2: 2. ..o.2 222245 e4e youn se sSoleee ee eee
Eggs having the yolk partially mixed with the white.........-.....-
IBTOOG Wan CSe tees sarees ee un erg 2 Brave acarenen Week: Peart oe edt Bal gk
cos with loo dentine yas 90 Hien VS. 2 occ me oie od beep
Cost waliins ti pict yal@ nick, whites yet fae. oe otter Se aioe rae
Eggs having white partially coagulated by heat. ...---........------
Begs havin oientire whiteturbid 2.292... <2 2.52 2sc~ 42. ooet Beek aerneee
VV TRI® OLA EaOUsec in oe oe Some Aamo noe Waa Se nen ar 4
Eggs having the yolk adherent to the shell..................---------
TBVBWON TOU 23 cae ecu ee Re eee Se Per RO ¢ see Reta ie a TE nae ee er
Deteriorated eggs not distinguishable by candling............-...----
SULT SAA ce cena tena ie Ba 2 RTM. San VAL eg Ra SE ero RE bE oR
Bacteriological results of individual eggs opened aseptically in the
IFA AGG Lay pee ae ees lo os et iad Ba oper gE ae nal peared is ES
Bacteriological and chemical results of composite samples of eggs opened
commerciallyem the packing house. 4... 52-2222 sepes? eee sie =
A comparison of bacterial contents of individual eggs opened asep-
tically with those of eggs opened commercially.........-..--------
Technique for the bacteriological examination of eggs.......-------------
Methods used for obtaining samples of individual eggs opened asep-
Mealy nan teu alnoratoryes ac wi ect eh dpa ps opel en Pe ep ee AE

Preparation of composite samples oi eggs opened commercially in the
| SECC TI IVE) 1010 UL (e) epee eNO De gale SUBIC 5 nua RU EO epee Ate Pameee Aes ane
GunlenicepmediaMised tees er ir AE es PU a se ah ae ith:
Analytical methods used in the “‘egg investigation” during the summer
Olas ame @maaitar INeDi= ee a. See Ses e eae aaa -

79688—15

Page.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETINS 51—75.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 52.—THE ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN
FLoRIDA.

Infection‘expernments. .:.-..----. 54 “BES. <5. eee ee
Spraying experiments in the spring of 1912.............2/22-..---.--222-.
The experiment in the Flanders grove....:./02.5..-252221)22.2-. 521.2.
The experiment.on the Roop farm... . 2.2.27. 2. ge ee

Spraying experiments in the winter and spring of 1913................-- al

Discussion of the spraying experiments......-....-.-222-2---2----0+----
Influence of the weather on pollination::::-22:.-22 Soe ee. es ee ee
Relations of weather conditions to the disease........-.....-..--.--------
Summary.s 22. es EE Sa RE STD Pate oo ete eye erg

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 53.—OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL RoaDs,
AND BripGE Construction, 1912-13.

Introduction: ......000062h0is-02 02 4 a ee

Gravel. roads: .. 3.022202 sos ee
Gravel-macadam road... -.... :22h20i 2. ER a ee eee
Brick-cinder road... 0). eS oe se ee eee
Sand-clay: roads. oo. ees - ee ee
Sand-gumbo road 2222 23 24 et ee ee
Shell roads. .:.. 1.2052 e Se ate oie ales eae
Earth roads.-....- eee kas teetente. Whe eee
Inspection of object-lesson roads: :: =... 32.225 545 seen oee ae eee
Unfinished work. ..... Low eee ll. Jae. 2 er
Experimental roads; 1912-13... 24.2. Ue oye ee
Memphis-to-Bristol highway. 2252-2. -9Ss02. )=2- eos see
Bridge work, 1912-13...-.222.42.000- SRB as

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 54.—THE ToroGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT
BAsINS OF THE UNITED STATES WITH REFERENCE TO THE POSSIBLE OCCUR-
RENCE OF PoTAsH.

Introduction :.2.2205.2 222 eS. Be eae eee
The Great Basin and its developmentins. 4-602) eon ee: tne
The undrained areas of the United Statess.--- 222-05 oon eee

The basins of the lava plateau .. 32222... 22. eee ee
The trough valleys of Nevada and the basins of the transition zone. . -
The trough valleys of California and the Mojave Desert...-.....--.---
The Salton Basin: «20.22.02: . FA eee gs ne he
The basins of the New Mexico-Texas trough..........-....-..-.------
The trough valleys of Arizona and Sonora...........-..--------------
The Lordsburg-membres region and the Chihuahua bolsons .....-.----
The Rocky Mountain: basins... 228) /: 22 eee
The great valley offalifornia....2s--... Sea eee ee
The filled lakes of the California ranges..............-.--.--------:--
The basins and ponds of the Colorado Plateau..............---------
The ponds and coulees of eastern Washington..............----------
The ponds of the Great: Plains. 3.72.0 ..0¢. 2052. 0
Local basins of unusual origin.............------ iS) Se ee

The possibilities of potash... ...-.5.--cice..-.-cs-2205--42 oe

CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 55.—Batsam Fir.
THEO CULL CLI OTT vp yok | een ee sere «Wipe ye tel far eo SL ieee hel a.
Pecielouiionsor balsam: fires te e455. seas eee ele oe bee ss eee
TP stapeTh ig nayeS.cc ks oe en geo a em a” ce a
Present etal diangvent je. a. acn.) -Se den db bs ase Poe) | aa rte) ses B
ING WwaYiOr eer wei Sorte Se ee ee sR CS oe a Sa ee A plu
PMewablamipehiresen caer i oo ss ek oo Me
WBE TOIT Fe eS lS ea ee es BS ie ph Agente ae Se as, Eats
“VAPRG(e Tae ilk ete ge UR abr eR ae 3
| RR era inn ee Boe ai eh eta, “NR ene eee ec ae eS Ree
JW iQKGL OTE TO. ao are Oars Be aA oS. ea or aS aa are Pe ee RE, BEL a
PNET IDA TIOL ING TUTE Of0) OLE NS GOI ek > Sagem le nm SUD OL A
ParEterUneOmo a Salil) fr eo secre a ete ei Sach atlases Bele eee AS dave
ieroumistonme oly ba samira. fae, Meo oni ee oe eB ceaslers axis ss cies

Mama PeTiVe Mitra etrserare cnt ere bis Meee aint cioia ence Sey hnig a Slay ey sle rein wid pune nies
SUEITIITOR DAY Mies cre Shc bars ee 5 Sha Ne eR sO
Pret NUEO Co RLY) Sy sae hy 2 eres eee at eS a aS RSS yen pba tes, uence ages
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 56.—A SprcraL FLASK For THE Rapip DETERMI-
NATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL.
ERC ALCEION ee res ee ete fa cro ereicin iiss =! - gates -uit eehaay eta e Re ela oma
Mescrpitoniol the: special flasks. st): 2st (oj. ps piclose apie lyse -ieeeae
How to make a water test of flour or meal.................. MER Bh
Speenications for the; thermometer..;-.2- . 2-6 -< + <ne.2-6 2% o2cee-2052<0
Acypastiment of the thermometer. 2°s 2)2< 20 $<... 22 - sic.s.2Fmsee 9 Se somes wee
Description of the graduate and how to read it............--------------
Gaigusedaimemaking the vtest <5 252-2 scas cots. 4- ate seme Sal-iseeigne facie
SOM CrSNOMDE MSEC 8:5 soils ecg a eee ee i as 1 eielee aye me eae
Howto test different substances: =. + =. 4. 12) 5-2 Selsey ot nin. fold ee gts ae
“THERG, GREE So GG Ge EERE oer Ce CME 5 aera ty Earner eniaved “tagline Reranage foa
Method of finding the proper temperature................- oe i ge ee a tae
LPSTID ISI HG) TREATING OS Tar ee, 2 ge Te ne eee ame me ee
DePaARTMENT BuuietTin No. 57.—WaTER Suppity, PLUMBING, AND SEWAGE
DisposaL FOR Country Homes.

[ED UIOYC UCLITOTS Boer SERS | re SPS es ee mmm! <M ae eRe pe creme
pie IEE WALL SUPP Lyeten cece oe si... Ye See ee a et a ae
SEBEL COMSTUP MCS ae rere ee eh Me A oe la a ap
Wraclerorolmed sup Pest jie vee, ... Meeean Be wee eb ake eee ee
Pumping, storage, and distribution of water.................-..-..-.

Aa Un Tea an me ps i ts pean SS ARR OR ee es ett a a a ae
\NVGNIGi? To) ead) Nance eos Sasa oceeen ee mms SUK pCa ple ee a ae EY fe
NEMCINOMIMI DING UME iki! 2. A he al eh ee i aa a
Pewace,purticationand'disposals.-.... 226.02 .2c~ sco 0 cess oes acer sie ns zpee
Preliminary or septic-tank treatment..................-2---------5-
BiemallstresntiMmeniteressysie = eG: Meee yeh 5 chaos sealers 2
Double-chamber septic-tank systems. .....-.........-..-.-...-2----

shire McOMatiCIsEpnONs eee ee. .8). Nie Ue be oe aa ee i as
Mbevamaldisposahsystemeris oh. 2 Bas we cick aed oie 2 Gee Gree ai
Single-chamber tank systems. ............... ER Racer CREO ager e ae
HECIOTEASE ETB Ds = sey ioe muereyaycrci-y- EEE of hoe re O MEP aL mae oro a ere a
Pussestonionioperdtioneess. os. sli dpe es Nida pote ek elo
CODTKGLISIONTLS <i 3 Sapo ee aay ee ene Ne eT I Ge oe SR

GS o& Ol St OT Pm OO OD & DO DO eH

VI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETINS 51-175.

DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 58.—Five Important Witp-puck Foops. Page.
Delta duck~potatocs..: 2.5.2... th ea eee i
Wapato <<a ed > 9 5
8

mele ere ee Ce mice Se ce wes ee a st 6 Sew owe sc wn ce ae « wie ole (sia)s 6s w/e) =e aie a) ofelatniatalalal

Bamananwatertilyy fe: 0... 2... Pe. BEER See 14
DEPARTMENT BuLLeTIN No. 59.—TxHE Tosacco Spritworm.

Tntroductioms sk sn ae a Oss EER

Experiments on the specific status of the two forms... ................--

Distribution

i a i a i ae

Food: plants eee te. ee ee
Food habits: 2222520)... lei Ae eee
Description of stages
Life thistory fect... 0 eee ee eee
Neasonal-history: 2:06. a eee
Parasites’. ct. ete ees ee eee ;
Remedial measures! 17.2 ee eee hl aa
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 60.—THE ReEwaTION or Corron Buyine TO
Cotton GROWING.

i i ee ae ae iar

INS HO Pw OO Dee

Introduction......2 2... -<0edeten / ORS eee nee eee 1
The need of discrimination im buyimegsee- eee ee eee 2
Varieties deteriorate by losing uniformity.................-......--.--.- 3
Careful farmers deserve the higher prices...........-.-.-----------+---+- 5
Discrimination in buying more important than high prices...........--- 6
Development. of new long-staple districts...................-...-.---.--- 8
Commercial causes of deterioration of cotton................--+++2-+----- ll
Deteriorationot Sew Island -cottom crop: =)... 2222-2 oe eee 12
Limitations of the present system of buying. .................--.---+--- 14
Injustice of the present system of buying: /2_ 5... -- 22+) oe eee 15
Uniformity best determined by field inspection.............--...-------- 16
Field inspection in the interest of manufacturers...............---------- 17
Other causes of uneven fiber $22.5... ee 18
Economic peculiarities of the cotton industry....................----.--- 19
Conclusion. .2'.5..450) 265600 ee w-- ES os ee 20

DEPARTMENT BuLuLETIN No. 61.—PorTasH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE
GREAT BAsIN REGION.

Geochemical ‘conditions: 2.2.2 220. Sees oe eee 1
Sources ofsalines: : 252002 oS. Re ee 14
Reactions in the zone’ of weathering 222-5222 22 22 ere ees area 20
Collection’ of salines'by surface waters: ..-.00.. /o eee eee ee 27
Saline deposits: 22.22. 2y 0 ee 32
Structural development of a desert basin............--+...------.-------- 37
Playas: i220. eee es EE ee eee 39
Buried deposits of salimes: 2-0 -- . “22 52 2 Ne rene 60
Salines in present lakesHe 2S... Soe. DoS 64
Conclusion: <i 5.002700. Se ee. SS See ee 66
Appendix: 222.0. R eo. . RS rd Se 69

DEPARTMENT BuLieTIN No. 62.—Trsts or THE WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH,
AND BLEACHING QUALITIES OF THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF COTTON AS
STANDARDIZED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.
Origin and location of the experiments: ::2.222:. 722-2 22 ee ee ee 1
Cotton used in the experiments:: -- - 5... 0:2)... lee bi 2
Mill conditions of the experiments..2......-.-------- + 0-502 eee 3

CONTENTS. vil

DEPARTMENT BuLLeTIN No. 62.—TeEsts oF THE WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH,
AND BLEACHING QUALITIES OF THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF COTTON AS
STANDARDIZED BY THE UNITED States GOVERNMENT—Continued. Page.

Nature of the cotton secured for the experiments............-..------.--
PER aces A ick EERO ASL cans ey tn h mpesccs =) pes soya) a = LETS RSET Moo
\VOL OTT AON NA 8 C2 ns ge a A en
henmilerstren cin Of tbe. yarn 2 2.4)-..,5,- see dosdis)- eae ad ease delogeweres S~-
Length of staple used........ ety Penal 1k Meets Ne PEAS GEe) Jay METRES fore et eere we é
Conditions under which the experiments were made...............--.----
SS UNTIAEET Ute ers Sey eS erence a2 cL Sep ge Syd PENS UN Eira es eW earne2e omeeg ss |

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 63.—Factors GOVERNING THE SUCCESSFUL
SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA.

TDI AI EU SS VOSS 2 PS OS PP SR ey ERO NEA RENTER EE ee oe Pe
Kocation.ot the, Plorida.citmus:industry 22:22. 225.202.5245 00% 22 Joi eben tes
Estomac ne EP lomda citrus Industry .-.-.-.--2--.05 2p eens. ee be tlebe de.
Methods of handling the Florida orange crop..........-..---------------
Keeping quality: of Mlorida oranges... - <<22-<jsc-in. 2 Aue te- eld -eh soled.
History of the. Department workin Elorida.c: 2. 201s22)2. .22)th5 22 oak de.
Bine-mold.decay Ol. tbe OLangtea-nncci~ 4-08 22 one LSS eet Lewin.
Bvouilon ob Loepelorida \citrls INGUSUITY is .<.4.< 20, d.o<tocia ance elses oe
Inspections of picking crews and foremen.......- I Wine eee MIRE PERE Re, 3
[ErROpSYER TYE) al ECW Na Ost OVE 01 ep ee ee a en een eR Mey eco T teres |
Influence of cleaning operations upon decay.............-....----------
Packing and shipping experiments......--..... Dice at 5c es Se
- Seasonal influences on the occurrence of decay...............--2---------
REY OTN Be ok ya ne Ce nd UN eae Se Eee MONEE Tee Re tee teh
SHIDO OG TOES coe Oe eee eae Ep, re ee eI SPORE MIE 3
SATE T RS ei at a LE anaes Rae ce ee MRIS ee eT es Eo
‘OCG IGNITE) COs ee Cee ae eae et ae eee ee mCP TOE EYT EME: preted ta

Department Buivetin No. 64.—Potato Witt, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED
DIsEASES,

ALE T NCAT EO Tay = pee ctes Slot ye= cee Ee en, I ON SE 25 BE EE:
PERC ALAM COMO ALO WAU ODL CR =o cru sce bred even orth Rordcne Reorccncke ojos o LAS ES ORE
JOvpSe Tae aa! \yiad Raa oe ee ee Cape) eR SEE ek Me On ay oe Nios « Pa
Wesenptiomol diseased plants®:...#42: J. 20k) 12. amare. be seek une h..
Wecurrence oL.taeccansal wuMeUs.,.e is ajSae seen Bee LBA |
polrelation of fusarium wilt 22 22 18 eaeo. ae ee oidere lh...
ihe parasitism lol fusarlum OxXysporuM. . shi ceeke saves ot eel.- 3.
Climatic relations and geographic distribution of fusarium wilt....-...-.
GontroWoriusanumuwilt:nii9523 . he eet anead gd oeiues...
Tests for fusarium infection of seed potatoes.........--.-.-.----------
Seuccesl or scedmotatoess Hee! 22 Se IPO ng. otton. 18. sindcemaees. .
Controliot wilt, through, rotations. 2.22. c0.2s220 heen BRL wetp te.
nesisiancetowarietiesto wiltsss. 29h seve! eee. 6. bls aay oo
Nttecioisfertilizers: on: wilt seer 6 ews 3G Das ase ante to ..
Quarantine measurest.! 28!) joo Mee ee eee tee) een deed.
Occurrence of American fusarium wilt in Europe-.....-..-..---.------
Weritemlumaniliaiiciesnuse i “hots! 1 vane to onli, we Tiros su sooneedE
Descuptiouot the! diseased plants. ou) ieiet ii. bye LLL ask.
Gcograpiie distributions.) Hi.) Soest Bis, wash ed uent . .
EE eee OO be Mea seat ys a Sees yn ay cei vc cope fs SNR IOI PIRI R lw.BI To Werye tie

WeseripitonsOlsleat-ro laps ae ere ene Sak SME
iINoucommunica bility<of leat-roll: 229. Los) eke ee Bees ene
iRelationsotimuristo-leai-roll een: Seo Ns ak ene hdc ane oe oe oe oe

onrn DD HD NX

i a
© bo © OO GO oO Or cn &

TN
ARE OMWOANARAAAAAL

Vill

Drp

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETINS 51-75,

ARFMENT BuLuETIN No. 64.—PotTato Wit, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED

DisEASES—Continued.

DEP

Leaf-roll—Continued.
Leaf spotting in relation to leaf-roll ...................2-2------1.2---
Other. leaf-rolls.... ..- ---..../5.:5:.-0ee-- joie te mci ae
»SLead-robl ini uno pe « « ae--..: ora, eraser shetetercje renner -.
Geographic distribution of leaf-roll...........224 2032-02552. Sees
Occurrence of leaf-roll in the United States..............-.2-...---.-
History of the seedling collection .......-....-.-22222 235020 e2.-220-
Disease phenomena in the seedlings.........--- 22 22--2-02--Jisi..-
Western outbreak.of leaf-roll..2.). 224. =. 23... pee, ee
Aerial tub@rs.ss20-02.22.5- 2-05. Sar he ee ee

Varietal susceptibility and resistance to leaf-roll............-......-.-
Control of leaf-roll. s.../:.-..:..- ... 00, sU AE DESO ee
Curly -G wart. o:.,5e-cis--2 osc cererersie ARSE SARL ORERT. © SRE: ae are ee
Color of the foliage...........:.,-/.....2-4.. 420 S852) Bee 4 ee ee
Occurrence and distribution..................-.---------- De Gav lores te
Control of curly-dwarf....2. 3.2... 20s.) ee ee
FROSC EGE 2 a pecatig fare ose dials 2s jena von apceepso evans to PAA IE ee a

Bibliography «2. 3. 2<.:0% 014 Dock eee. Mee ona ee ee See
ARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 65. —CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘FORAGE

POISONING”).

Introduction: cinco heed eee ESS Ss PE ee cin ee rnparaciye
Nomenclature........... fp mpadvstionad tonsye Mares o.stot see eee eee
Etiology.....-- Poe seer em rade MBiSrere, apeherche Gere eee ae eee
OCEUTTENCE 22.255 Saciece diese wide ee te ee eee et Ce eee
Symptoms and Jesions:,....2.2. cece. qgee ue en tee ene ee Eee eee
Treatment) < .0 5. ,02 26028 2.423. Ec eG oe ee eee

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 66.—STATISTICS OF SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES
. AND iTS INSULAR PossEssrons, 1881-1912.

Introduction ....-.2.0,0:< sini et oj 256 wee ~ dee eis ae ee
Tables:

Production of sugar in the United States and its insular possessions,
L881H191 2. 2. de di ecwein cei. - aS bee ee
Production and consumption. of sugar in continguous United Ses)
L881 19D 2s eo ses obese SES SB RE ES eee Pie
Percentage of total supply of sugar in contiguous United States repre-
sented by home production, by receipts of insular possessions, and
by imports from foreign countries, 1881-1912...........-.--.---.-----
Comparison of cane and beet sugar produced in contiguous United
States, 1881=1912.oo5.. i.6cici<.< -cpeien: Baath SOEs ea ee eee eee
Average yield of refined sugar per acre of beets or cane in contiguous
United States, andjof cane in Hawail..:.o¢ 24 29teso- oe ae
Sugar-beet and beet-sugar production of the United States, 1901-1912,
by principal Stateggoies 2122/1. 2g idee eee ae ee
Production and farm value of sugar beets in contiguous United States,
1899-1912, and in principal States, 1899, 1909, 1911, and 1912......
Sugar-cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by prin-
cipal States and cOumtries. x, ~ «.~acir.clmisain+1 <<, <<p-iases012/=05) ese ee
Production of cane sirup and cane molasses in the United States, 1899-
1909, by principal States........<.....-,-....«tis4-is ee tee
Production of cane sugar in Louisiana, 1849-1912, by principal parishes.

wom AR DH

11
12

CONTENTS. IX

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 66.—STATISTICS OF SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES
AND ITs INSULAR PossxEssIons, 1881-1912—Continued.

Tables—Continued . Page.
Sugar made, factories operated, and cane used for sugar in Louisiana,
Lodvand) 1912 by prinerpal' parishessi..2 cee tee cee fe 1s
Area of sugar cane, of other principal crops, and total improved farm
land in Louisiana, 1909, by principal sugar-producing parishes...... 13
Percentage of cane acreage in Louisiana reserved for seed, 1909, 1910,
AINA Clipe) TS ere ree LE 2 a kre SSR Dis Peel HET 5 13
Proportion of acreage of plant cane to other cane and average yield per
acre of cane used for sugar in Louisana and Hawaii, 1911 and 1912. 14

Seasonal receipts at New Orleans of Louisiana sugar, 1902-1 to 1912-13. 14
Average cost of producing cane sugar in Louisiana, 1909, 1910, and

BO Nee es foyer fifa) SYS a c= (ee Ny ol Says pa pL em Rect SRE 15
Monthly price of sugar per pound at New York and New Orleans, 1909-

OVA SEBO BARS abe cise ips caeerere CoLnesmest Pascoe sti cles Phra Ve Cho: ed ar eens eee een ae 15
Railroad freight rates, per 100 pounds, on refined sugar carried in car-

loads, over selected routes in United States, May, 1913...........- 17
Sugar imported into the United States from foreign countries and re-

ceived from Hawaii and Porto Rico, 1901-1912.................... 14/
Percentage from each country of consignment of sugar imported into

HemOmatedestatess HOON WOTD 6 jee Noel Lee eee hae psec 18
Comparison of raw and refined sugar in the imports into the United

bates seal Susi Q spt tec teehee 5M Marand 2h a NE MAT Dap tie Dh Spl ca cea hy RUE 18
Imports of sugar into the United States, 1881-1912, by principal cus-

(NOIGOS (CMS HAICHES) 22. teks de ar Gates Un a IC Pere Ca ee RCA SOE PRON Pre IS ea 19
Production of sugar and shipments to the United States, for Hawaii, and

HortopRico.19OL=2 to Gua 1 Say feeb cept zy! Sees eye elt hs nu 19
Sugar made and cane used for sugar in Hawaii, 1910-11 and 1912-13,

Lavy Tesh ew IS) SM tid eae bse ko ee le ARR Bs OOS he Ras 20
Production of sorghum sirup in the United States, 1889, 1899, and

GOO My Aprinerpaly Statestes 2. Me a ON. ohne Wl ee ls 20
Sorghum cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by

POMC TPA SEAL CS apo MRR BRN eR eh hk REE ga a ok 5 STi 21
Maple sugar and sirup production in the United States, 1889, 1899,

SIMEON 9G byanorincipal States... -ekescss. ssa a7) amass seca Pater ers 21
Production of sugar in countries named, 1901-2, to 1911-12.......... 22
Percentage of the “‘world” sugar crop produced in each principal

Commitee GOMES COU OM Dees empyema ayers Bye aero ee Meds sayy 23
Percentage of cane and beet sugar in the total ‘‘world” production,

NG (IEEE Oe GUND SND oes ree eee ole oe eek Sin he aie ep ureiRay peel be Bea 24
International trade in sugar, calendar years 1901-1911.....-.......... 24

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 67.—TESTS oF Rocky MouNTAIN WooDs FOR
TELEPHONE POLES.
Pole supply in the Rocky Mountain region.............--...-------------
ANAC e re ail Gee Chey tees td ed a ay paola Nahe Covpang Laks NI mE Nae ac once
Green lodgepole pine.......-.--------------- Biegler oiage Poe L ISA. aiseyanie
VIC HNO Cl SHO taueSt eee ee eg is ice le ate marae A oe ON ite at ae orate eats) ge ey
Metsouslol computing reaniltse sau Sees Se es ee pa a ahs
esul tstotatesteen eee oc ci5 Re Sra a ligand a eS Slate breis
@omelusvomsee er ee ee oe ln SE ee eee Wier Re ET ek Sky od bey) el
Pole tests by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.................---
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 68.—PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS IN
THE Pacrric NORTHWEST.
HMeintbro cht etl OTS py Ue hee eal ek IAN le ee Ni Sars etn eh 1S 1

bo
DDO ow wow eH

x DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETINS 51—75.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 68.—PASTURE AND GRAIN Crops FOR HoGs IN
THE Paciric Nortawest—Continued.

Management of pastures.....-.-......202-----22ce = eos See rs
@oritinuous close grazing... .... . .d6. /03e. el Se, ee
Alternating pasturing of equal areas................-....2-2--22-----
Pasturing meadow: .):..2. 222.5. eRe ee ae es ee

Grain rations while hogs are on pasture...........-........2-.-----0-----
Rations for hogs of various conditions and market ages...............
‘he ‘price-of pram. 3.5205. 00... -wes ese see 2
Quality and abundance of pasture... ....2:-2. Jo a2: 0 aiieieele.-

Hogeing off crops.) 2:38. 3. SG See al 2 ee eee
Advantages in hogeingoff crops. /222022 2 es8 a ee
Usual: grain ‘crops hogged off-2i:.2. 3... 20 eee eee
Determining the area:to be hogged off... 5225 s5220se4-555 eee ee:
The area of grain to hog off at one time....--...........-.....-------

Crops suitable for pasture and hopging off...-.--.--2....22202--cs-ee-e--- .

Crops for western Oregon and western Washington........ ieee: .

Crops for the wheat belt's. :4.: 2. .+, 92a ee

Crops for the irrigated valleys:. 7022/22 2222 2a Dee ee

Summary: -==25-2-2se0r2 sate eos 2 SRD. AES SE SE Se
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 69.—CicuTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK.

Introduction.: 222 2244545255. 5.5% ae Row es SLL ARES BN SON a a, ee

Locality where Cicuta poisoning has occurred.......-.-.------------
Losses of live stock from Cicuta poisoning in the United States.......
Uses of Cicuta. 2. 2:252sc0c. dhe. a oeees te
The poisonous prineiple’of Cicuta. 22.4205 Seas ee ee eee
Experimental: work...) 22.25. 2.2..5-. 95/24. ee ee ee
Feeding Cicuta‘to'sheep'in 1910: 328: 62.4. 265. eee
Feeding Cicuta to cattle in 1910....-. Bo. a Re
Experimental workin 1911... . 29352220), Se ee ee ee
General conclusions: 222222222... . geese. a2 ee ee ee
Symptoms of Cicuta poisoning....... cg: hates bk Re ee eee
Autopsy findings... 22.220... See0. ee Se ee
Toxic d0se.... 2232555222205 ..- 2eeneest Jade ee ae
Animals poisoned by Cicuta..........-....--.2.-52224 eee eek;
Water poisoned by Cicuta roots. 2... 27. .~bo12 2255 Pee eee ee eee
The part of the plant which is poisonous..........-..----.----.-----
Seasons when Cicuta is most poisonous...........-.-...----------+---
Remedies for Cicut# poisoning... -.:........-. tsetse

DeparTMENT Butietin No. 70.—ImMunization Tests witH GLANDERS
VACCINE.

Introductory... :. 25. s@iere oso. enes «Agee es oa ced See See ee
Previous results with various immunizing agents.............---.------
Experiments with dried glanders bacilli... ......-.-..-.------eseeee-e-
Guinea-pig experiments. 24 2!2.55 2.000200 5 Ue ee
Experiments on horses... 2... Jes 022 Je} ees) Le. AO eee
Agglutination and complement-fixation tests ......-........-..---++-----
Comelusions...=< 25525544 5285000 + ware Dee dls coc 2 Sloe 64a

Page.

CAaAaaoai&»akrlrh WN NW NY

‘10

DEPARTMENT ButitetiIn No. 71.—THE Wet LANDS oF SoUTHERN LOUISIANA

CONTENTS.

AND THEIR DRAINAGE.
isnimeaye hnethror ot aes Se a ee ee Eee fe eee Omen ae
Eocation and general. conditions... 2/2252 790d 40 -geusrhwsse eases
(CUTGET EY (GS oats DAS GEE apg eS AUR ae ra A= 270 Eg Oa 5 2c ee eRe

Soils...

Area west of the Atchafalaya River...............---------+-+-+-+----
DEG PS ait ea a See SS OSES ROSCA N Bee co) set cha RL MOOD eS a88
Natural dramare-conditions.)-..5-- 22.2.5... JIGS Sse ei.
IVCTO MCLE OWrass os soe ees eee riges aes oe NY OLS
PT WONCEHOW/ ee oceans Lad one ARS Soh Diy Neen aS
Weseription-ot reclamation‘districts. ... ...258he. 22 esa bee ss
Pinas arin Ony Obi CEMIS. 2) 2 bez )2< se. Me Seat See Us BS se HI we

Area No.
Area No.
Area No.
Area No.
Area No.
Area No.
Area No.
Area No.

ily;
2 wvockport, Hat ourehevearish Las. .5 2. 202s os Sse
Selartourche Parish. Mawes 4-052 ets by) Sone oon oe
4, Raceland, La Fourche Parish, La.................-..---
5.
6
7

Weeeaman, Jefferson Parish; La. 25... 22sente os. cGulks

Des Allemands, La Fourche Parish, La................

. Near Poydras, St. Bernard Parish, La..................
. Gueydan, Vermillion Parish, Uae. . 222225 .0.2522 2.00550
8.

News Orleanshials .. atretias es ra dee baths aang

Results of investigation of reclamation tracts...........-...-.----..----
RECs Pierce ees eS ANG i alc ta arog aoe Aas Ase MO At oe ee

Dateheums errs coe ese soa Sack So oor he oases oeeeln ote eee
Gropndawater i523 2k 2s ky SR area ee ae ea ee mer ad
ReseEVOl Catigla: 2. Joe sea ssu eee tee MS Eesti Dit a ee ee tern int!
EME PPO RATES was per ahs ceed aia nd via lveie apace ATS aed aera
Wepetation and depth of drainage. -..-...---.--+-5-5---sSeen tees
Erestment.of land-and crops: =... sso222-%. nd See eeas See ode

Financial

Department BuuietiIn No. 72.—Surrapmiry or Lonc-tEar PINE For

Paper PULP.

Wile cessor Graimage tnt eysee:s ; Piero Soin BS sated Sera Rane oats
Investigations to be made before reclamation. .....................-
Factors affecting drainage by pumping in southern Louisiana............
PRCA OUNCE CUSEEI Cas ss Sacre, = sx SRS Ree Se EE TO pS ato
Wevieeser eam abet xis Net eet lial. 2 2. Semecra asa IEAM OMe tetas PEE Gat Vee hs Dake a
AATLE DIOL OLE ME SV SUCI Hs 5a ee Se. SSR NS et eh Ee Ship es
WT iCEalacineh esi von aie erect. Brae epee Bate 8 ta ee Se al
Reese ON eanaIsa ac aa 55 aes: < 52 sae eis A aicts We aals jo yates ALS
imp op lant sieisae oh. teh ee ee at aM Ag othe
CKO MACC CIMCTIES So ai) )= 2 )c aah ome ik ee eet al ES,

NuuEaern spines forkrati pulps si02 3 = 2..25eh adele Os Ue EE ea es
Lumber waste available for pulp making.............. PNT) NS oe Fy
Pulp-making processes applicable to long-leaf pine... .. SAU GHED Sees
BAperimientalnmethodss si .s. fas. ss ss aeiie 200s eon be Ss OREN a

Wood used

NTO CIGELS Py ets =.= 23h 2s ss ciny 50) MORELOS EIR, ibe g 4059 BEN Hh rie os 0 Bile Tsay
BrOcedure tietesbine:. 4 n= Ma Sait RS) FR ees. 7 athe
Determination of yields and properties..................--.1..------

Semicommercial tests

Noon r LwWHNEe .

XII DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETINS 51—%5.

DEPARTMENT BuLuetTIn No. 72.—SurraAsiuiry or LoNG-LEAF PINE FOR

Parer Po.trp—Continued. Page.
Autoclave tests. osdedilos. coc. es ee Se On. ee 14
Practical significance of the experiments............0...2020000eceee neces 25

DeparTMENT BuLueTtiIn No. 73.—RaAIsInG AND Farreninc Brrr CALVES IN
ALABAMA,

Statements'of former worlk:-/2 0.2 so. eRe a eas ee ee 1
Details:of.the experiment, os. << 225. foe A ee eee 2
Objectaof the work... J... .5..... 2-2 ee : 2
Theveatthe Used ste eps Sr ae ee ape 2

Summary statements. 2.20. /5-b20 2c Gs oR ee a eee “10
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 74.—INLAND Boat SERVICE: FREIGHT RATES ON
Farm Propucts AND TIME oF TRANSIT ON INLAND WATERWAYS IN THE |
UNITED STATES. P

Purpose and scopeiohinqtiry 2 ade..9.24. eee ee ee 1
River traffic defined ..« !. 02.47: Sas. aa eee eee 1
Relative. importance, of river traflies* 42 22 s228) 2-gieece 2. eee 2
Market values of products trnported te Walters AE ey GES Th. 38 ee 3
Some advantages of rail over river 2): fee 2.2228 2 eee eee ee 4
Some advantagesol river over rail, . 2...) sekiceee eee eee oe 4
Terminals and landings... 2. 2) 2.).)5 . aia os ose eres ee 5
Typical steamboat routes... ..-- oles Jeans te Se ee 6
Hoeal imate: ek ey kee Peete tice 27s ON 10
Characteristics of steamboat freight rates......-.......---ss2es-ceene--=- 10
Illustrations afforded by the Norfolk trade.............-..-------.------ 10
Freight. traffic zones. . 2.0. 02)... sy. 2 ea ee oe eee ll
Blanket rates. 2.0. Uoc.0o¢.see02 2 +- eee Se ee eee 12
Uniform basis‘of comparison: .:- 222.25 .22se Se see ee eee 12
Groups of waterways. ....-...---- tase wlEcattie asa°a. 3a layelep ieee eee 12
Rail and water rate compared : . (4... ...255./.<...2-2 o- eee eee ee 13
Distance and time of tratsite/22i 64)... 4egeedeae eee ee eee 13
Number of landinge!j:,2. tees 2ccce: saelees oe eee 14
Summary of rates of transit..:-.2.....f265....5--- ee eee eee ieee 14
Freight rates and farm prices.:.:<... Gtae..-s2252.-2e eee eee 14
DeprarTMENT Butietin No. 75.—Atratra SEED PRopuUCTION: POLLINATION
STUDIES.
Introduction 2.2.2 2sej2 5 ee oe ee eee 1
Previous investigations of the structure and pollination of the alfalfa
flower... 2.022 b ede Stee be ie, 2 ee eee ee 2
Structure of the alfalia: flower. 2:5... 595... 252. -Seeee eee ae mplerals 7
Relation of tripping to the development of seed.........-.......-------- 10
Relation of insects to tripping....... J... i-s- tse’: eee eee 12
Effect of. pollen from different sources: ée-+ «-=<. <2) -2o eee eee ee eee 16
Relation of the number of flowers per raceme to the number of pods formed. 19
Automatic tripping. ... 9.2.2... .... e228 .t.- +2 eee eee 19
Pollination in relation to the rupture of the stigmatic cells..........------ 24
Artificial agencies effective in tripping.:......-.....2.. 2-425 eee 25
Effect of age of flowers upon susceptibility to fertilization..............-- 26
Foree necessary for tripping. - . «so soe ais Seis ed ee 27
Effect of partial shade. 2.4... ..2-- deen. -ciascass + 2aee See 28
Practical aspects of tripping=...¢ ...}2..2....2-4. 6-2. 4.42 ee ee 29
Tripping in relation to seed setting in annual medicagos............-.--- 30

General conclusions... 2). 2.025.252 On beefed. ee eae 31

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARINENT OFAGRICULTURE

No. 51

= 1)

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry, Carl L. Alsberg, Chief.
July 20, 1914.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

A BACTERIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL STUDY OF
COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE PRODUCING DIS-
TRICTS OF THE CENTRAL WEST.'

Under the direction of M. H. Prennineton, Chief, Food Research Laboratory,
associated with M. K. JENKINS, W. Q. St. JoHN, and W. B. HIcKs.

INTRODUCTION.

The deterioration of eggs between the time of their production on
. the farm and their arrival at the consumer’s table has been discussed
from different viewpoints in the publications of the Department of
Agriculture. Among these discussions have been the various causes
contributing to the loss of freshness, the necessity for lessening the
number of eggs that become totally unfit for food each year, the
results of improved methods of handling, and the fixing of respon-
sibility for the enormous economic and financial loss due to decay.
The scientific literature on the bacteriology and chemistry of the
ezg of the domestic fowl is surprisingly meager, considering the
many ages that the egg has served as an important article of food.
The distinction between a good and a bad egg has rested more often
on individual opinion, colored by prejudice or preference, than upon

i This report embodies a study of eggs, the first of a series of reports from the investi-
gation of frozen and dried eggs, which is being conducted by the Food Research Laboratory
of the Bureau of Chemistry. It deals with the subject of the quality of the eggs which
go to the egg-breaking establishments in the egg-producing sections of the Central West.
It is the basis on which the study of industrial problems and conditions must be founded.
The second report of the series will deal with the commercial procedures in the packing
houses, the environment, and methods of work which must be followed if a high-quality
product is to be produced. Other phases of the investigation will be embodied in reports
on the general management in the packing houses making for efficiency, and on the treat-
ment which the output receives in the establishments of the bakers, who are the chief
users of frozen and dried eggs. For the data submitted we are indebted to M. K. Jenkins,
who has studied a number of individual eggs, prepared the ‘‘ commercial ’’”’ samples, and
has been of very material assistance in the correlating and presenting of the facts; to
BE. Q. St. John, who has done the greater part of the bacteriological work; and to W. B.
Hicks, who is chiefly responsible for the chemical analyses. The Omaha Food and Drug
Inspection Laboratory, with its force of chemists, in charge of 8S. H. Ross, was assigned
to this investigation with the staff cf the Food Research Laboratory for the summers of
1911 and 1912, and was made the headquarters for the field investigations.

Notn.—This bulletin gives details of an extensive study of commercial eggs and makes
recommendations for improvements in handling. While the study was made in the Central
West, the bulletin is equally of interest to all sections where eggs are produced in com-
mercial quantities and are sent to egg-breaking or other packing establishments.

17625°-_14_1

2 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the exact knowledge of the composition or history of the egg itself.
The farmer’s wife, accustomed to the fresh eggs of the farm, dis-
cards as unfit for food an egg which the city baker would, with a
clear conscience, serve to his own family. The difference in the point
of view has progressed even to the savants who have held opposite
and positive opinions concerning the wholesomeness or desirability
of certain eggs, especially of those known in commerce as “ frozen ”
or “ desiccated.”

Investigation has shown that when the egg is laid it is of a fairly
constant chemical composition and contains but few bacteria or
molds. In the vicissitudes of marketing, with its attendant unde-
sirable conditions, eggs in the shell undergo a variety of changes,
referable, almost exclusively, to the mode of handling. These
changes, their effect upon the food and market value of the egg,
and the means by which they can be reduced to a minimum have
been, and still are, a subject of investigation by the Department of
Agriculture cooperatively with every branch of the egg-marketing
industry. )

The great variety of conditions to which an egg is subjected and
its sensibility to temperature, humidity, odors, etc., result in many
evidences of deterioratien in the eggs on the market. The extent to
which such downward ‘changes are reflected in the composition of the
egg, together with their recognition by physical, chemical, and bacte-
riologic methods, is the subject of the present report.

The work has been done as part of an investigation of the prepara-
tion of frozen and dried eggs. It is the foundation on which to build
all the other phases of the investigation, such as the construction
of the apartments in which ege breaking for food purposes can pro-
ceed; the methods used to guard against bacterial contamination; the
systematic application by the employees in the packing houses of the
knowledge gained by scientific research to increase accuracy and
efficiency ; the quality of the output of the houses under old and new
conditions, and the behavior of those products when they reach the
hands of the baker, who, for this investigation, may represent the
consumer. These diverse parts of the work will be reported in a
series of publications of which this is the first. It will be observed,
therefore, that the subject is discussed from the industrial viewpoint,
even though it is essentially a laboratory study.

The individual eggs, and some of the composite egg samples, were
opened in the laboratory; the samples designated “commercial ”
were opened by a bacteriologist in packing houses where the sur-
roundings were as clean as, or cleaner than, in the laboratory and
where all utenstils were sterilized.

The information given in this report has been gathered -in south-
western Iowa, northern Tennessee, and the valley of the Missouri
from the northern horder of Iowa to the central part of Kansas.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 3

The eggs were from sources comparatively close to the investigators;
that is, the haul was seldom more than 200 miles. Had the eggs not
been broken at these first, or, at most, second concentrating centers,
the probability is that they would have been shipped a four to seven
days’ haul before reaching a consuming center. They were, there-
fore, in a correspondingly better condition because broken nearer
their point of origin. The field work reported was carried on dur-
ing the summers of 1911, when exceptionally hot weather prevailed
over an unusually wide territory, and 1912, which was not an un-
usual summer in any respect. The individual eggs, however, were
studied between the winter of 1910 and the autumn of 1912.

To comprehend the egg on the market it is necessary to determine
first the condition of the absolutely fresh egg, that a standard of
comparison may be obtained, and then the condition of the eggs on
the market to see wherein and how much they differ from the fresh
article. It is also highly desirable to observe the character of the
egos bought by the housewives at the corresponding time, in the
same locality, to see whether there are any material differences be-
tween the eggs broken for home cookery and those broken by the egg
canner who supplies the public baker.

FRESH EGGS.
BACTERIAL CONTENT.

The chemical and bacteriological characteristics of perfectly fresh
eggs—that is, eggs which are not more than 24 hours old and which
are kept in a cool place—have been given by the first author of this
report in a previous communication, entitled “A Chemical and Bac-
teriological Study of Fresh Eggs.” In this study 150 high-quality
eggs, not more than 24 hours old, were examined for the bacterial
content in white and yolk. A strictly fresh egg is pictured in Plate I
(see at end of this bulletin). Aseptic precautions were used in ob-
taining samples and all the work was done on the basis of weight,
not volume, since the latter introduces a decided error in so viscous
a substance as egg. A summary of the results shows that there was
found an average of 2 organisms per gram in the white and 6 per
gram in the yolk when the incubation temperature was 37° C., and
7 organisms per gram in the white and 9 per gram in the yolk when
the incubation was at 20° C. It may be said that these eggs were
gathered between February and November, inclusive.

Stiles and Bates,? in a recent study of 616 fresh eggs gathered
between April and October, found that the average infected yolk
contained 271.7 organisms to the cubic centimeter and the infected
white 15.9 organisms. They also found, however, that in 13.99 per

1J, Biol. Chem., 1910, 7 (2): 109.
2A Bacteriological Study of Shell, Frozen and Desiccated Eggs Made Under Laboratory
Conditions. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry Bul. 158, 1912.

4 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

cent of the yolks examined there were no organisms present in 1 cc
of the material, and the white of the ege was sterile in 1 ce quanti-
ties in 32.18 per cent of the samples examined. Maurer? reported
81.9 per cent of the eggs he examined to be sterile, and stated that
of the 18.1 per cent infected 82 per cent were infected in the yolk, |
25.9 in the white, and only 7.9 per cent in both yolk and white.
Maurer used aseptic precautions in obtaining samples of the egg
material examined. Stiles and Bates did not clean the shells, and
their method of opening was to crack on the-edge of a sterile Petri
plate and shift the yolk from shell to shell in housewife fashion, to
effect a separation of the two substances. The plate used for crack-
ing the shell was also the container of the sample. Maurer does
not give the number of organisms occurring, merely stating their
presence or absence. .

The bacterial content of fresh eggs has been proved to be widely
diversified in the character of the organisms present, but their num-
bers are small. The varieties of organisms present will be considered
elsewhere. It may be said, however, that Pennington? did not find |
B. coli in any of the 150 eggs examined; neither did Maurer in a

study of 160 eggs, many of which had dirty shells or were placed
under artificial conditions favoring shell penetration. B. coli were
found on the shells in many cases. Stiles and Bates found one egg
laid in the month of July that contained B. coli in the yolk. It is
possible, however, that this might have been the result of contamina-
tion while cracking on the edge of the Petri dish or separating white
and yolk by the shell method of the housewife. With the exception
of this one egg yolk wherein B. coli were reported, the examinations
of fresh eggs do not, from a practical industrial viewpoint, show
conflicting testimony. They agree fairly well in asserting that the
fresh, well-handled egg, though not always sterile, is not, on the other
hand, infested by large numbers of bacteria, and B. coli are practically
never present.

After bad handling or mistreatment the number of organisms
may, and frequently does, increase enormously. Whether they in-
variably appear in numbers after bad handling or age has inter-
fered with the integrity of some one or more of the component parts
of the egg is a problem to be solved. The studies here chronicled
are expected to throw some light on this question. Such studies
would indicate also whether the large numbers of bacteria found in
certain eggs are due to a rapid increase of the original organisms
found in them even while still present in the oviduct, or whether an
additional infection through the shell is common in the course of
the usual routine of marketing.

1 Bacteriological Studies on Eggs. Kansas State Agricultural College Bul, 180, 1911.
2J,. Biol. Chem., 1910, 7 (2): 109.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 5

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

Numerous chemical analyses of fresh eggs have been made in this
laboratory in connection with the investigation of the handling of
egos, They extend our knowledge of the composition of the fresh
egg, especially in relation to the quantity of loosely bound nitrogen
in egg protein; that is, the nitrogen split by the action of a weak
alkali and removed for estimation by aeration. This form of ni-
trogen occurs in very minute quantity in the protein of the freshly
laid egg, and is much increased, though still small in amount, in
eggs that have deteriorated. The amount of loosely bound nitrogen
is at the present time the best and simplest index that has been found
of the chemical stability of the egg. _Hence the quantity of this
substance has been determined in the various grades and kinds of
market eggs and in those used by the egg breakers, as well as in eggs
24 hours old.

The analyses recorded in Table 1 show that most of the loosely
bound nitrogen is found in the yolk of the egg, where it averages in
western summer eggs of highest quality 0.0023 per cent. Whole eggs
_of like grade gave 0.0013 per cent as an average.

TABLE 1.—F'resh eggs.

Total number
of bacteria per |Gelatin| Ammoniacal
gram on plain | jique- | nitrogen, Folin
Date of | 2gar meubated | fying method. 3 Size.
Portion and sample No. collec- at— organ- es er of
tion. sisms ure. |eXtract.| sample.
oa Ww D
° ° gram. et r
AVE Cail Xe basis fee
Per. Per Per Per
White 1911 cent cent cent, cent Eggs
FA SITS iy ea eal aril ae Raat RUC tr ie | Abc | ere es |e re a 0. 0004 |10. 0033 |.---..-.-|...----- 18
Deron ital eels ae naiyperlit ales eee aa - 0003 QO 25. esas 5 2i|es mene 12
DOR eran tone MASTS Be Os ee SRS eie ae ee - 0004 GOSS See as | aera 12
DOD He etait picts Be area oo (Oy Fs Se ea, et ee rs RO - 0003 OO 258 le Sees eee 12
DOLE Mee sce sist ce. ee LOR See ae eee ene SP 0003 OUZON ES Stes S| eee 12
Yolk
SZ LO CUI ae July 10 150 560 130 | .0026) .0050 | 47.81 | 31.87 6
PA ey Ste eae eee Om OU A elem ren eae mes att eases -0025 | .0047 | 46.88 |......-- 18
PAU os wale a ap UL YAEL Sees Lee An See IN Mane 0023 | .0043 | 46.89 |........ 12
OP Se ae SPR a IRE OA laanae s Soll yas ally aac ae 0024 | .0046} 47.80 |.---...- 12
Bibs sis Sie EA Ble Boe reat Oe irs Sra hee ee 0020 | .0034 } 47.28 |......-.- 12
OOO erent ss ee aati 2 Gosia Pipis IN oe ee 0022 | .0042 |) 47.84 |........ 12
cle BE:
bibles Past etch ened acie June 26 0 Da eSee eee et ces eee et ogaeHl Datel O#86 30
ie ReRBU een: aetaarale cat ae --.do. 0 CO) a et Boers i | ee es 73.44 | 11.28 30
Io e Caen eee July 3 150 Fin [Pay hcrs Bena aN ea 8 72.96 | 11.40 36
QU ee aicicid SavS eee ne July 10 1) GOMBSRESEE Se aU || SECM Nae esectallesosuces 6
ZA e Jess Son Ss See eee Dray heh |e Ls al 2 Saal cre SOOT rAQOAQ Ves eetae snl See ee pee
iGo setincssobesdosen SBE DU AT ae eee RN eG SS Sy SRR - 0013 OORT i As5e AE Neue seo 11
25 eo BAR OBE eae Cee -do.. iq Oy ie poset Peary a lull exc maae wale) sat ese 2 Moanin pales, 6
BP) Se Se a July 24 45 OQs| teat hs fax - 0015 Q0545 (5 SSeS Ea cole eA
SBE Coe acerat Shr SeEEeee te) 85 Cy eee eee - 0013 OF fod ete f8 Mena ees aeecnnee
MAD eee Seas ee mee ANUg aT Ceci cet RESELL SRS Pe _.0011 OOFO AE SEO ass 24

1 Moisture content of fresh egg white taken as 87.94 per cent, average of 236 eggs.
2 Moisture content of fresh whole egg taken as 72.44 per cent, average of 9 eggs (analyses given in Konig,
pp. 98 and 1470, and of three analyses Nos. 126, 127, and 168 given above).
A number of unpublished analyses of fresh eggs from various

sources would indicate a maximum and minimum variation of 0.0010

6 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. °

and 0.0015 per cent nitrogen, respectively. The analyses of summer
eggs made in the western egg-producing district are comparatively
few, but since their composition proved to be like that of the eggs
studied in the general egg-handling investigation it was not deemed
necessary to multiply them beyond the number needed to confirm
existing data.

The moisture content of the summer egg is of interest. It may be
that there is a relation between the amount of water present in the
ego and its resistance to decay. A study, in another connection, of
perfectly fresh eggs from a well-cared-for flock during different
seasons, when the fowls showed physiological variations, is given in
Table 2.

TABLE 2.—Water content of fresh eggs.

Number ee : Moisture.
of vidua
Date. samples. | eggs.
White. Yolk.
Per cent. | Per cent.

Hebt28'to' Mar: 165). so hi ae) ae Soe Ue LP Sepa eee : 7 181 87.90 47.44

Mag. bite Sept. 179.25 Sokts Bt ce, pole, ee ee { ae tes \ 183 | 88.19 47.96

OctasitonNow. 022 seen eee a5 Se Na SE i Ee 4 54 87.99 47.54

It will be seen that in August and September, when the industry
considers the quality of the eggs lowest, the maximum quantity of
water is found in both white and yolk. In the early spring, when
eggs are undoubtedly of highest quality, the water content is lowest,
and in the cool days of autumn it occupies a medium position. The
statement of the increased water content of summer eggs is not made
authoritatively, but only as a promising line of investigation on this
subject. It can be emphatically stated, however, that analytical dif-
ferences in tenths of per cent may, in so specialized a tissue as an
egg, carry with them marked variations in physiologic functions and
chemical stability.

The fat of an egg is almost exclusively in the yolk. According to
Pennington? the ether extract of the yolk varies from 33.33 to 31.44
per cent; the average for 236 eggs examined being 32.68 per cent.

“MARKET FRESH” EGGS.

The eggs from which the preceding information was obtained can
not be accepted as either a standard or an index of the eggs supplied
to the people for food, because modern conditions of living and
sources of food supplies make it impossible to furnish the market
with eggs of uniform quality and minimum age. It is necessary,
therefore, as already stated, to study the common market grades
of shell eggs accepted by the housewife and compare these with the

1 Loe. cit.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. fk

absolutely fresh eges, as well as with the eggs put up for bakers’
use. Accordingly, ten open-market purchases were made of eggs as
they went to the consumer, and analytical data and candling records
obtained, using the same method as in the case of the fresh eggs.
The results are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3.—Hggs from grocery store.

Ammoni-
' acal
Date o nitrogen | a. nae
Sample _ | Cost per a 2 Size of | Description of sample un-
No. Rollee dozen. Sold for masthead). sample. der candle.
wet
basis
1911. Per cent. | Eggs.
589 | Aug. 25.| $0.25 | ‘Strictly fresh eggs’’ car- 0.0011 24 | Fresh.
ton packed.
G0) |S acloy 5a 5 20) il) CC reraal Gee ee . 0018 24 | Seconds.
oot: do. Sets Pal ira erga ae GON SER ee ep aa ae . 0014 24 | Mixed firsts and seconds.
592 |...do.. PAD ier CO Se Ene aaa eis . 0014 24 | 4shrunken eggs, 5 very stale
; eggs, 1 blood ying.
636 | Sept. 5.. .25 | “Strictly fresh eggs’’ car- . 0010 24
ton packed.
GSalssndOlene- BON ee CrOOGNCS ES 7 lee won oames . 0014 24 | 5 seconds.
638 |...do.... Gels oeeae Copeyag see Pe hee ios . 0022 24 | 22 stale eggs.
639s mead Open Cra eS ea pe de EN ks . 0021 12 | 9stale eggs, 1 hatch-spot egg,
1 blood ring.
640) | 2 sdor. .- Os SPR TeS INES S27 2. 2 ae a COLONES ee we 5 slightly heated.
1912.
June 19 . Mion MO INt yReSoSe eee sane ee . 0010 8 | Fresh.

Bacterially these eggs did not differ from the strictly fresh eggs.
According to the content of ammoniacal nitrogen they varied from
absolutely fresh to the usual stale, but not rotten, eggs. The price
usually, but not invariably, was in accord with the quality. The
carton-packed eggs were individually marked with the sign of the
producer, who had a reputation for quality to maintain.

RELATION BETWEEN BACTERIAL MULTIPLICATION AND CHEMICAL
CHANGES.

Experiments have shown that evidences of bacterial decomposition
can not be recognized by the sense of sight and smell until the organ-
isms have increased enormously in the food substance.

There is an interesting problem involved in the study of the rela-
tion between bacterial multiplication and chemical evidences of the
metabolic and catabolic changes that must accompany life processes.
Bacteria to the number of millions per gram have been considered
evidences of an altered chemical composition. Yet more recent obser-
vations would indicate that, for certain substances at least, the number
of organisms must approach the 100 million per gram mark before
the analytical methods for the detection of substances indicative of
bacterial life can be applied satisfactorily. Such, for example, has
been the finding of Hastings, Evans, and Hart, who have studied

- 1 Wisconsin Agricultural Hxperiment Station Research Bul. 25.

8 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the relation between bacterial multiplication and the formation of
lactic acid in milk; Burri and Kursteiner? state that the lactic-acid
organisms of milk may increase to 100 millions per cubic centimeter
before there is a definite rise in acidity. The same observation has
been made by Pennington? and associates when investigating the.
decomposition of chicken flesh. In connection with this last study
it was found that a marked rise in the ammoniacal nitrogen content
of the flesh did not appear when the bacterial counts indicated a
few million organisms per gram, but at the next examination, when
the count was usually in the hundreds of millions, a rise was com-
monly found. The principles observed by the investigators cited
are corroborated by the results of the study of bacterial content
and chemical changes in eggs.

Not until chemical analyses show an increase in the ammoniacal
nitrogen are the senses able to detect infected eggs readily. Studies
discussed in detail in another section of this bulletin (p. 73) showed
that sour eggs which in the early stages are, with difficulty, detected
by the sense of smell, and eggs with ght green albumen, which
are recognized by careful scrutiny, contain bacteria in many millions.

Eighty commercial samples which contained organisms capable of
producing gas from lactose in the presence of bile salt were examined
for B. coli, as described in the chapter on laboratory practice (p. 76).

A portion from each of the higher dilution fermentation tubes,
which showed gas, was plated on Endo’s medium, or on lactose litmus
agar, and from each plate having typical coli-like colonies several
were selected for examination.

Organisms conforming strictly to the definition for B. coli com-
munis, in the 1905 report of the American Public Health Association
on Standard Methods of Water Analysis, were isolated from 55 per
cent of the samples examined. Probably 15 per cent more contained
organisms which would be classed as typical B. coli by a majority of
observers because they differed very slightly from the definition just
given. In the remaining 30 per cent of samples, which were not found
to contain typical B. coli, the predominating gas-producing organism
was B. (Lactis) aerogenes. Of the typical B. coli organisms ex-
amined 81 per cent produced gas from sucrose. Practically all of
the organisms examined would be classed as members of the Colon
aerogenes group. If gas production from various sugars is sufficient
to distinguish between varieties of these organisms, a very large num-
ber of varieties were isolated. Some of them differed from any at
present described in the literature.

1Centralbl. Bakt., 1911, 2. abt,, 30: 241.
2U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry Cir. 70,

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 9

A detailed study of the organisms isolated is now in progress in
this laboratory. A special report will be issued dealing with this
phase of the work.

EXAMINATION OF EGGS OPENED ASEPTICALLY IN THE LABORATORY.

Because of the great diversity of conditions to which an egg in
the shell may be subjected, the corresponding variety in the results
which may follow, and because each individual egg must be considered
as an individual by the candler and the egg breaker, even though its
individuality is finally lost in the mixing, drying, or freezing of the
commercial product, the study to be reported here had to deal first
with single eggs of the various types found in commerce and which
may or may not be used by the breaker in his output intended for
food. .

Tables 4 to 13 give the bacterial content of 300 individual eggs
and 26 small samples, aggregating 981 eggs, classified in accordance
with their most important or striking characteristic or the one prob-
ably responsible for the condition of the egg when it was examined.
For example, an egg might show a heavy, settled yolk in a sound,
clean shell, in which case 1t would be found in Table 5, under the
heading of “ Individual eggs with settled yolks.” But if that egg,
in addition to the settled yolk, had a dirty or cracked shell, it would
be classed in Table 7 or Table 8, devoted to dirty-shell eggs and
cracked-shell eggs, respectively.

The eggs were examined by means of a candle and their appear-
ance described before the contents of the shell were studied bacte-
ridlogically. The classification of the eggs was made on these ob-
served characteristics, and on others neticed when the shell was
broken, rather than on the bacterial condition revealed by the labora-
tory work. The history of these eggs was known only in a very few
instances. None of them were “market firsts,” or high-class eggs,
when they were received.

The study of the individual egg is logically followed by a study
of a number of eggs which are similar when graded by means of
the candle and by the characteristics observed on opening. Such
samples of like eggs, aseptically opened, follow the report of the
individual eggs in a number of the tables. The technique used is
described on page 74. The samples were analyzed for the amount of
loosely bound nitrogen they contained, as well as for the number
of organisms.

STALE EGGS.

A very large proportion of the eggs going to the breakers are
simply stale; that is, the shell shows an enlarged air space, the yolk
has gained in opacity and definiteness of outline, and it is com-

er =

10 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

monly either above or below the normal meridian position. (See
Pl. II.) The white is frequently thin, and many times rough
handling, combined with other age-accentuating conditions, have so
separated the membrane lining the shell from the membrane inclos-
ing the egg proper that the form and position of the air space can —
change as the egg is turned. This appearance has caused the trade
term “ weak eggs” or “watery eggs.” But because these terms are
loosely used and have several meanings in different sections of the
country, or among different candlers, such conditions are charac-
terized in this report as “movable air cells,” this term actually de-
scribing the change which has occurred.

In the late summer and autumn, when the lay has fallen off and
the country merchants are withholding stocks for coming high
prices, such eggs form a very large proportion of the current receipts
of the cities and are, of necessity, used by all of the community
who depend upon such sources for their egg supply.

When warm weather prevails many of these stale eggs show what
is termed “ heat”; that is, the yolk rises in the shell and is flattened,
the white becomes thinner than normal, and the air space increases
in size. These changes, well shown in Plate I], take place in
fertile and infertile eggs, both of which become distinctly stale if
kept sufficiently long. In. the fertile egg, however, there comes a

second series of changes, namely, incubation, which, in the very

earliest stages after the egg is laid, can not be distinguished by the
candling method, but has as one of its accompaniments the rising of
the yolk to the upper part of the shell. When the shell of a “heated ”
egg is broken the germinal spot, if fertile, is seen to be slightly
thickened. In an infertile egg the germinal spot is seen with diffi-
culty. Such eggs, whether fertile or infertile, are good in appear-
ance, odor, and taste, but deterioration is rapid and they will not
stand long hauls to market nor keep well in cold storage. Hence,
such eggs are used in the egg-breaking plants. Their bacterial con-
tent is shown in Table 4, where it will be seen that the bacteria are
either very few or entirely absent, and that, bacterially, at least,
these eggs are not to be distinguished from eggs just laid.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST.

TasLe 4.—Stale eggs.’

INDIVIDUAL EGGS.

White. Yolk. Thee rinses

producing bac-

. teria per gram

g 1 Date of Tame chose capes eer Oa eats ease bile.

Ne © | exami- P gan. Description.

Me nation.

Incu- Tneu- Tncu- Incu-
bated at |bated at} bated at| hatedat | White. | Yolk.
20°C. 37°C. 20°C. 37°C.
1911

3023-1 | Mar. 28 0 0 0 0

3023-2 |...do..-.. 0 0 0 0 |. -| Slightly dirty shell.

3023-4 |...do..... 5 0 5 0 Clean shell.

3024-7 | Apr. 4 0 5 10 (0) Clean-shelled guinea egg
kept in cold storage 1
year and in candling
room 1 week.

3026-1 | Apr. 7 10 ONE ok a ee OR SReR eee cell ane mene Clean shell, slightly
shrunken, small hatch
spot and floating yolk.

3026-7 |...do...-. 20 0 10 Oat raee Sere eh ys 2 FB Clean shell; slight shrink-
age.

4005 | June 12 0 20 0 0 0) 0 | Weak white and yolk,
hatch spot not en=
larged,moyableaircell.

4039 ; July 8 0 0 0 0 0 Clean-shelled, fresh in-
fertile egg, kept atroom
temperature for 8 days.
Weak white and yolk,
marked shrinkage,
slightly movable air
cell.

4040 }...do..... 0 0 0 () 0 0 | Clean-shelled, infertile
egg, kept at room tem _
perature for 8 days.
Watery white, marked
shrinkage, slightly
movable air cell.

1 Samples 3001 to 3031, inclusive, were examined by Christine S. Avery.
SMALL COMPOSITE SAMPLES.
Total number
of bacteria | Number Percentage of
of gas- | ammoniacal nitrogen
Per era mon Be (Folin method)

4579 | D 3] June 19 0 0 0 | 0. 0017 0. 0061 72.13/63 eg gs
small, most
of them

shrunken.

4630 E 4] June 28 50 200 0 . 0018 . 0064 72.02 '||6 6 82g 2S;

Ss en.
1911.
596’ 3B July 19 600 | 2,400 0 . 0016 NOOB) soko oke 8 eges;
shrunken.
See p. 40.

Even when 5 dozen or more such eggs are mixed together the bac-
terial findings for the individual of the type hold good. The loosely
bound nitrogen in these samples of “stale” eggs is the same as, or a
little less than, that found in the “ grocery” eggs purchased in the
open market during the summer of 1911.

12 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT -OF AGRICULTURE.

EGGS HAVING SETTLED YOLKS.

Table 5 shows another type of deterioration, which is further ad-
vanced and more specific than that meant by the general term
“stale.” The yolk has become more opaque and consequently clearer
in outline when viewed by the aid of the candle and has fallen to the .
pointed end of the shell (see Pl. III), where it turns sluggishly when
rotated. Very frequently when these eggs are opened the yolk is
seen to have a very thin, weak membrane. During warm weather,
when incubation goes on almost continuously, though very slowly,
these eggs with settled yolks frequently show a germinal area about
one-fourth inch in diameter, having a visible white line through
their center—the “primitive streak” of the embryologists. (See
Pl. Il.) Their odor is generally good and their taste not objection-
able, except for soft boiling or poaching.

TABLE 5.—I/ndividual eggs with settled yolks.

White. Yolk. Whole} Number of
egs- | gas-producing
bacteria per
Sanrio Date of Total number of bacteria per gram on gram in
N a exami- plain agar. lactose bile. Description.
. nation. P
Incu- | Incu- | Incu- | Incu- | Jncu-
bated | bated | bated | bated | bated | White.| Yolk.
at 20° C. at 37° C. at 20° C.}at 37° C.]at37°C.
1911. ,
4004 | June 12 70 Oe ee Oat [aes Seal ese act Oke eee Watery white.
4013 | June 13 0 0 30 On| Seeacese 0 0} Enlarged hatch spot;
bloated yolk.
4014 |...do..... 0 0 20 ORE eee 0 0
AQIS: |-72=d0>-==- 30 | 0 20 TO cts ree 0 0 | Enlarged hatch spot.
4016 |...do..... 20 0 40 OR Sze erate 0 0| Enlarged hatch spot;
bloated yolk.
4018 |.-.do-.... 0 0 30 Op eset 0 0
1912, :
ALOSO=7 | Aco Bile epee al ee ae ae pt a 644000 )) So 2eee eee ee Marked shrinkage.
ALOSO=-87 | - ss 2-212] 2)5 boise a Eee yee | Sk eee LO ait LOG See welee moar Very weak yolk which
broke when egg was
opened. ;

ALORI—L2 1's OS OE Re IR Sa rae ae ne Se ua ea D4} 000) Sea area ie ae a

ALIS INS | SAGO: SEPANG Ie oe Buy percteall tana orci acre e ete 240: OOOH cc eemeleeeeen an Marked shrinkage.

ALOSI=19: (2 S2doi cso NS ele eee se ELSE ee Ova 100i). ee eee es Marked shrinkage; yolk
broke when egg was
opened.

AL0R9-90" | 2 2 dOs 2222) acccapets Seeetemelesceer =|: -aeeeee Oat. 200). S22 ees eases Marked shrinkage.

AV OSSD 7 |S AOA ee | ee pee yee Ost OO) | eee ee Decidedly weak yolk
which broke when
egg was opened.

ALOSO=28 | OO .P ee os Aaa ade ee | Sat a ee Soe tee Oat LOO. eee seeks Marked shrinkage.

ALORS — 35 i S20 sa = a cisioacines | rte aie eters! Pe eee tas ee Oat: LOO Sess fo os | Seer Do.

ATORO—-38 NP POs <2 0k \aeue ioe aceon edal see cmencleoneeaee Oat 00) Saee ieee ee eee Do.

AOS ON EE AG soso | aS etre tee caeeell ttiiaineen] Geeee ieee (OME H ie 0,0) eS Salle ie Shoe Marked shrinkage; yolk
broke when egg was
opened.

ALUSO-AL |. dO soa Net | 52 See ote c's oton| sane Oat: 100i) 62) Sasa Marked shrinkage,

AI OS9 S424 Jb ONS. ci) scat coe ae cae «| SE oles eee Oat: LOO) soso elke saree Do.

ALORS ES) DO sia ich Sb comics || bate vdeo ose nell meee Cais) re (O10 eee te As mere ec Marked shrinkage; yolk
broke when egg was
opened.

41089-45 |... Do.

41089-46 |... 0.

41089-50 |... Marked shrinkage.

41089-53 |... Do.

41089-55 |... Do.

41089-57 |... Do.

41089-58 |... Do.

41089-59 |... Do.

41089-61 |... Yolk broke when egg

~was opened.

41089-62 |... Marked shrinkage.

A1089-63 |...

10 at the dilution given indicates that no organisms were observed on the plate.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. te

The bacterial content of these eggs is generally slightly higher
than in the earlier stage of staleness unless aging has occurred at the
low temperatures of the egg storage warehouse, when the count is as
low as or lower ‘ than in new-laid eggs.

This type of deteriorated egg is very common in the breakers’
stocks, and, indeed, throughout the market seconds in both summer
and winter, due to rapid deterioration from high temperatures in the
one case and to the slow deterioration which occurs at 29° to 31° F.
in the other. The market life of such eggs is shorter than when dete-
rioration is not so far advanced. Hence the egg shipper with a
breaking establishment at hand prefers to break and freeze or dry
these eggs while they are still edible rather than to risk the certain
losses of a haul to the consumer.

EGGS CHANGED BY INCUBATION.

Table 6 shows typical bacterial findings in eggs where deteriora-
tion had progressed along different lines than those described under
stale eggs and eggs with settled yolks. In the first group of 20 eggs
the development of the chick had not reached the blood-forming
stage, which normally occurs in about 24 hours when the temperature
is that of the hen, 103° F., but which had gone sufficiently far for the
candler to observe a small darkened area on the yolk. This in the
industry is known as a “ light spot,” and when the egg is broken it is
usually seen as a round area about three-eighths inch in diameter,
having two distinct zones, an inner and outer circle (see Pl. II).
Such eggs, constantly sold in their shells for food purposes, are used
by the housewife without question if the odor is good and if the
white and yolk are intact. They do not ship well because the yolk
membrane is often weak, and many kinds of spoilage may develop in
them on short notice. Hence they are sent in large numbers to the
egg breakers in the producing regions.

1 Unpublished results on storage eggs.

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. yi

Bacterially, these eggs show a wider range and a slightly higher
average count than the two types previously discussed. All had the
yolk and the white intact. In 11 of the examinations reported the
white and yolk were studied separately. Two of the series were
sterile and not one showed the presence of B. coli. The fact that
the odor on opening these eggs was universally good is to be
emphasized

The second series of Table 6 is composed of eggs which show before
the candle the presence of blood in the germinal disk, and which
are therefore equivalent to eggs at least 48 hours old at 103° F. In
all of the eggs in this series the embryo was either alive or very
recently dead, and the odor of the egg when opened was good. In
all of them the presence of blood could be distinguished by means
of the candle (see Pl. V). These eggs, in most instances, could
be separated into white and yolk. The average count for such eggs
showing blood rings, but without disintegration in the structure of
the egg itself, is low, and some eggs are sterile.

The third series, where incubation had continued for more than
the equivalent of 48 hours at 103° F. and where the embryo was dead
and the structure of the egg damaged to a greater or less extent,
shows a universally higher count than the other series and some indi-
vidual counts which are strikingly high. #. coli were noted but once
in this series. “ It will be observed that only one egg was separable
into white and yolk. The odor was sometimes good and sometimes
ae EGGS HAVING DIRTY SHELLS.

The egg with a dirty shell is one of the most objectionable factors

' of the egg industry. The contents may be fresh and the egg itself

may be large, but the dirt on the shell consigns it at once to the
seconds, and it brings a lowered price all through the market. Dirty-
shell eggs do not store well and are therefore not available for hold-
ing when the surplus production is greatest and when the market
can secure more good, clean eggs than it needs. Often they scarcely
pay the expense of marketing. The breaker, therefore, removes the
dirty shell and endeavors to put the contents into a form in which
it can be marketed. The very. objectionable filth on the exterior of
the shell naturally inclines one to the opinion that the contents of

the egg may also be contaminated. Such outer filth is not conclusive

evidence that the contents are infected.

Table 7 gives the bacterial findings for 51 dirty-shell eggs of
various grades of seconds and worse and 9 small samples, aggregat-
ing 1,164 eggs. Winter, spring, and summer eggs are included. The
dirt on the shell consisted mostly of chicken feces and some dried

mud or dried egg. Some of the shells were stained. These stains,

which can not ordinarily be washed off, generally indicate that

_ water as well as filth has come in contact with the egg shell.

17625°—14—_2

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 21

The contents of these dirty-shell eggs listed in Table 7 are varied.
Some show definite signs of incubation; some are aged eggs, as
shown by shrinkage; some show weak whites, some settled yolks,
etc. Bacterially this series, as might be expected, is very divergent
in the number of organisms observed. Two eggs out of the 51 con-
tain millions of organisms per gram in both white and yolk; 4 show
a count running into the thousands; 9 have more than a hundred
organisms per gram; and of the 36 remaining, 15, or 41.6 per cent,
are sterile. It is of great interest to observe that although so many
of these dirty shells were smeared with feces, which undoubtedly
contained B. coli, this organism was not once obtained in the body
of the egg, either in the white or in the yolk, and that it did not
appear in those eggs which had been wet is a still more striking
fact. This observation is in accordance with the work of Maurer.*

Sample 4083, with 3,100,000 organisms in the white, had a stale
odor on opening and a stained shell, which Icoked as though it had
been wet.

Sample 4128 had a very badly brown-stained shell, and though
the odor of the egg was good on opening, 72,000 organisms per
gram were found in the white. Sample 4137 showed 4,600 organ-
isms per gram in the white, which may, perhaps, be accounted for
by the stained shell. On the whole it is the stained shell which
seems most likely to be the offender, an opinion which is strength-
ened by the observation that where there is a count of any magni-
tude it is not only most commonly in the eggs having stained shells,
but the organisms are usually more abundant in the white of the
egg than in the yolk, from which one might infer that the infection
is from the exterior.

The nine samples, composed of more than one dirty-shell egg, vary
in bacterial content just as do the individual eggs. The chemical
analysis shows that the loosely bound nitrogen varies with the char-
acter of the egg, not with the quantity of dirt on the shells. Sample
4631, for instance, shows 0.0024 per cent of nitrogen and is described
as very stale, but it was not any dirtier than Sample 553, wherein
only 0.0018 per cent of nitrogen was obtained.

Tf one may draw any conclusion from the findings set forth in
Table 7 it must be that the dirty shell, per se, is not a sufficient
ground on which to condemn an egg, though the odor of the egg
when opened should be carefully observed, especially if the shell
shows stains or other evidences of having been wet.

+ Bacteriological Studies on Eggs. Kansas State Agricultural College Bul, 180, 1911.

—~

22 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EGGS HAVING CRACKED SHELLS.

Mechanical injury to eggs, due to rough handling, is another great
money loss to the egg industry and a food loss to the consumers.
Many eggs are completely wrecked and are termed “mashed” eggs
by the industry. In this case they are not only lost but they soil a
number of eggs otherwise good. Where the shell is so broken that
the contents are escaping the egg is termed a “leaker.” In addition
to leakers the industry has to contend with enormous numbers of
“checks ”—that is, eggs which have cracked shells but intact mem-
branes.

Leakers are thrown out at every stage of handling, from the coun-
try merchant or egg peddler to the city retailer, and are generally a
total loss. Checks are disposed of if possible and as near the gather-
ing point as may be, because they are weakened mechanically and are
free food for any bacterium or mold that may chance to fall into the
erack. Hence they are sure, in commerce, to rot quickly. The
cracked eggs coming to the breaker in the producing section are re-
ceived by him much sooner after the damage is done than by the
breaker in the consuming center, and for that reason they are usually
in better bacterial condition. Table 8 gives the results of the exami-
nation of 56 of thesé cracked eggs, both blind and visible checks.
Some of these eggs were fresh and above reproach except for the
damaged shell; others had dirty as well as cracked shells, hatch
spots, weak yolks, thin whites, ete.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 27

Like the eggs with dirty shells, there is a wide variation in the
number of bacteria, though only 5. out of the 56 individual eggs listed
are sterile in a dilution of 1 to 10, and when the count is beyond a
few hundred organisms per gram it is generally very high—that is,
in the hundreds of thousands or millions. Four eggs have a bacte-
rial content which is much higher than that observed in the other
52 eges, ranging from 2,700 to 370,000,000 per gram. In three cases
out of the four an objectionable odor was noticed when the egg was
opened, and three of these eggs had dirty as well as cracked shells.
B. coli, though sought in all but five of the samples, were found in
but three instances and then in eggs which showed a high count.
Here, again, the whites of the heavily infected eggs show a much
higher count than the corresponding yolks. This is quite in line with
the origin of the infection.

The samples from small lots of eggs with cracked shells bear out
the findings from the individual eggs. Where the eggs with cracked
shells are of good quality, both chemical and bacterial analyses indi-
cate that fact. Where deterioration has begun, the cracking of the
shell does not materially alter its course, but it hastens decay. Of
course, the protection which the shell affords is lessened by cracking,
and bacterial invasion is only a question of time and environment.

EGGS HAVING THE YOLK SEEPING INTO THE WHITE.

During warm weather, when the deterioration of eggs proceeds
with great rapidity and in the most diversified fashion, many eggs
are received at the concentrating centers, especially those reached
by railroad or where the wagon haul is over rough roads, which show
on candling filaments of yolk that have apparently found their way
through apertures in the vitelline membrane for longer or shorter
distances into the white.

Sometimes these filaments are very few and distinct, half an inch
or more in length; in that case the egg white is usually normal in
color, even between the filaments. Sometimes the seepage of the
yolk into the white might be better described as diffuse, in which case
very numerous and tiny filaments make a yellow zone around the yolk
membrane, the outer portions of white remaining clear and the usual
color. As the process of mixing progresses the white becomes more
and more yellow and the vitelline membrane less and less resistant,
until finally the latter ruptures and a complete mixing of yolk and
white follows.

Even the most careful cracking of the shell at its equator is at
times sufficient to rupture the yolk membrane extensively, thus per-
mitting the yolk to escape entirely. At other times a fairly clean
separation of white and yolk can be made. Generally such eggs ex-
hibit, in addition to the filamentous yolk, distinct signs of age, such
as shrinkage, and of rough handling, as shown by the movable air
cell. Ordinarily the odor is good or somewhat stale, the sort of odor

28 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
that the housewife terms “ eggy ” or “strong.” If the odor is not
bad and if the mixing of the yolk and white is slight, the housewife
uses these eggs for general cookery, though when the whites are to
be whipped separately to lightness they are not satisfactory. The
ego shipper does not attempt to send such eggs on long or hard jour-
neys, because this mixing is accelerated by jarring; nor does he at-
tempt to store them, because white and yolk continue to mix more
and more rapidly. These eggs are therefore used very largely by
the breakers. They should be examined very carefully for odor and
appearance when broken, as they may be incipient forms of the “sour
ega”’ (see p. 61). Table 9 illustrates the condition of this series.

TABLE 9.—EHoggs with the yolk seeping into the white.
INDIVIDUAL EGGS.

Total number of bac- | Number
teria per gram oe plain 4 gas-
Date of | agar incubated at— producing
Sample exami- bacteria Description.
rahe nation: - |\Prstisat Galt. Sa Fan BDeR zea
in lactose
20° C. 37° C. . bile.
1510.
3006-4 | Dec. 12 77, 000 She OOO. 21 she ee ae
3006-5 |...do._-. 39 ROOM ES 22s os ees
3010-2 |...do.-.. - 25 LSE Fe 3
1911.
4003 June 12]. 10 . 70 0 ae
111-2 | June 21 pata) 15 0 | Marked shrinkage—fixed air cell.
TAIK? fos Onrara'- 60 0 0
I-4 |:.-dowse". 5 0 0
M1512 do. 2. 30 0 0
TI=6, |. 2 2dOe 2 10 0 0
A1A—7 |. - lo. '- 0 0 0
122 | June 24 16 0 0 | Early stage.
LANs <2d0- 355 5 5 0 Do.-
125 |..-do...- 5 | 0 0 | “Strong” odor.
1912. |
136 | June’ 27 50 30 0 | Early stage.
1911.
ZU ay, pu 10 10 0
4103 | Nov. 1 5 90 0 | Clean shell; stale odor; marked shrinkage;
movable air cell.
4108 | Nov. 7] 2,000,600 | 1,700,000 0 | Shell clean, but not fresh looking; stale odor;
marked shrinkage; movable air cell.
SMALL SAMPLES.
Total
peta heh Percentage .
Number ammoniaca zeor 1
Tnplain | ofgas- | Gelatin | _ nitrogen, Per it ai png
Sample | Date of | agar incu- | Producing |liquefying Folin method. | cent | Ether
N e exami- | bated at— | bacteria | organ- ex-
paca nation. per gram | isms per tract.
; ——— ian lactose} .gram.
bile.
Bacte-
ee, Wet Dry - Chem-
20° C.137° C. basis. | basis. ores ical.
1911. Eggs. | Eggs.
115 | June 23 3 3 0 Ob Naps AAI AS| pee bees 72.35 10. 96 12 24
170 | July 3 100 5 0 * 0 | 0.0033 | 0.0111 70.31 12. 45 12 24
1fii4| x -doz 2:2 90 0 0 0 - 0033 -O112 | 70.66} 11.97 1 4
VIIA 200 > o¢ 0 | LOO [oan an Al tee ate waa| eae sean o 0032 | .0114] 71.84] 10.86 1 4
173 |...do....| 100 35 0 0 . 002 - 0103 71.78 | 10.55 1 4
174)|...00. 2.1 180 5 0 0 - 0038 . 0141 73.12 | 10.01 1 4
|

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 29

Two of the eggs show decidedly high counts. The first, Sample
3006-4, was a winter egg and had probably been held by the farmer
or merchant for a long time. The second high count, Sample 4108,
was a July egg, and its bacterial condition might be explained by
the fact that the shell showed signs of much handling, and the egg
had acquired a stale odor: The other samples of the series show low
counts; there was an absence of B. coli throughout, even in the case
of the two high-count eggs.

Six small lots of eggs, where deterioration had gone further than
in the type just described, were also examined for bacteria and loosely
bound nitrogen. The number of organisms was negligible; the
amount of loosely combined nitrogen was higher than had been pre-
viously noted. All of these eggs would have been discarded by a
careful grader because of the yellow color of the white. Just where .
to draw the line, however, is not a simple matter. Practical expe-
rience would indicate that when the white of the egg was normal in
color and when the filaments of yolk were entirely distinct from the
white, or when, if the seepage was by the diffuse rather than the
localized method, the outer zone of egg white was normal, the bac- °
terial content was low and the loosely bound nitrogen did not rise
above 0.0038 per cent.

WHITE ROTS.

If the egg, where white and yolk are just beginning to mix by
ither method of seepage, be held under commercial conditions, it
becomes what is known to egg candlers as a “ white rot,” or to some
as a “sour rot,” but the latter is a misleading term and should be
discarded. The inexpert or careless candler fails to notice these white
rots; hence they are too often found in the breaking room; when
opened yolk and white are seen to be completely, or almost com-
pletely, mixed. Very frequently the mixture is much thinner than
the mixed yolk and white of a fresh egg and may or may not have
an offensive odor. Its appearance is never appetizing. Sometimes
scraps of membrane are seen, suggesting a disintegrated embryo;
again, the contents are thin, homogeneous, and pale yellow (see
Pl. VIL). The series of eggs given in Table 10 is typical of eggs
having these characteristics.

30 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 10.— White rots (individual eggs).

1 TInnumerable; dilution, 1: 10,000.

The bacterial content in 8 out of the 12 is very high. Two of the

eggs were sterile and two of them showed a low count. B. coli

were looked for 9 times out of the 12 and found 4 times.

The high bacterial content of these white rots is quite in accord
with their appearance. Why there should occasionally be a white
rot with a low count, as in Samples 3012-4, 498, and 4110, or even
a sterile white rot,1 as in Samples 496 and 499, remains to be ex-
plained. Since these white rots seem to be the logical sequence of
the mixed egg, they might easily parallel the latter in their bacterial
content,

EGGS HAVING YOLK ADHERENT TO SHELL (SPOT ROTS).

The “spot rots” of commerce are eggs in which the yolk has
become adherent to one or both of the shell membranes and, per-
haps, to the shell itself by means of the membranes. When held
before the candle, therefore, the yolk is seen as a distorted, deeply

_ colored mass pressed against some part of the shell (see Pl. IV).

As the egg ages in temperatures which are lower than those causing
incubation phenomena, the yolk of either the fertile or the infertile
egg settles. If the egg is not moved the yolk finally adheres to the
membrane against which it rests and it becomes a “ spot rot” or, as
termed in this report, an egg with the yolk adherent to the shell.
If the egg is infertile and ages at such temperatures as prevail in
summer time, the yolk frequently rises, presses against the air cell,
and finally sticks there. Forty-two such eggs are listed in Table 11.
When held before the candle some show no marked characteristics
except the adherent yolk. Others show distinct evidences of incuba-
tion, general deterioration, cracked shells, etc.

1Jn a dilution of 1 to 10,

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 33

Nine of the 42 eggs—or 21 per cent—show very high counts, the
maximum being 320,000,000 bacteria per gram in the white of Sam-
ple 4049. The lowest count in these infected eggs is 150,000 per
gram in the white and 94,000 in the yolk. Then there is a sudden
drop to 1,800 per gram in Sample 3014-5, and the 18 remaining
samples—or 43 per cent—which show bacteria present have so few
that they may be neglected for practical purposes. Fourteen sam-
ples—or 383 per cent—were sterile in both yolk and white. The
organisms in Sample 3012-1 were probably from the dirt spot on the
shell against which the yolk had lain. Sample 3017-1 had a sour
odor which indicates bacterial contamination in quantity ; 3017-2 had
a dirty shell; 4030, 4049, and 4157 had objectionable odors on open-
ing; 4141 had a stained shell. Samples 3017-2 and 4021 had no
distinctive feature except the adherent yolk.

MOLDY EGGS.

Damp cellars, wet nests, stolen nests, etc., are responsible for the
condition of eggs which show, on candling, dense black areas of vary-
ing sizes inside the shell. When the eggs are opened these areas are
found to be infected with a mold, usually a common green mold, of
the Penicillium family (see Pl. VI). Such eggs almost invariably
have a moldy odor. If the mold spot is small it may not affect the
integrity of the ege structure; on the other hand, it may grow to
such dimensions that no distinction between yolk and white can be
seen.

The products of the growth of the mold may gelatinize the white
or liquefy it and may coagulate the yolk into a cheesy mass or render
it watery. It is, however, but seldom that a mold in pure culture is
found inside an egg; generally bacteria are also present, and some-
times in large numbers. Both the white and the yolk of moldy eggs
are apt to be discolored, usually becoming brownish. This color is
not always confined to the area of visible mold, but may be diffused
throughout, as shown by cultures made from white and yolk remote
from the visible infection. These and other characteristics are noted
in Table 12, where the results of the examination of 45 individual
eggs showing mold visible to the eye are recorded.

17625°—14——_3

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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quoseid pure yOA 011}e SUTIAACD PJOW |~ 77-7 7|7 77 0
*TPUS poyovso ‘ueyoi1q pus Teys Jo
0101}0q WI Yon}s YTOA ‘Tjeys Jo opis
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pus yOA o11}Ue SuTIaAOD ATIvEU PTO |0 |°°~>, ~~ 7/0

000 ‘OTT\0

000 ‘08z|0

88 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is interesting to observe that B. coli were found in but 2 of
the 45 eggs; that in those cases it was present in small numbers
only and then with large numbers of other bacteria. In fact, the
mold in Samples 4029 and 4032, respectively, was in the air cell and
apparently had not penetrated the egg membrane, though undoubt-
edly it would have done so in time. It is also of interest to note that
the odor of Sample 4029 was putrid and that of 4032 stale; both had
yolks stuck to the shell.

Molds, as indicated by the descriptions given in Table 12, may
appear in clean and dirty shell eggs. If the shell is dirty, the first
visible spot of mold is very often beneath the spot of dirt. Since the
mold infections seem to be due almost entirely to shell penetration
after laying, one would expect to find the egg—both yolk and white—
adhering to the membrane. Such is usually the case if the growth
is extensive. .

So varied are the visible results upon the egg of the growth of
mold inside the shell that much space might be consumed describing
individual eggs. The salient points for our purpose, however, are
the facts that the eggs which show mold before the candle give a
growth of mold when the egg substance is transferred to suitable
culture media, and a study of the substance of such eggs shows that
the mold is not confined to the area where it is visible, but is com-
monly diffused throughout both white and yolk. A moldy egg is
also likely to show a large number of bacteria present.

BLACK ROTS.

Black rots need but short comment here. They are recorded for
comparative purposes only. Table 13 gives the bacterial findings in
10 of them. The odor and appearance, both before the candle and
after opening, would exclude their use for any food purpose or even
for leather tanning. They could be used for fertilizer.

TABLE 13.—PBlack rois—individual eggs.

Total number of bacte- Number of |
Date of ria per gram on plain | gas-pro- |
ave O scar inc 1d at— :
Sample|oxamina-| 72" ineeteves ee Description.
No. |" tion. |——— pees
; gram m 1ac-
20°C. 37°C. * | tose'bile.
1910. | : 5
3007-6] Dec. 21 |} 180,000,000} 140,000,000)....-....... | Thin, watery contents, with bad odor.
3009-5) Dec. 27 49, 000, 000} 1, DOO TO00l =. sasceone Watery contents, with strong odor. __
8009-6|...do..... 4, 200, 000, 000/6, 300, 000, 000,..........-. Waitery, olive-green, gassy contents, with bad
odor.
3010-1! Dec. 28! 120,000,000} 33,000,000 .7......... | Green contents, with strong odor.
1911. t ;
B0I2—siwan. le |p etc. see cone #20; 000, 0G0|).-.--=.2- 25 Brownish, gassy contents, with bad odor.
4045] July 11 | 350,000,000} 340,000,060| 1,000,000+| Black under candle; egg had a bad odor before
being opened, and a still worse one after-
wards; some shrinkage; fixed air cell.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 39

TABLE 13.—Black rots—individual eggs—Continued._

Total number of bacte- | Number of
ria per gram on plain | gas-pro-

Date of gar incubated at— ;
panple examina- 5a eee Description.
tion. gram in lac-
20° C. 37-C. tose bile.
1911.

4059) July 13 677000; OOO|S. Safes 1,009,000 | Black under candle; contents were very gassy
and had afrightiulodor; clean shell; marked
shrinkage; movable air cell.

4060). ..do....- 11, 000, 000! 5, 400,009) 1,000,000+| Black under candle; bad odor en opening;
mh shell; marked shrinkage; movable air

| cell.

4087| Oct. 9 | 660,000,000) 180,000,000 0 | Black under candle; sheli dirty and stained in

| one spot with a damp feather, underneath.
which was a mold spot; balance of the egg
| was 2 black rot.
4114) Nov. 7 | 169,000,000} 280,000,000 100 | Black under candle; strong odor of hydrogen
| sulphid; inside of sheil and shell membrane
black; shell not fresh looking; one-third
shrinkage.

}

The maximum bacterial count was 6,300,000,000 per gram; the
minimum 5,400,000. B.coli were looked fcr five times and found four
-times—in very large numbers except in one sample.

COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF EGGS OPENED COMMERCIALLY
IN THE PACKING HOUSE.

The study cf eggs opened aseptically in the laboratory is logically
followed by a study of eggs broken commercially in the packing
house. For this investigation a large number of samples were taken
of the various types of eggs encountered throughout the egg-break-
ing season of 1912. Tt was hoped that the laboratory results, to-
gether with the characteristic appearance and odor of the different
classes of eggs, would give a practical working basis for the grading
of eggs used in the preparation of frozen and desiccated eggs.

The commercial conditions under which the eggs were broken
are described in the discussion of D, KE, and-F houses for 1912,
in a forthcoming Department of Agriculture bulletin. The method
of cpening was in brie as follows: The eggs were broken on a ster-
ilized knife edge, the two sections of the shell pulled apart with the
thumb and first and second fingers of each hand, and the contents of
the egg allowed to drop into a sterile cup. After every infected egg
which could be detected by the senses, the operator replaced the knife
and cup with sterile equipment and washed and dried her hands.
The fingers were kept dry by means cf tissue paper cr-small towels,
which were used but once before laundering. By this method the
contamination of the liquid egg during the process of breaking was
reduced to a minimum.

Tf the sample consisted of less than 9 eggs, the liquids were poured
directly from the cups to a sterile 16-ounce salt-mouthed bottle,

40 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

mixed by shaking, and a small portion of the mixture was trans-
ferred to a sterile 4-ounce bottle containing pieces of sterile glass;
the large sample was for chemical analyses, the smaller one for
bacteriological examination. If the specimen represented 9 or more
eggs, the eggs were collected in a suitable container and mixed, a.
bacteriological and a chemical sample being taken. The samples
were frozen in a sharp freezer 12 hours or less, packed in chilled,
cork-insulated boxes especially constructed for the purpose, and
shipped by express to the laboratory, where they arrived hard
frozen. About 3 hours were required for transportation from E
house and about 12 hours from D and F houses.

The samples were taken on the successive weekly visits made at
D, E, and F houses during the season of 1912. <A section in each of
the tables containing the laboratory results of this research indicates
the time and place of sampling. For example, F-5, in Table 14,
signifies that the sample was taken on the fifth visit to F house.
The number of eggs represented in each sample varied from 4 to
360.

JULY AND AUGUST FIRSTS.

Since strictly fresh. eggs are not used in the United States for the
preparation of frozen and desiccated eggs, no studies were made of
this grade opened under commercial conditions. During the latter
part of July and August, however, when receipts are not only light
but also low in quality and cheap, eggs commercially graded as firsts
are sometimes used to piece out the regular supply of breaking stock.
The firsts of the summer and autumn months differ before the candle
from the firsts of the spring months in that the former are much
more shrunken, the yolks more opaque, and the whites are less firm.
Firsts, also commercially termed “ storage-packed No. 1 eggs,” con-
stituted a large percentage of the breaking stock used in F house
during the season of 1912. They were graded from the daily re-
ceipts and held in chilled rooms until needed to fill out the regular .
quota of eggs for the breaking room.

On the last two visits to F house samples were taken of the liquid
egg broken from five lots of firsts, each representing 15 dozen eggs
(see Table 14). Care was taken during the process of breaking to
eliminate all eggs which might have a deleterious effect on the liquid
product. For example, from one sample an egg with a green white
was discarded and from a second an egg with a broken yolk which
at one time had been adherent to the shell. Some of the firsts had
cloudy whites, but such eggs were not discarded in the preparation
of these samples because laboratory studies proved that they were
not infected.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 4l

The laboratory data given in Table 14 show that three of five
samples contained less than 1,000 bacteria per gram at 20° C. and
the other two 25,000 and 92,000, respectively. In three samples B.
coli were not found and in the remaining two they were present in
small numbers. Since the bacteriological findings given in Table 4
indicate that this grade of eggs, when opened aseptically, is prac-
tically sterile and contains no B. coli, it might be concluded that
the organisms found in the samples opened in the packing house
were referable, for the most part, to outside contamination and not
to the eggs themselves. On the basis of this assumption these re-
sults will be taken as a standard of comparison in the succeeding
discussion of the bacterial contents of other types of eggs.

The moisture content of four of the five samples of firsts was lower
than the amount found in fresh eggs, which result would be expected
from the difference in the amount of shrinkage in the two types of
eggs. The average percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen, which was
taken as the index of protein decomposition, was 0.0020 per cent on
the wet basis for summer firsts, compared with 0.0013 per cent for
absolutely fresh eggs. ‘These figures show well the difference in
quality of the two grades of eggs.

TABLE 14.—July and August firsts.

[15-dozen lots.]

Percentage of am-
Total number of bacteria per gram on Number | moniacal nitro-
plain agar incubated at— of gas-pro- gen, Folin
Date of ducing method. Percent-
No. | Source.| collec- bacteria age of
tion. Be Sra | ONS ULITOS
in lactose
° ° . Wet Dry
20° C. BU? (Cr bile. basis. pasts
1912.
4802 F 5} July 22 Less than 1,000 Less than 1,000 10 0.0022 | 0.0072 69.59
4853 F5| July 23 25, 000 20, 000 0 - 0020 . 0065 69.14
4966 F6 | Aug. 13 Less than 1,000 | Less than 1,009 0 - 0020 - 0074 72.84
4967 EF 6 |--.doiz_.- Less than 1,000 Less than 1, 000 SOON etter oO bee be iE ee ee
4985 F6 | Aug. 15 92,000 1,000 0 .0019 | .0068) . 71.87
SECONDS.

Seconds constitute a large proportion of the eggs used in the
frozen and desiccated egg industry. In the spring, before the
candling season begins, this grade consists of small, dirty, and over-
sized eggs sorted from receipts by inspection. After the first of
June, when all incoming eggs are graded according to the condition
of the contents, seconds also include shrunken eggs, hatch spots,
weak eggs, heavy rollers, etc.

Since dirty shells during the process of opening contribute a
special source of contamination to the liquid eggs, this class of
eggs is considered separately in this dissertation.

42 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

During the interval between May 4 and August 30, 1912, 9 sam-
ples of whites, 9 of yolks, and 25 of whole eggs were taken from
the product obtained from seconds, the different lots varying in size
from 6 to 30 dozen eggs. During the process of breaking care was
taken to discard all eggs which, from appearance or odor, were
abnormal. The first five samples given in Table 15 under the sec-
tion devoted to whole eggs, and the first four in the part assigned
to whites and yolks, represent the product broken from small and
oversized eggs. The maximum count of organisms per gram was
34,000 in the whole eggs and 85,000 in the whites and yolks.

The counts of the product from small and oversized eggs were
no higher than those found in the liquid eggs broken from July and
August firsts; in fact, the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in the for-
mer was lower. The chemical results show, therefore, that the con-
tents of the spring seconds were fresher than the summer firsts. |

The samples taken after June 1, 1912, represent the small and
oversized eggs sorted from receipts by inspection and also those
showing incipient deterioration as observed by the candle. An
observation of the laboratory results in Table 15 shows a general
trend toward higher bacterial counts and greater amounts of am-
moniacal nitrogen as the season advances.

Tasire 15.—Seconds.

WHOLE EGGS.

Total number of Percentage
bacteria per | Number’ of ammoni-
gram on ee ‘conn acal — Poe
Sam- Date of agar incubate 7} gen, Folin | cent- :
ple Source! collec- at— ing bac-| “method. | age of ee of Remarks.
No tion wieaiteel joe mois- Wee
Gear at ture.
ss aS actose | Wet | Dry
20 C. 37 C. bile. basis. basis.
|
1912.
4245 Fi1|May 4 300 750 10) Rees case | SS 15dozen...
A249 DYN PN Mea erat GYM [i St al 1, 199 y banet
4259 Dij| May 7 400 150
A264 Del (a cd0en 34, 000 400
4411 D2 | May 27 23,500 17, 000
4578 D 3 | June 19 600 30
4623 F 4; June 28 2,500 950
4694] D4|July 9 27,500/ 21,000
A697 Dae Ose ee 5, 200 300, 0}. : ,
4708 D4] July 10 10, 500) 9, 900 1,000} .0019} .0067| 71.84) 12 dozen...
A710 DAs Ose cae 3, 200 2,100 0} .0015] .0055] 72. 75) 15 dozen...
4803 F5 | July 22 110, 000 93, 000 100} .0023} .0083] 72.38!...do....-.
4333 F5 | July 24 1) 4, 000: 1,000} .0018} .0059| 69.39]...do....-.
4945 E6| Aug. 9 850, 000 7, 000 0} .0023) . 0084) 72. 63) 6dozen....
4957 F 6 | Aug. 12 66, 000; 38, 500 10] .0015] .0050) 70. 16} 30 dozen...
4972 F 6} Aug. 14 750,000) 550,000 0} .0017] .0061) 72.30|...do......
41002 D6 | Aug. 19 2,000} 0 in 1, 000) 0} .0020) .0072) 72.31) 24dozen_..
41018 D6 | Aug. 20 600,000} 550,000 100} .0018} .0057| 68. 25) 25 pounds.
41019 DiGi 4500.2 d.< 39, 500 24,000) oapdeiciet aca be.s eee eva! tel aes eiae Conse
41029 D6 | Aug. 21 320,000} 270,000) 100,000).-...-|...---)-.--.-|- 2. doveerre
41031 D\Gi as 30. oe 500, 000) 500, 000 100} .0017} .0061] 72.53) 24 dozen...
41060 E7 | Aug. 26 | 1,800,000) 700,000 10} .0020} .0074} 72. 98) 30 dozen...
41070 | E7| Aug. 27 | 3,600,000} 1,600, 600 LO Wed Een! 72. al Nag. Sepia
41086 E7 | Aug. 30 430, 000 55, 000 100} . 0026) .0095) 72.56)...do......

1 Less than 1,000.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 43

TABLE 15.—Seconds—Continued.
WHITES AND YOLKS. __

Total number of Pear contre {
bacteria per |Number | of ammoni- |
gram on plain | °f as- | acal nitro- | Per- |
Sam- Date of agar incubated | produc-| gen, Folin | cent- ees |
ple |Source.| collec- at— ing bac-| “method. [age of cefaal | Remarks.
No. tion. teria per mois- pe:
5 Spee el eae Gans, 2 ond PELE cael Uae:
eae i See Pleven (Dr
20%C.0 "| BING. tit bile. ¢ |e hac |
|
1912. i
4363 F2|May 2 49, 006 1, 200 (Hl eso ees eee 15 dozen...| Whites.
43¢4 Re adoe 85, 000 1, 000 (Viseegecl eee aa piesa NEO Lees Yolixs of 4563.
4403 D2| May 27 1, 606 150 0/0. 0604/0. 0031) 87.10] 15 pounds.| Whites.
4404 19) ZA SC oy Bana 1, 200 400 10} .0033} .0072| 54.15).........__- Yolks of 4403.
ARISES (DIZ Gosce.- 60, 0CO 20, 000 LOD | Sere | sarees | ee 25 pounds.| Whites.
4417 1D AP)" IE (o to Paar 15, 000 9; 000 |e ccece a raasa| totes | esas Boece eee es Yolks of 4416.
4423 D2) May 28 1,000 1,000 10} .0903} .0023) 87.14) 10 pounds.| Whites.
A424 1D) 97s ae eo oe aes 4, 000 2,700 1,000} .0030| .0070) 57.45)...........- Yotlks of 4423.
4868 | D5 | July 30 360,000} 330,000 LAU SSceRelere Sec beeen 13 pounds.| Whites.
A869 Don sesdorrs f- 110, 900 90, 000 (1) .0037) .0083} 55.42) 11 pounds.| Yolks of 4868.
A977 FG | Aug. 14 40, 000 40, C00 HOU Sane sel metecclbetben 20 pounds.| Whites.
4978 HG | = Goe 130,000) 130,000 0} .0037| .0087| 57.25|...do-..... Yolks of 4977.
41005 D6 | Aug. 19 27,000 22, 000 15000) 723-25 eos <o| ee Aare ec el W kites.
41006 BrG)|F55do%=+2 300, 000 180, 0GO 1,000) .0029| .0067) 56.66) 15 pounds_| Yolks of 41005.
A1011 DIGI dows. 600,000} 650, 000} 6} .0003| .0023) 86.96} 18 pounds.| Whites.
41012 DiGi | S22) dou! -y- 659,060} 660, G00; 0} .9030) .0065| 53.64) 13 pounds.| Yolks of 41011.
| | |

1 Less than 100.

The lowest number of bacteria found at 20° C. was 300 per gram
in a sample taken during the early part of May, and the highest,
3,600,000, in a specimen obtained during the latter part of August.
Of the 16 samples of whites and yolks none contained over 650,000
bacteria per gram; of the 24 lots of whole egg only about 8 per cent
had more than 850,000. There were no B. coli in 14, or 35 per cent,
and 100,000, or less, in the remaining samples. The percentage of
ammoniacal nitrogen varied from 0.0015 per cent on the wet basis
in spring seconds to 0.0026 per cent in summer seconds.

A larger number of eggs was discarded while breaking the summer
and fall seconds than when opening analogous eggs in the spring.

Tt is probable that the organisms in the samples of liquid egg from

seconds are referable partly to outside sources, but chiefly to the eggs
themselves.
EGGS HAVING DIRTY SHELLS.

The highest percentage of dirty-shell eggs occurs during the wet
spring weather. Since they do not keep well in storage, a large num-
ber find their way to egg-breaking establishments.

Table 16 gives the laboratory findings of six samples taken during
May, June, and August, 1912. Fifteen dozen eggs were represented
in one specimen and 6 dozen in the other five. All of the eggs were
candled before opening. The number of eggs discarded during the
process of breaking gives, perhaps, an, index to the quality of the
_ eggs in the different samples. Not more than three decomposed eggs
were eliminated from the samples taken during May and June and
not more than six from the two specimens broken in August.

a
44 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 16.—Hggs having dirty shells.

[6 to 15 dozen lots.)

Total number of bacte- | Number | Percentage of am-

1 Less than 1,000.

The bacterial contents were widely divergent; the minimum num-
ber was 400 and the maximum number 1,600,000 per gram at 20° C.
The number of B. coli varied from 10 to 10,000 in the six samples.
The amount of loosely bound nitrogen was markedly higher in the
August samples than in the June samples.

Sample 41087 represents about the lowest quality of dirty eggs used
by reputable breakers for food purposes. The shells were so filthy
that dirty “dirties” (the trade designation) best describes them.
The candle showed that: they were shrunken eggs, and that many
yolks floated near the shell as if they were about ready to adhere to
it. The eggs eliminated during the process of opening were highly
infected, as follows: One egg with a green white, one sour egg, one
egg with yolk nearly mingled with white, and two eggs each with a
broken yolk which had at one time been adherent to the shell. The
conditions found in this lot of eggs are typical of low grade fall
receipts.

The bacteria found in this series of samples were, without doubt,
referable both to contamination from the shells during the process
of opening and to the eggs themselves.

EGGS HAVING CRACKED SHELLS.

On account of the heavy losses accruing from shipping eggs having
cracked shells, these eggs constitute one of the important classes
used for breaking purposes,

During the interval between May 2 and August 26, 1912, 2 sam-
ples of whites, 2 of yolks, and 16 of whole eggs were taken. ‘These
samples represented lots of from 6 to 30 dozen cracked eggs, pro-
cured in D, E, and F houses, where it was the custom to keep
“checks” in cool surroundings from the time of receipt until the
time of breakage, and to give them precedence over other eggs in
regard to promptness in candling and breaking. The laboratory
results (see Table 17) from these samples indicate what is to be

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 45

expected from cracked eggs that are broken in the first concentrating

center.
TABLE 17.—Hggs having cracked shells.

WHOLE EGGS.

on a) |
Ba Percentage
Total number of |3"2 ofammo- |
bacteria per gram |g-= niacalni-| . |
. on plain agar in- |2 8 trogen,| & |
El cubated at— Te Folin s
3 He methognp 3 Z Remarks.
= ox Oy . = | S =
8 Se | 2 2
Seal ee g84)3)2)8) ¢
2 ; 4 : = E
EI z 2 S Sas | SEAS rec RS 3
= 5 3 ° ° 525 iS ‘s eB) S |
a nD = ag = Z = A a io)
1912:
“4215 Fi| May 2 600,000} 600,000 0/0. 0017)\0. 0056} 70.28) 15 dozen. .
4216 Hales dor tae 600 1,000 0} .0014| .0046] 70.98)...do....-.-
4242 Fi) May 3 500, 000 300;000|10, 000) 22 222|=24-2 o|2-=- = 11 dozen. -
4254 Di1| May 6 750,000) 490,000 100} .0016| .0052} 69.14) 15 dozen- -
4314, E2| May 14| 230,000| —80,000)10,000|_.....|......|------ 12 dozen...
4557 D 3| June 17 340,000 120, 000/10, 000) . 0015] . 0052} 71220) 30 pounds.
4572 D 3| June 19 140, 000 75, 000 0} .0019} .0071| 73.22) 6 dozen...
4597 E 4| June 24 460, 000 330, 000) | PR 2) La aly te entes 132 dozen.-
4635 E 5| June 28 2, 800 800 0} .0019} .0070| 72.82} 6 dozen- -.
4711 D 4) July 10 700 400 TONS. Sear cl ee a 15 dozen. -
4827] =F 5| July 24 | 2,200,000] 1,300,000| _—10) . | do. 00:
4963 F 6} Aug. 13 35, 060 35, 000 10} .
4965 F 6|...do...-| 2,700,000} 2,400,000} 1,000
4993 F 6) Aug. 16 50, 000 38, 500} 1,0C0| .
4994 HY 6)2-2do'2. . 190, 060 120, 000 100
41052 E 7| Aug. 26 | 2,300,000 950, 00C} 1,000} .0023| .0074| 69.01) 30 dozen- -
WHITES AND YOLKS.
4218 Fl) May 2 36, 500 1, 400 100)0. ele: 0016] 87.36) 30 pounds.| Whites.
4219 Balen dors. 6, 800 700 | ees OO pee il ae Prag Ofeeeee | Yolks of No. 4218.
4282] Di} May 8| 13,500| 15,000) 1,000/...... lint eies penis. 25 pounds.| Whites.
4283 iDull PAGOae ee 25,000| 64,000 fay Be eee I ey wed |. do. ae | Yolks of No. 4282.
| | |

Although the variation, shown in Table 17, in the number of bac-
teria in the different lots of cracked eggs was almost the same as
that found in the samples of seconds, the individual counts In many
instances were higher. For instance, 43.8 per cent of the samples
of checks, as compared with 66.6 per cent of the samples of seconds,
had counts under 200,000 per gram. The damaged shell of the
checks offers less resistance to bacterial invasion than do sound
shells, which factor explains the higher average count of cracked
eggs. As was the case with the types of eggs previously discussed,
the samples with the highest bacterial content were those which were
taken during the month of August. The samples showed no greater
deterioration chemically than did the specimens of summer firsts,
seconds, and dirties.

Eges with incipient odors but normal in appearance are very
often found in some lots of cracked eggs, particularly in those which
have not been chilled previous to opening. An examination of four
single eggs gave counts of 12,000 bacteria per gram or less in three
samples and of 1,200,000 in the fourth. There was no abnormality
“in the latter to distinguish it from the other three. A fifth sample

46 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

composed of five eggs with a similar but not strong odor contained
550,000 bacteria per gram and showed the low amount of ammoniacal
nitrogen of 0.0016 per cent on the wet basis. Further tests are
necessary before it can be positively stated whether the faint odor
of warm cracked eggs is due to bacterial action or to absorption from
surrounding materials. Experienced egg breakers recognize the
characteristic odor of warm checks and aan not discard ther

Quite different were the results of the examination of two indi-
vidual eggs, the odor of which was suggestive of the products of
bacterial growth. The eggs, normal in appearance, differed from
each other only in the intensity of the odor. The count of the egg
with the faint odor was 12,000,000, of the one with the strong odor
150,000,000. These eggs would be detected by careful grading and
eliminated from a food product.

On account of the damaged shell, checks in a short time become
infested with bacteria or molds or both. This result is hastened
when the shells are soiled with the leakage from other eggs. From
different lots of cracked eggs there were selected six samples consist-
ing of from 4 to 12 eggs with moldy shells. No eggs were included
“has the contents were normal in appearance, taste, and odor.
Table 18 shows that-there was a count of 160,000 in one sample and
of from 1,200,000 to 12,000,000 in the other five. These results prove
that even if the contents of cracked eggs with moldy shells smell,
taste, and look good the egg substance is infected with bacteria as well
as with molds.

TABLE 18.— Cracked eggs with moldy shells opened commercially in packing

house.
Total number of | Num- Fowentae
bacteria per ber of | Gejatin ii ae al
gramcnplain [88S PTO! jigne. peters Vala
Date of agar at— ducing| jin, |8°n, Folin! cent | o: 4 or | Descrip-
Source.| collec- bacterial (yrae. | smethod. ets | rata one
tion. Bete ececner mois- pe
gram in an ture
lactese| & * | Wet | Dry
bile. basis.| basis.
1912.
F 1) May 2 | 1, 200, 000/1, 300, 000 10} 230, 000)0. 0019|0. C062} 69.31) 8 eggs... ae and
aste
good.
F 1] May 3 | 2,700, 00/1, 7C0, 000 10} 15,000] .0013] .0043] C8. 26! 12 eggs. Do.
D 2} May 27 | 4,000, 000\3, 100, 000 100|9 in 1,000] . C019} .0058) 67.17) 8 eggs..| Odor good.
D 3/ June 20 | 8.690, 0090/5, 400, 000 100] 49,000] .G021} .0070| 70.18] 4eggs. . Do.
E 4} June 24 |12, 000, 000/5, 900, 000 0 0) .0025) .0088) 71.76)........- Do.
D 6) Aug. 20 160,000} 140,000) 1,000}......... - 0019] .0064| 70.23) Geggs- - Do.

|
MOLDY CRACKED EGGS COMPARED WITH NONMOLDY CRACKED EGGS.

41036 D 6} Aug. 21 2c, 30 00 TOO%000|S82 sees 0. 0023/9. 0078! 70.39} 11 Ibs... Bee
snes.
41037 D6) Ang: 21. | 2; 700%000)1;, 700; 000/02. |n2aeeeen .0022| .0079] 72.09) 48 Ibs... oy
Ss e Ss
| from
| same lot
jae | | | as 41036.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. AT

On one occasion a few cases of checks, a large percentage of
which had moldy shells, were received at D house. The eggs for
breaking were separated into two parts, one consisting of about 13
dozen moldy eggs and the other of about 60 dozen nonmoldy eggs.
Every effort was made to eliminate all eggs abnormal in appear-
ance or odor. On account of the number of times that it was neces-
sary to wash hands and to change apparatus after bad eggs, it was
a laborious task to separate the good from the bad. For example,
there were 3 eggs with a bad odor, 4 rots, 5 sour eggs, and 14 eggs
with a green white that were eliminated from the moldy lot. There
were, as given in Table 18, 2,700,000 organisms in the nonmoldy and
22,000,000 in the moldy eggs. The quantity of ammoniacal nitrogen
was practically the same in the two specimens, and was no higher
than that found in some samples of summer firsts, seconds, and
dirties. These results show that either the bacteria had not. been
present long enough or had not multiplied to a sufficient extent to
materially change the composition of the egg substance.

The laboratory data from both the large and small samples show
that for the preparation of a food product with a low bacterial
content cracked eggs with moldy shells should be omitted.

EGGS HAVING THE YOLKS PARTIALLY MIXED WITH THE WHITES.

The class of eggs having the yolks partially mixed with the
whites consists of three forms: One in which the yolk has seeped
through the vitelline membrane in sufficient quantity to give a
yellow tinge to the thick portion of the albumen; the second in
which the yolk streams through small openings in the membrane
into the white; and the third in which the yolk membrane breaks
and allows the yolk to flow into the albumen. The first form can
not be detected by the candling process; the second and third in
many cases can be recognized by this method. During warm
weather the vitelline membrane becomes thin and the white less
viscous, which condition, accompanied by the jars occurring during
transportation, causes the membrane to break and the contents of
the yolk to escape. The cause of the seeping yolk in eggs is not
understood. The three forms are the predecessors of the class of
eggs called white rots, or eggs with white and yolk entirely mixed.

During the season of 1912, 10 samples, consisting of from 1 to 8
eggs, with yolks seeping into white were taken. The odor and taste
ofeach were good. The results are shown in Table 19.

48 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 19.—Small samples of eggs with the yolks beginning to seep into the

whites.
Total number of bac- Percentage of |
teria per gram on | Number] qojatin | ammoniacal
;| Plain agar incuba- aeoet liquefy- | nitrogen, Fo- | Per- | _
Sample| g sae to) ted at— ae ucing) ing organ-| lin method. cent- | Size of
NG: ource.| collec- bacteria | ics per age of | sam-
tion. per gram | “Gram mois- | ple.
. o in lactose g Wet Dry ture
20°C. are: bile. basis. | basis.
1912 Eggs.
4194 E 1) Apr. 25 2, 600 3, 900 0)0.in!10; G00) =e Sasa ees one ae 3
4251 D1 eae 6 67,000 21, 000 100| 0in 10,000} 0.0017} 0.0062) 72. 61 8
4266) D1} May 7 100 400 0) Pease sey [ash i he ate el ae re 1
4290 D1) May 9] 22,000,000) 21,000, 000 0) 0in 10,000) .0021) .0077| 72.58 5
4357 E 2} May 17 100, 000 21,000 10 900; 000). 5. ase ol bece- on [oc ee as: 2
4406 D 2| May 27 44,000 5, 000 0} 0in 10,000) .0020/ .0076} 73.76 5
4428 D 2) May 28 300 100] . Ol since Sa Saed teas oscar |e eran teed nets 2
4895 D 5) Aug. 2 3,900,000} 3,500,000) Oin100)._.......-- - 0023} .0078} 70.54 5
41001 D6) Avg. 19} 0in 10; C000 1110; O00!) Oj irl 100) mae es eee eee | eee ee 1
41032 D 6} Aug. 21 17,000 7,500 10). A Oe 0918} .0072| 74.98 4

Table 19 shows that the number of bacteria varied from 100 per
gram at 20° C. to 100,000 in eight samples and from 3,900,000 to
22,000,000 in the other two. No explanation can be given of the
cause of the last two counts other than that they may represent
iransitional stages between yolks beginning to mix and those entirely
mixed with white. It was shown on page 30 that the latter are
heavily infected with. organisms. There were no B. coli in one-half
of the specimens and only-a’few in the remaining half. The amount
of protein deterioration was no greater.than that found in seconds
and cracked eggs.

Only three samples were taken of eggs with the yolk entering the
white through small apertures in the vitelline membrane. The speci-
mens consisted of individual eggs and were practically sterile.

During the latter part of July two samples were taken, consisting,
in one case, of 30 dozen eggs, and in the other of 11 dozen, which,
before the candle, appeared to have broken yolks but were other-
wise normal. On opening the eggs it was found that the grading
by the candle was not accurate, because among them was a large
number of eggs which were approaching the stage of white rots. The
large sample was opened without much care in grading; the smaller
one was broken, and every egg which appeared to have passed the
first stage of physical degeneration was eliminated. The difference
between the laboratory results of the two samples was striking. The
poorly graded sample contained 8,300,000 bacteria per gram, 1,000,000
B. coli per gram, and 0.0028 per cent of ammoniacal nitrogen on
the wet basis; the well graded one, 5,500 organisms per gram, ‘10
B. coli, and 0.0021 per cent of loosely bound nitrogen. This experi-
ment is a good example of the effect of careful and intelligent grad-
ing on a product prepared from doubtful eggs.

These preliminary studies indicate that eggs with yolks showing
the first signs of deterioration are suitable for food purposes, if

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 49

other characteristics are normal, but that eggs showing more advanced

decomposition should be avoided. This phase of the egg problem will

be specially investigated during the season of 1913.
BLOODY WHITES.

Many of the first eggs laid by pullets contain blood which may
be diffused through the white or may be in the form of clots on the
yolk or in the albumen (see Pl. IV). It is probable that in the
passage of the white and yolk through the oviduct some of the small
blood vessels are ruptured, thereby allowing blood to gain access to
the white or yolk before they are incased in a shell.

The examination of six individual eggs of this type disclosed the
presence of less than 5,000 organisms per gram. No B. coli were
found, except in one sample, which had only 10. The eggs were
taken from the cups of the breakers; consequently the few organisms
found are very likely referable to outside sources and not to the eggs.
On account of the presence of blood, these eggs are not used for food

purposes.
EGGS WITH BLOOD RINGS.

Eggs showing signs of incubation were discussed quite fully on
page 13; consequently only the information gained when these eggs
were broken commercially will be given here.

During May, 1912, four samples, consisting of from 3 to 12 large
blood rings, were taken. Since the weather had not been warm
enough to cause spontaneous development of embryos of fertile eggs,
these blood rings were probably the result of the undesirable practice
of selling incubated eggs which would not hatch. The yolks were
broken and partially mixed with albumen; the germinal disk was
deteriorated. The odor of each was good.

TABLE 20.—Hggs with blood rings.
LARGE SAMPLES OF EGGS WITH SMALL BLOOD RINGS.

E q Percentage
oH fis .
Number of bacteria S oo ei anes 2
per gram at— as fa. alka WS
n Ag gen, 0 QD
| method 3 ;
Sample Dale of 0.8 2 g Size of Reimarke
No. collec- Segoe : : oa sample. ;
tion. Se (02 ane
4 2S50| 8 a q
2 . . 2 3 io) 4) {<>}
y S) oO elect cs 5)
5 ° ° 38 & oO Pp 3
nD aR B a = A a4
1912. ;
4837 F 5} July 25 36, 500 3,500 100)0. 0022)9. 0077} 71.50] 30 dozen--.| Kept in chill room
2 weeks.
4843 F 5) July 26 37, 000 37, 000 10} .0022| .0077) 71.60) 12 dozen-.
4883 | D5) July 31 50, 000 41,000).....-- .0019} .0067) 71.56) 84 pounds.
A889 D 5) Aug. 1 }10in 1, 000/10 in 1,000 0} .0018) .0063} 71.58) 4 pounds. -
4960 F 6) Aug. 12 950,000} 700,000} 10,000) . 0023; .0074| 68. 89) 30 dozen. -
4975 | F 6] Aug. 14] 430,000] 500,000 10] .0024| .0072| 66. 58)...do......
41033 | D6] Aug. 21 77,000| 58,900 6} .0019| .0075] 74.59] 44 pounds.

1 Less than 1,000.
17625° —14__4.

50 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 20.—Eggs with blood rings—Continued.
SMALL SAMPLES OF EGGS WITH LARGE BLOOD RINGS.

S I Percentage
1S & of ammoni- =
ge ae os eg ne acal nitro- 5
gr IE Ag gen, Folin| £
Date of S si | method 3 E
Sample 3 Lenoir! Size of
No. ole S8el— - a sample, aoe
; 2 3
: 6 {dy lees) 2 lee
5 ° ° eae! SATS ee 5
D a 5 = ‘a By
1912.
4292 D1} May 9 1,700 400 O)e8: 2.2] 5. eee an OMBP ES eee Broken yolks.
440) D 2| May 27 100 100 0)0. 0014\0. 0052) 72.97| 12 eggs... - Do.
4402 1B MD 0 Cae 3 bit 750 10) .0016) .0959} 72.71}...do-.. Do.
4430 | D2 May 28 100 150 0} .0019} .0070] 72.71] 5 eggs. .__- Do.
4699 | D4 Aad 9 | 7,100,000 400 0} .0018) .0065) 72.09 8 eggs. Sa ast Do.
LARGE SAMPLES OF EGGS WITH LARGE BLOOD. RINGS.
4838 F 5) July 25 | 4,000,000) 1 900, 0001100, 00010. 0022/0. 0077; 71.41) 30 dozen..| Kept dn bull room
2 weeks.
4844 F 5| July 26 | 4,300,000) 3, 100,000 160} .0019} .0068) 72.17) 9 dozen...
4884 D5) July 3i |0in 1,000 Oin 1. O00 Se . 0019} .0063] 70.00) 74 pounds.
A883 D 5) Aug. 1 6, 500 | 0in 1,090 10} .0019} .0063] 69. 96) 10 pounds.
41040 D 6 Aug. 22 | 2, 000, 000} 1, 400, 000 10,000} . 0020} .0071) 71.98] 7 pounds. -

The results of the first four samples given in the second section of
Table 20 showed very few organisms and no B. coli except in one
sample. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen was identical with that
found in contemporaneous samples of seconds, cracked, and dirty
eggs. <A fifth sample, taken in July, consisting of eight large blood
rings, gave a count of 7,100,000 bacteria per gram on agar plates
leonbaied at 20° C, and of 400 on similar plates kept at 37° C. The
divergence of the two counts is not explained.

In July and August larger lots of both small and large blood rings
were studied. These were caused in part by the warmth of the late
summer months and in part by a short period of incubation under
broody hens. The first observations were made of a case of blood
rings which had been held in a chill room at about 32° F. for two
weeks. The eggs were recandled and 84 dozen eggs with broken yolks
or with yolks stuck to the shell were discarded. During the process of
breaking, the small and large blood rings were separated, the basis
of division being less than 3 centimeters for the small and over
that for the large blood rings. Many of the eggs of the former type
had firm whites and yolks with faded rings. The eggs with the large
blood rings contained broken yolks. All eggs showing signs of mix-
ing of white and yolk, often termed “runny eggs,” were excluded.
Each lot was mixed thoroughly by passing a few times through a
steamed sieve. The resulting mixtures had a good odor. The sam-
ple of small blood rings contained 36,500 bacteria per gram; the one

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 51

of larger blood rings, 4,000,000. The amount of ammoniacal nitro-
gen was in each case 0.0022 per cent on the wet basis.

The counts of similar samples of eggs with blood rings which had
not been kept for any extended period in a chill room varied from less
than 1,000 to 950,000 for small blood rings and from under 1,000 to
4,300,000 for large blood rings. Since the blood rings which were
used in these samples underwent the same diversity of conditions
before and during marketing as did the seconds, cracked eggs, dirty
eggs, etc., they would be expected to show practically the same varia-
tions in bacterial contents.

The amount of loosely bound nitrogen in the samples of both small
and large blood rings was no greater, and in many cases was less,
than that found in stale eggs. These results are in accordance with
those found by Pennington and Robertson, which they summarize
as follows:

The amount of loosely bound nitrogen in incubated eggs, as determined by
the Folin method, shows an interesting change. In the case of infertile eggs
a very noticeable and quite regular increase takes place with time, while in
the. case of the fertile eggs the increase is very slight. Considering the content
of loosely bound nitrogen as a criterion of protein decomposition,: this is not
surprising, since in the first case heat would be expected to increase catabolic
processes, making for simpler nitrogen compounds, while in the second case it
introduces metabolic or upbuilding processes,

The product obtained from eggs containing small blood rings was
normal in appearance, taste, and odor; that obtained from eggs with
large blood rings had*a much lighter appearance; it was normal
with respect to odor but had a fiat, insipid, and uninviting flavor.
Tt is evident, therefore, that changes had occurred which were re-
corded by the senses and not by the examinations just described.
Pennington and Robertson found that catalase increased in fertile
egos during incubation, but did not increase in nonfertile eggs held
under the same conditions. It may be that the studies now under
way on the sugar content of eggs will also throw some light on the
changes occurring in fertile eggs during the process of incubation.

EGGS WITH TURBIDITY IN THICK WHITE.

It is observed that when eggs which have been in storage for some
time are broken, many of them have a turbidity which is localized in
the thick portion of the albumen, but this cloudiness disappears
when the eggs are warm. That this is a physical change brought
about by low temperatures, and not by bacterial action, is indicated by
the results given in Table 21 of the laboratory examination of six
samples of eggs with cloudiness in the thick white.

1U. 8. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Chemistry Cir, 104.

52 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 21.—LHggs with turbidity in thick white.

INDIVIDUAL EGGS.

Total number of
bacteria per | Number) qojatin
gram on plain | ofgas- | ji quety-

: Date of agar incubated |producing] ~. :
ne le} Source.| collec- sel rege bacteria ere aus a Description.
yor tion. per gram | © on emp e:
Se IOS Lee
20°C. | 37°C. | bile.
1912. Pounds.
4571 D3 | June 18 150 650 (0) Wereeeet gs Fi eye ie oe Leaking sheil; normal
: yolk; no odor.
4575 D3 | June 19 43,500 36, 500 100 2; O08 | Seeee eee Do.
4587 D3 | June 22 150 100 O! EEC Ree es e Opened aseptically.
SMALL SAMPLES.
4598 E4]| June 24] 120,000 32, 000 10 } 100,000 4 Cracked eggs; normal
- yolk; good odor.
4611 E 4] June 25 16, 000 500 Ofc ec eens 1.5 | Cracked eggs and sec-
onds; good odor.
4624 E 4] June 27! 290,000 14,000 10 10, 000 1 Dirty eggs; good odor.

EGGS HAVING WHITE PARTIALLY COAGULATED BY HEAT.

Breaking-stock eggs are occasionally found with contents which
present the appearance of soft-boiled eggs. They probably had been
dipped in hot water to prevent their use for hatching when they
had been purchased, ostensibly for food purposes. The heat of sum-
mer is also, under some circumstances, sufficiently great to cause the
albumen of eggs to partially coagulate, thus giving it a clouded ap-
pearance. For instance, an egg laid on a haystack exposed to the
direct rays of the sun becomes partially cooked and has the ap-
pearance of an egg which has been, in boiling water about a minute.
A bacterial examination of two such eggs showed them to be prac-
tically free from organisms.

EGGS HAVING ENTIRE WHITE TURBID.

Bacterial growth in an egg may cause cloudiness in the albumen
analogous to that caused by the growth of bacteria in laboratory
media. The eggs mayor may not have an odor. Eggs with a charac-
teristic sour odor (see p. 61) have, almost invariably, a turbid al-
bumen. An examination of four eggs with a clouded white showed
(Table 22) that their bacterial content varied between 15,000 and
150,000,000 per gram. The two eggs with the high counts had an
abnormal odor, which fact was indicative of the presence of large
numbers of bacteria.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 53

TABLE 22,—Hggs having entire white turbid.

[+ denotes presence.]

Total number of bac- | Number
teria per gram on of gas- F
: Date of | plain agar incubated Modine Hoe
pauvle Source.| collec- a— bacteria pelea has Description.
0. A organisms
tion. per gram Or ean
in lactose per g :
20° C. 37— C. bile.
1911.
533 F | Aug. 41] 5,600,000 | 3,400,000 100, 000 + | Milky white; normal
yolk; no odor.
1912.
4260 Di1| May 7 | 13,000,000 | 8,300,000 100 0 in 10,060 ee odor; normai
yolk.
4331 E2| May 16 |150, 000,000 |120, 000, 000 10,000 | + in 100,000 | Unpleasant odor; cloudy
rim of white around
5 yolk. :
4766 E5| July 17 15, 000 4, 800 100) ERE AY oe A very cloudy white
odor and taste good.

WHITE OR LIGHT ROTS.

White or light rots are the advanced forms of partly decomposed
eggs, of which the following are typical: Eggs with yolk partially
mixed with white, eggs containing old broken-down blood rings, and
eggs with a broken yolk which was previously adherent to the shell.
Before the candle these eggs are light in appearance, hence their
mame, and are often passed as good eggs by candlers who do not
take the time to determine the condition of yolks. Out of the shell
white rots appear as an unappetizing homogeneous mixture of yolk
and albumen (see Pl. VII).

During the spring of 1912 six samples, composed of from four te
eight white rots, were taken. The condition of these eggs had not
been detected by candling, and they therefore found their way to the
breaking room. Instead of being consigned to the rotten-egg bucket
they were poured from the cups of the breakers into sample bottles.
The laboratory examination showed that the majority of the samples
were heavily infected with bacteria, among which were many B. coli.
The results, which are given in Table 23, are in accordance with those
obtained in the study of white rots opened under aseptic conditions.
The percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen found in five of the six speci-
mens was greater than that found in any of the previous samples dis-
cussed. The samples of summer firsts, seconds, checks, and eggs with
yolk partially mixed with albumen contained from 0.0014 to 0.0026
per cent of loosely bound nitrogen on the wet basis, whereas the speci-
mens of white rots gave a variation of from 0.0019 to 0.0061 per cent
in the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in five of the six samples
examined.

54 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 25.—EHggs having the white entirely mixed with the yolk.

Total number of bac- | Number Percentage of
re per oon es of gas- ammoniacal Per
plaim agar incubated | producing| Gelatin nitrogen, Size
Sample} ource nae at at— bacteria | liquefying |Folin method. eee of
No. hon jee | pe rena Aare oe ois. | SAID-.
: s ois-
in per gram. ture, | Ple-
20°C 37°C lactose Wet Dry z
bile. basis. | basis
1912 Eggs
4261 D1|May 7 1, 100, 000 550, 000 10 | 0 in 10,000 |0.0025 |0.0096 | 73.27 6
4291 Di1j|May 8 14, 000 10, 000 1,000 | 0 in 10,000 | .0019 | .0072 | 73.63 5
4303 E2 | May 131] 82,000,000 | 60,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 37,000,000 | .0034 | .0111 | 69.34 4
4318 E2] May 14 | 110,000,000 | 9,100,000 1,000 } 22,000,000 } .0033 | .0109 } 69.68 6
4409 D2] May 27] 16,000,000} 5,000,000 10 | 0 in 10,000 | .0027 | .0103 | 73.77 8
4459 E3| June 11] 56,000,000 | 24,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 15,000,000 | .0061 | .0211 | 71.17 |......

On account of the large number of bacteria which white rots con-
tain it 1s very important that breaking stock be candled with sufii-
cient care to prevent these eggs from gaining access to the breaking
room.

; EGGS HAVING THE YOLK ADHERENT TO THE SHELL.

Two different forms of summer eggs with adherent yolks, termed
commercially “heavy spots,” were found. One is caused by the
action of high atmospheric temperatures and the other by exposure
to damp surroundings. In-some cases both: factors contribute to the
same result. Both types occur most frequently during the summer
and autumn months.

The heavy spots caused by heat are found in the following stages:
First, in which the yolk is so lightly stuck to the shell membrane
that a slight jar sets it free (see Pl. VII) ; the second, in which the
yolk is adherent and broken; and the third, in which a very small
portion of yolk adheres to the shell, the rest being partially or entirely
mixed with albumen. In the case of an incubated fertile egg, it is
observed that the adherent surface of the yolk is the hatch spot
or blood ring. The first and second types are usually without odor;
the third may, or may not, have an odor, and is classed among the
white rots on account of the mixing of yolk and albumen.

The eggs with an adherent yolk, produced by moisture, present a
characteristic appearance before the candle. The portion of the
yolk coming in contact with the shell is dark and often black in
appearance. The yolk is much more opaque than normal. When
the contents of these eggs are emptied from the shell, a large portion
of the yolks cling to the shell. They have commonly a sour or
putrefactive odor. This type of egg, if held for a sufficient length
of time, may develop mold spots on the yolk.

Three samples with yolk very slightly stuck to the shell were
selected by candling. When opened many of the yolks dropped out
whole and left no mark on the shell at the place of contact (see

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 55

Pl. IV). During the breaking care was exercised to eliminate all
eggs showing signs of mixing of white and yolk. For example, from
Sample 4842 one egg was discarded ; from 4891 twenty-two eggs, and
from 4919 a larger number. The ane bat of discards gives, perhaps,
an index to the bacterial contents, for, as shown by Table 24, Sample
4842 contained 900,000 organisms per gram; Sample 4891, 8,300,000 ;
Sample 4919, 24,000,000. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in the
first sample was practically the same as that found in August checks,
dirties, and seconds; the quantity in the other two samples was
slightly higher. The odor and taste of the liquid product was good
in every case.

TABLE 24.—Small samples of eggs having the yolk adhering to the shell.

SLIGHTLY ADHERENT.

Number Percentage of
Number of bacteria | of gas- ammoniacal Per
per gram at— producing| Gelatin nitrogen,
Sample] gource pee of bacteria | liquefying |Folin method. gale Size of
No. Petron per gram | organisms ae sample.
. in per gram. t ‘|
20° C 37°C lactose Wet | Dry | ‘Ure
i ; bile. basis. | basis.
1912.
4842 F5 | July 26 900, 000 750, 000 HOO! sae eee 0.0022) 0.0077] 71.37] 6% doz.
4891 D5 | Aug. 1 8,300,000); 5,890,000 Oe ees ceete .0024| .0088) 72.72} 44 Ibs.
4919 E6] Aug. 6] 24,000,000) 2,709,000 TOO /RRE ee aoneee - 0024) .0086} 72.10) 1 Ib.
HEAVILY ADHERENT.
4422 May 28] 30,090,000) 21,000,000 0} Oin 10,000) 0. 0049) 0.0179) 72.69] 4 eggs.
4841 F 5 | July 26 | 150,000, 000] 120,000,000| 1,000,000).........-- 0031] .0108] 71.25] 5 doz.

For comparative study two samples of eggs with yolks heavily
adherent to the shell and sometimes called by the trade “cellar stucks”
were selected by candling. The portion of the yolk which clung to
the shell when its contents were emptied was not removed. The
product had an abnormal and offensive odor. Table 24 shows that
the bacterial counts, as well as the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen,
were higher than those found in the first type, where the yolks were
slightly adherent to the shell.

A sample of three eggs with adherent yolks, which had become
moldy, contained 7,200,000 bacteria per gram and 0.0022 per cent of
ammoniacal nitrogen. If this sample had included “moldy spots”
with offensive odors the laboratory results would show much more
decomposition.

Further studies will be made of spot eggs. The results cited, how-
ever, indicate that these eggs should not be used in a product pre-
pared for food purposes.

56 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BLACK ROTS.

Black rots receive their name from the black appearance which
they present before the candle. Out of the shell they are a homo-
geneous olive green liquid with an offensive odor resembling that
of hydrogen sulphid. It is often possible to pick out a black rot
from receipts by the odor and grayish tint of the shell. The results
of two samples consisting of from four to eight of these rots showed
counts of more than a billion bacteria and an amount of ammoniacal
nitrogen much greater than that found in any previous type of ege
discussed (see Table 25). Black rots, therefore, represent eggs in
the last stages of decomposition. Their only value is for fertilizer
purposes.

TABLE 25.—Small samples of black rots.

Percentage
Number of bacteria per | Number of ammon-
gram at— A of gas-pro-| Gelatin pa ae Per
Date of : ducing | liquefy- ohn 7
caeee Source.) collec- bacteria ae re method. poe Size of
ee. tion. per gram | ganisms mois-| S?™pie-
in ae per gram. 2 ture.
° ° tose bile. et | Dry
ae BN : basis.| basis.
1912. 2 :
4421 D2) May 28 | 1,100,000,000) 310,000,000) 10,000,000) 99,000,000}... ..-|.--.--- 72.31) 4 eggs.

4873 D5| July 31 | ~ 2,300. 000, 000) 2,300,000, 000) 10, 000 1000|Ee sere 0. 0229/0. OSO0} 71.40) 8 eggs.

DETERIORATED EGGS NOT DISTINGUISHABLE BY CANDLING.

The eggs previously discussed have been recognizable before the
candle or distinguishable by other characteristics, such as dirty or
cracked shells. Some eggs, however, which are distinctly undesir-
able, can not be detected by candling and must be eliminated by the
breaker. These are recognized when out of the shell by color, odor,
or general appearance. The great majority of them belong to three
groups: Eggs having a green white, often called “ grass” eggs by
the trade; eggs having a pungent, characteristic odor, commonly
known as “sour”; and eggs which are “ musty,” that is, having an
odor which is exceedingly penetrating, very characteristic, and often
suggesting that of the common jimson weed. This odor increases
when heat is applied, so that a single musty egg in 100 pounds of
good egg will spoil it for bakers’ purposes.

A number of eggs have distinctive odors when out of the shell,
though there may be no visible signs of deterioration. Sometimes
the eggs absorb these odors, such as the fruity odor which comes when
eggs and apples are held in a closed space together, or that of straw-
board from the fillers in which they are packed. Unless these ab-
sorbed cdors carry with them an objectionable taste there would seem
to be no reason for discarding the eggs. Other odors, apparently

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 57

generated by the chemical changes accompanying deterioration, are
indications that the egg is unfit for food.

The various groups of eggs not recognizable before the candle are
productive of much trouble in the frozen and dried egg industry.
They will therefore be considered separately.

EGGS HAVING GREEN WHITES.

Certain eggs show a distinctly greenish tinge in the white (see
Pl. VIII). This may be so slight that it is not noticed unless com-
pared with an egg having a normal color. The majority of these eggs
show no other signs of deterioration; others have a thin albumen, a
yolk with a ruptured membrane or even mixed to a decided extent
with the white. Eggs showing macroscopic evidences of decomposi-
tion are usually accompanied by a fetid odor. The shells of eggs hav-
ing green whites are frequently cracked, stained, or dirty; many have
the appearance of washed eggs.

It is of interest to observe that these eggs are found in greatest
numbers in the spring, when dirty and wet shells are most prevalent.
Being but seldom distinguished by the candler while in the shell,
they go to the breakers. Some plants have in the past excluded such
eggs when the breaker happened to see them, especially if they had
reached the odor stage. Other establishments used them when odor-
less and gave various reasons to account for the color, the most fre-
quent explanation being that the hen had been eating grass. This
supposition led to the term “ grass egg” as descriptive of this con-
dition, but as this phrase has been used by the trade to describe the
early spring eggs also, much confusion has resulted.

Laboratory examination disclosed the fact that such eggs contain
enormous numbers of bacteria, as is shown in Table 26.

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

“ATIVOILAIASVY GANAAO SNH

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“ATTIVIOUANNOO GUNADO-GVa@ LON HOCO-SaLIHM NAGUD HALIM S90 FO SHIANVS TIVNS AI

60 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The samples given in Part I of Table 26 were opened aseptically.
The organisms found are, therefore, referable strictly to the egg.
The other samples were obtained in packing houses and were opened
into sterile cups. It is possible that a few extraneous organisms
may, therefore, be included in these bacterial counts, but the error.
is small. There is a close agreement between maximum and mini-
mum counts in the samples obtained by the two methods. While but
31 individual commercial samples were examined, many of them rep-
resent a large number of eggs and a few approximate 5 pounds each.
Twenty-six of the 31 samples, or 83.9 per cent, show counts of over
10,000,000 per gram.

The predominating organism has been found to be Pseudomonas
syncyanea (Migula)* and the color of the egg white is due to the
ability of this form to produce a diffuse, green fluorescence in the
medium in which it grows. When pure cultures of this pseudo-
monas were injected into a fresh egg the white assumed the char-
acteristic color in a few days and later developed a fetid odor.

The pseudomonas is not, however, in pure culture when occurring
in eggs with a green white. B&. coli, as well as other organisms, are
generally found with it. The numbers of B. coli, as determined by
lactose bile fermentation, varied from 10 to 1,000,000 per gram.

The eggs which were physically in good condition and odorless,
and some of which were separated into white and yolk, are listed
in Table 26, Part III. Others, having an odor but not sufficient to
preclude use according to old methods of grading, are given in
Part IV. It will be observed that the white of the egg has a much
greater number of organisms than the yolk, though the infection
in the latter is also extensive. A further indication of a mixed in-
fection is the fact that organisms which liquefy gelatin are com-
monly present in numbers. The pseudomonas isolated does not
liquefy gelatin. It does not grow to any extent at 37° C.; yet the
counts at this temperature are frequently decidedly higher than the
sum of the number of liquefiers and the organisms developing in lac-
tose bile with gas production. Apparently, therefore, these eggs with
green-colored whites are recognized by the characteristic color pro-
duced by one species, though they are the harbingers of a number
of species as well as of great numbers of organisms.

This argument is reenforced by the amount of loosely bound
nitrogen found. When the egg is not separable into white and yolk
the amount of nitrogen is uniformly high—much higher than in
eggs commonly used for food. When the degeneration of the egg
is not sufficient to interfere with its physical integrity the amount
of loosely bound nitrogen is not materially increased. It might

1This organism was identified by Evelyn Witmer, of the staff of the Food Research
Laboratory.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 61

be inferred from these facts that even though the number of
bacteria in the egg be very high, as, for example, in Sample 4504,
where 210,000,000 per gram were found, the infection is too recent
to have produced chemical changes in the nitrogenous constitu-
ents. Because of the mixed infection it is not possible to correlate
the amount of loosely bound nitrogen with the presumably greater
or lower number of pseudomonas individuals, since the accompany-
ing organisms may exercise even greater activity in splitting protein
molecules.
SOUR EGGS.

The term “ sour eggs,” or “ sour rot,” is used by the egg breaker to
describe an egg that has when opened a peculiar pungent odor. In
the sense of a vinegar or common acid odor these eggs, in the earlier
stages at least, do not fit the name. In the later stages they may
have an odor suggesting sourness in the usual acceptance of the term.
They are characterized by causing a prickling sensation in the nose,
suggesting the bite of pepper, though not so sharp nor so well defined.
These eggs can not be distinguished by candling. Generally, how-
ever, there is some visible sign of degeneration as well as the charac-
teristic pungency. For example, sour eggs frequently have a tur-
bidity in the white, or the yolk membrane may be weak, or even
broken, so that the yolk is more or less mingled with the white. The
only means of detecting such an egg is the peculiar pungent odor.

Table 27 gives the bacterial and chemical analyses of 18 samples of
sour eggs. The samples vary in size from 2 eggs to 5 pounds. All
were obtained from the current egg supply in the several packing
houses, were broken by cracking on a sterilized knife edge, and were
emptied into a sterilized glass cup. The grading was such that the
eggs in one lot were as nearly identical as possible.

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST,

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‘aOdoO UNOS ATGUCIOGG HALIM SYDA TVOCIAIGNI ‘III

64 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

All the samples examined show a high count of bacteria. One
sample (4269) has more than a billion organisms per gram and all
the samples but three have more than 100,000,000. On the score of
numbers of bacteria these eggs rank with black rots. The table
gives first a series of eggs in which the odor is but faint and which ©
might easily be passed by the careless or too rapid grader. Part II
gives another series in which the odor was distinct and Part IIT
gives three samples in which the odor was pronounced. It will be
noted that these last three samples are individual eggs, and that a
physical deterioration in two of the three has proceeded so far that
the vitelline membrane has ruptured.

The bacterial content of the eggs with a faintly sour odor and those
with a distinctly sour odor is about the same, with the exception of
Sample 4256, in which the bacterial count agrees re the eggs in
Part III in having a decidedly sour odor.

The great number of organisms invariably present is, however,
the noteworthy feature. Aside from the numbers of organisms, the
Bacillus colon was found in every sample examined, a condition
which, up to this time, has not been observed for any other single
type of deteriorated egg. Not only are B. coli present, but the num-
ber, as determined by lactose bile fermentation, is usually at least
a million, and may be 10 million. In some ‘of the samples listed as
showing a million, more may have been present, because the dilutions
were not made beyond this point. Had they been it is quite probable
that the coli organisms would have been found to be more numerous
than the analyses indicated. One sample (41016) was separated into
whites and yolks. The count in the whites is double that in the yolks,
which may indicate an infection from the exterior, though more
work must be done with the two portions of the egg bees accepting
this suggestion as a fact.

Where organisms liquefying gelatin were sought they were found
and in comparatively large numbers. Hence, there is in these eggs
a condition very much like that noted in the eggs with a green white,
namely, a mixed infection aggregating large numbers of individual
organisms and characterized by the presence of one distinguishing
species.

The amount of loosely bound nitrogen is higher than that com-
monly observed in seconds, which, on the average, is 0.0067 per cent
on the water-free basis. The range, omitting Sample 4256, which is
exceptionally high, is from 0.0102 to 0.0194 per cent, with an average
of 0.0134 per cent, all these values being on the water-free basis.
The water content of the samples varies from 69.52 to 75.48 per cent,
indicating a decided variation in the age of the eggs as measured by
shrinkage,

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 65
MUSTY EGGS.

The eggs called musty by the bakers have a strong odor, very
penetrating and persistent, becoming’ more pronounced when heat
is applied. All such eggs are sharply watched for by egg breakers
and discarded. Fortunately they are not very plentiful, even in the
early spring and late summer, when they are most common. Hot,
dry weather seems to lessen their frequency.

Sometimes several musty eggs will be found in the same lot; very
rarely almost a whole case of eggs will be of this type. They can
not be recognized by the candler and very frequently there is no
physical sign to indicate that the egg is not good. The sense of
smell alone must be depended upon to detect them.

The few examinations made of musty eggs do not justify any con-
clusions; therefore they are not given here. It is highly desirable ©
that further and detailed studies be made of this type of egg, which
is interesting from practical and scientific viewpoints.

SUMMARY.

BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS OPENED ASEPTI-
CALLY IN THE LABORATORY.

The first section of Table 28, summarizing the total bacterial con-
tents of individual eggs opened aseptically in the laboratory, shows
that the greatest percentage of second-grade food eggs examined,
the medium stale eggs, hatch-spot eggs, heavy rollers, dirty eggs,
cracked eggs, and eggs with yolk partially mixed with albumen, con-
tained less than 1,000 bacteria per gram. The occasional high bac-
terial content of single cracked eggs, dirty eggs, ete., could, in most
instances, be predicted by the appearance of the shell or by the odor
and condition of the contents. Such eggs would ordinarily be recog-
nized and discarded by the housewife or egg breaker.

The second section discloses the rather unexpected fact that B. coli
were not present in the whole-shelled second-grade eggs and were
present in only 5.9 per cent of the cracked-shelled eggs.

Blood rings and the last five types of eggs given in the two sections
represent eggs ordinarily discarded as unfit for food purposes. The
first section shows that 26.5 per cent of the eggs with adherent yolks,
50 per cent of the eggs with dead embryos, 75.9 per cent of the moldy
eggs, 66.7 per cent of the white rots, and 100 per cent of the black rots
contained over 1,000 organisms per gram. A review of the second
section of the table shows that, with the exception of the white and
black rots, B. coli were present in but few of the eggs.

17625°—14—_5

BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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68 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BACTERIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL RESULTS OF COMPOSITE SAMPLES
OF EGG OPENED COMMERCIALLY IN THE PACKING HOUSE.

The laboratory results of composite samples of eggs opened com-
mercially in the packing house are summarized in Tables 29 and 30
and are shown graphically in figures 1 and 2. From these data the -
following conclusions are drawn:

(1) The samples of July and August firsts contained very few
organisms, and in many cases no bacteria of the B. coli group.

SUL ANO AUGUST FIRSTS!
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Fic. 1.—Percentage of samples opened commercially with bacterial counts over 1,000,000
per gram.

(2) The majority of the samples of clean-shelled seconds had a
comparatively low bacterial content, only 8.3 per cent of them con-
taining over 1,000,000 organisms per gram. The number of B. coli
varied in the different specimens from none to 100,000 per gram.

(3) The percentage of bacterial counts over 1,000,000 per gram in
samples of dirties, checks, and eggs with yolk partially mixed with
albumen was 16.6, 18.8, and 20 per cent, respectively. No greater
number of &. coli was found in these samples than in samples of
seconds.

(4) The samples of blood rings contained comparatively few
organisms. The large blood rings in most instances showed more
infection than did the small rings. Most of the specimens contained
less than 10 B. coli per gram.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 69

(5) The amount of protein decomposition as shown by the am-
moniacal nitrogen in the preceding six types of eggs was greater, as
would be expected, than that found in strictly fresh eggs, but was

no greater than that found in some grocery eggs.

FRESH E CGS.
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Wao Ae Es
CRACKED EGGS.
. 0.00/8 F

O0.006C5E aes ea
Ses oe
0,00/f &

COGS TS Ton Zl

SLY AND AUGUST FIRSTS.’
0.0012 ea
EGG, Ze,

“BLOOD FPUNGS)

0.002058

0.0023 B
q GOOG
| WAVTE FOTS,
O.OO3E § ;

LAG LOTS. tes

0.0229 B

0.0800

Although a cracked

Fic, 2.—Average amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in 14 types of eggs (closed bars, fresh

basis; open bars, dry basis).

er dirty shell may be a factor in facilitating infection and subse-
quent decomposition, the data obtained show that checks and ditties
in the producing section are as well preserved as the clean whole-

shelled seconds or the July and August firsts.

70 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(6) The eggs constituting the samples of July and August firsts,
seconds, dirties, and checks would be used without compunction by
the housewife, baker, or confectioner.

(7) The majority of the samples of white rots, eggs with yolk
lightly adherent to the shell, and all of the samples of sour eggs,
black rots, eggs with a green albumen, and eggs with yolk heavily
adherent to the shell, were infested with bacteria. 2. coli were pres-
ent in most of these samples, forming the predominating organism
in the samples of sour eggs.

(8) The eggs with the yolk lightly adherent to the shell were,
chemically, slightly lower in quality than were the second-grade food
egos, whereas the sour eggs, white rots, eggs with a green white, and
eggs with yolk heavily adherent to the shell showed much more
deterioration. Black rots had five times as much ammoniacal nitro-
gen as any of these types of eggs. With the exception, possibly, of
the eggs with yolks lightly stuck to the shell, none of the eggs in
these samples would be used by the housewife or reputable baker or
confectioner.

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST.

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BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. Vo

TABLE 30.—Variation in amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in 17 types of eggs.

Per cent of ammoniacal nitro-
Number gen, Folin method.
Kind of eggs. of
samples.
Wet basis. Dry basis.

IGS GEES. SA polis ye Sats ae ene ee aa ao eee 6 | 0.0011-0. 0015 0. 0040-0. 0054
ANTONI CUS MITSLS2 sa Ac3 cate eS dl ea roe as Re 4 -0019- .0022 -0065- . 0074
Grocery eggs J 20 SRE ABS Be ee Ae ere ee fs Bas A 10 OOLO= 0022) RE eee ia =e -l-=1
Sil) GR ss SERIES De REE ee ee aoe eee ones 3 - 0016— . 0018 -0061— . 0069
BUCOUCSHEE Merci Sse) se nee et oot sities sem qc ame ee oo ene= 17 .0015- . 0026 -0048- .0095
GCTCKE CIE R OSE esos ek 0 ee Se eee a 18 .0014— . 0024 - 0046— . 0083
Cracked eggs with moldy shells.............------------------ 7 .0013— .0025 -0043- . 0088
ID Wi ay Gee OE 8 8 8 SSS Ee ee 22 ee ea pe ee oe ee eae 14 .0013- . 0024 -0061- . 0084
Eggs with yolk partially mixed with white Coe foe a ee 5 5 -0017— . 0023 .0062— . 0078
Shane! joliororel wis AC ane Sek ee esasenae oeSaseesucEdbeobsssese 7 -0018- . 0024 . 0063— . 0077
ECMO LOO MMI ESE ences eee ae Me ee aa Uomesececicns 9 .0014— . 0022 .0052-— . 0077
Eggs with yolk slightly adherent to shell. .......-......------ 3 -0022— .0024 -0077- .0088
Eggs with yolk heavily adherent to shell. ............-.------ 2 0031- .0049 -0108- . 0179
WATE: THOS cs BG ee ae ENS pene a Efe oo 6 0019- . 0061 -0072- .0211
RT SRWMUMMONCCM WIKOS cocci os ok ona nent aco e eee ee selec 12 0016- .0071 -0056- . 0264
SOIR CLASS G8 EME ees ee ey term aN be apis Seer cys oN 12 0029- .0098 .0102- .0323
TERMEYBIE SPORES 5 cc seuees Ss 6 SS eS SVR Pi re eg Na a 1 0229 . 0800

TGS, ery chic ee ean gaa cet et Ny A SGui lea search capper cee eiaste cera

A COMPARISON OF BACTERIAL CONTENTS OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS
OPENED ASEPTICALLY WITH THOSE OF EGGS OPENED COMMER-
CIALLY.

A comparison of the results of individual eggs opened aseptically
with the results of composite samples of eggs opened under clean
commercial conditions shows some apparent discrepancies. For in-
stance, only 4, or 7.1 per cent, of the 56 individual cracked eggs
opened aseptically contained over 1,000 organisms per gram, whereas
14, or 87.5 per cent, of the 16 composite samples, representing 2,924
“ checks,” opened commercially contained more than this number per
gram.

It will be observed that the numbers of the latter are far in excess
of the former; it will be remembered, also, that eggs vary greatly
among themselves. It is possible, iyenekene that the differences
between the bacterial findings of individual eggs and composite
samples are due, in large part, to the relative difficulty in detecting
early stages of infected eggs.

It was possible, for instance, to detect by the senses: but two of
the four individual cracked eggs which were infected. It has been
shown in Tables 26 and 27 that incipient sour eggs, which are de-
tected only by the sense of smell, and eggs with albumen just begin-
ning to turn green, which are recognized only by the sense of sight,

1 To determine definitely to what extent it is possible to detect infected eggs by means
of the senses, and to what extent the bacterial content of a product consisting of large
numbers of eggs of unknown history can be minimized by grading, it is necessary to make
detailed descriptions of the characteristics of many individual eggs, to open each aseptic-
ally and to determine their bacterial content singly and in combination. To find, also, the
amount of bacterial contamination acquired during the preparation, studies must be made
of the routine methods in use in egg-packing houses to determine the part which each step
in the process of preparation plays in the final condition of the product. This subject
will be presented as the setond report of this series.

74 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

eentain millions of organisms. It is reasonable to conclude, there-
fore, that the earlier forms of such and similar eggs furnish large
numbers of bacteria to the liquid product prepared from second-
grade food eggs. It is quite probable, also, that these earlier stages
of incipient sour eggs are a contributing cause to the presence of
appreciable numbers of B. colz in liquid egg of good quality.

TECHNIQUE FOR THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF
EGGS.

METHODS USED FOR OBTAINING SAMPLES OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS
OPENED ASEPTICALLY IN THE LABORATORY.

A. Mercuric chlorid method*—The eggs were washed in running
water, treated for five minutes in a 1 to 500 or 1 to 1,000 mercuric
chlorid solution, and then rinsed with sterile water. The egg was
then placed, large end uppermost, in a suitable holder. A small open-
ing was made in the apex with sterile, fine-pointed forceps, about 2
square centimeters of the shell removed, and the membrane punc-
tured. About 2 cc of the white were then transferred with a sterile
pipette to a sterile tared weighing flask containing small pieces of
sterile glass. The opening was made larger and as much of the white
as possible removed -with the pipette. With a second sterile pipette
the vitelline membrane was ruptured, and about 2 cc of the yolk

transferred to ancther weighing flask. When it was impossible to-

examine white and yolk separately, on account of disintegration, a
sample of whole egg was taken.

B. Flaming method.2—The egg was washed in running water,
rinsed in sterile water, dried with a sterile towel, and placed, large
end uppermost, in a suitable holder. The top of the egg was steril-
ized by flaming. <A portion of the top was removed with fine-pointed
forceps and the contents of the egg dropped into a sterile salt-
mouthed 4-ounce bottle containing sterile glass.

PREPARATION OF COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF EGGS OPENED COMMER-
CIALLY IN THE PACKING HOUSE.

The details of the collection and handling of the samples are de-
scribed on page 39. When the samples arrived in the morning, they
were examined immediately. When they came late in the day, they
were put at once into a sharp freezer and held overnight. On ar-
rival at the laboratory the hard-frozen samples were placed imme-
diately in a water bath at 40° C. and allowed to remain, with frequent
shaking, until completely melted. After shaking the melted sample
vigorously for five minutes, about 3 cc were transferred with a sterile
pipette to a tared weighing flask.

1 Samples 4001 to 4159, inclusive, and 3001 to 3030, inclusive, were obtained by this
method. °
2 Samples with numbers under 1,000 were obtained by this routine,

COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CHNTRAL WEST. TS
METHOD OF PLATING AND COUNTING.

The flask containing the portion for examination was weighed.
The weight of egg material in grams multiplied by 9 gave the number
of cubic centimeters of sterile physiological salt solution required to
make a 1 to 10 dilution, the slight error due to the gravity of the egg
material being disregarded. After very thorough shaking, 1 cc of
the 1 to 10 dilution was transferred by means of a sterile pipette to
9 ee of sterile physiological salt solution, thereby obtaining a 1 to
100 dilution. Higher dilutions were made on the same plan. Two
duplicate series of plates of nutrient agar were pie pen es from. four
consecutive dilutions. One set was “narbaed at 37° C. for two days;
the other for five days at 20° C.

The history of the sample was used as a basis for deciding in each
ease which dilutions should be plated. Whenever possible plates.
containing from 50 to 250 colonies were selected for counting. ‘The.
numerical results were expressed in accordance with the rules pre-
scribed by American Public Health Association, 1912. A Stewart’s
counting chamber and a hand lens, magnifying four or five diameters,
were used to facilitate the counting. To determine the sterility of the
media, the salt solution, and glassware, blank plates were poured at
each plating. Plates of agar were also exposed to the air for three
minutes during each plating to show the relative freedom from air
contamination.

DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF ORGANISMS CAPABLE OF LIQUEFYING GELATIN..

In a number of the experiments to be reported an attempt was
made to determine the gelatin liquefying organisms quantitatively.
For this purpose gelatin plates were prepared at the same time and
in the same manner as the agar plates. These were incubated at
20° C. and the liquefying colonies counted at the most appropriate
time. The counts were so discordant that many of the results were
discarded. The difficulty appeared to be due principally to the
fact that in most cases there was present a mixture of organisms,
some of which were capable of liquefying the entire plate in 48
hours while others required several days, or even weeks, to show the
first signs of liquefaction. The action of the slower ones was, there-
fore, masked by that of the more rapid.

After a large number of gelatin plates had been made and it was
found that irregular counts were very frequent, it was decided to
abandon the method except in special instances where special in-
formation was required.

DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF ORGANISMS PRODUCING GAS FROM LACTOSE:
IN THE PRESENCE OF BILE SALT.

At the time of plating 1 cc of each dilution was transferred to a
Durham fermentation tube containing lactose bile salt medium.

76 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

These tubes were incubated for two days at 37° C., at the end of
which time each dilution showing gas was recorded as positive.
The fermentation tests were in every case started with the 1 to 10
dilution and carried at least one dilution higher than the plating.
The denomination of the highest dilution showing positive results
was reported as the number of gas-producing organisms in the
sample. This is the generally accepted presumptive test for B. coli

group.

FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE GAS-PRODUCING ORGANISMS.

As far as time permitted, one of the higher dilutions from each
sample showing gas production was plated qualitatively either on
litmus lactose agar or Endo’s medium. From these plates typical
coli-like colonies were selected and examined to ascertain whether
they conformed to the definition of B. coli communis as given in
the 1905 Report of the American Public Health Association. For
this purpose they were subjected to the following tests, morphology,
Gram stain, motility, liquefaction of gelatin, coagulation of milk,
production of indol from peptone solution, reduction of nitrates to
nitrites, fermentation of lactose, and fermentation of dextrose.
They were then tested for gas production in dulcite, sucrose, man-
nite, and raffinose, in order to classify them according to the scheme
outlined in the 1912 Standard Methods of Water Analysis, American
Public Health Association.

CULTURE MEDIA USED.

The nutrient agar, gelatin, and broth were made from fresh beef
practically in accordance with the directions given in Standard
Methods of Water Analysis, American Public Health Association,
except that they were made in larger quantities than there specified
and were cleared with egg white and filtered through paper.

The lactose bile salt medium was prepared by dissolving 10 grams
of peptone, 5 grams of bile salt (commercial sodium taurocholate),
and 5 grams of sodium chlorid in 1 liter of distilled water, filtering
and adding 10 grams of lactose.

The sugar broths were prepared by adding 1 per cent of the sugar
to neutral sugar-free nutrient broth, made from fresh beef.

The milk was fresh, separator skimmed. It was used both with
and without litmus.

ANALYTICAL METHODS USED IN THE “EGG INVESTIGATION” DURING
THE SUMMER OF 1912, AT OMAHA, NEBR.

Ammoniacal nitrogen—Briefly stated, the method consisted in
making the egg solution slightly alkaline with sodium carbonate,
driving out the ammoniacal nitrogen with a current of air, absorb-

r COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. Tl

ing the ammonia in standard sulphuric acid, and titrating the excess
of the latter with twentieth-normal ammonia solution, using congo
red as indicator. For liquid egg, 50 grams were weighed into a
liter suction flask, 200 cc of water were added, and the flask vio-
lently shaken until a uniform suspension was secured. There was
then added in turn 100 cc of 95 per cent alcohol, to prevent foaming,
2 grams of sodium carbonate, to render the solution alkaline, and 1
eram of sodium fluorid as a preservative, the mixture being shaken
after the addition of each reagent. The flask was then put in place
and aspirated for five hours, using a strong air current. The latter
was first drawn through a 25 per cent solution of sulphuric acid to
remove ammonia, and was then delivered to the aspirating flask
through a tube with several small perforations, thus affecting an ex-
cellent distribution of the air current through the egg mixture. It —
was then passed through a trap which caught any particles carried
over mechanically or through foaming, through the absorption flask,
which contained 10 ce of twentieth-normal sulphuric acid diluted
with 50 cc of water, and finally through a second trap, which re-

tained any acid carried over mechanically. Three hundred cubic
centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks were used for the absorption apparatus
and traps. From time to time the flask containing the egg mixture
was shaken to insure complete removal of the ammonia. After the
air current had passed for five hours the apparatus was disconnected,
the second trap and connecting tubes were rinsed off into the ab-
sorption flask, and the excess of acid titrated with twentieth-normal
ammonia solution, using congo red as an indicator. For desiccated
egos 20 grams were weighed into a liter suction flask, 230 cc of
water added, and this same process followed.

Moisture —About 3 grams of egg were weighed into a small lead

- dish (bottle cap), dried in a water-jacketed oven at 100° C. for one
hour, placed in a vacuum oven and dried in vacuo at 70° C. for 10
hours, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. The sample was then
reheated in vacuo until constant or increased weight was noted,
weighing at intervals of two hours. The lowest weight obtained was
taken as the nearest approximation to the correct figure.

Ether extract-—The lead dish and dried sample from the moisture
determination were cut into small pieces, placed in a Johnson ex-
traction apparatus, extracted for 16 hours with anhydrous ether, the
ether expelled on the steam bath and the fat dried at 100° C., cooled
in a desiccator, and weighed.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914

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BULLE IN (OF, THE

1) USDEPARIMENT OPAGRCULTURE &

No. 52

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
January 24, 1914.

THE ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA.

By S. M. McMurray,
Assistant Pathologist, Fruit-Disease Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The growing of mangos in Florida is beginning to assume some
commercial importance. With the increase in size and value of the
crops, the mango blight or anthracnose has forced itself upon the
attention of the growers and a demand has arisen for remedial or
preventive measures. The writer was assigned to the investigation
of this disease and spent the seasons of 1912 and 1913 in Dade and
Palm Beach Counties, Fla., studying the trouble in the field and
laboratory.

A careful canvass of the situation was made during the last week
of January and the first week of February, 1912, and all the trees and
groves that could be located between Key Largo, 40 miles south of
Miami, and Palm Beach, 70 miles north, were examined. It was
found that practically all of the seedling trees had bloomed heavily
during the first two weeks in January, but that none had set fruit.
Most of the trees carried the dried peduncles of the January bloom
at this time, and many of them remained attached to the trees until
the middle of March, at which time a second crop of bloom appeared.
Several hundred of these peduncles were collected and many of
them while still on the trees showed spores of a fungus in abundance.
A number of those that did not show spores were placed in a moist
chamber and they all developed spores of the same type in from
24 to 48 hours. At the same time a number of leaves showing small,
irregular, grayish spots were collected and placed in moist. chambers.
In from three to four days these leaves produced similar spores in the
diseased areas. Later in the season young shoots that showed black
spots were collected and placed in moist chambers. These also
produced the same type of spores from the diseased spots. In the
latter part of June, as the fruits were ripening, a number were col-
lected, the skins of which were blotched and disfigured, and these
likewise produced the same type of spores. (Pl. I.) Portions of

17148°—14 1

— a

2 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this material were examined by Mrs. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who pronounced the fungus to be
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.

Hawaiian-grown mangos which were affected by this fungus were
received by Mrs. Patterson in 1904, and from time to time during the
past four years Miss Clara Hasse, of the Office of Fruit-Disease Inves-
tigations, has received mango flower clusters, leaves, and fruits from
Porto Rico and Florida which were affected by this fungus.

The disease has been reported by several writers. Fawcett! says
that the trouble was recognized in Florida by officers of the State
experiment station in 1893. It has been reported from Porto Rico
by Collins,? Hawaii by Higgins,? Cuba by Cardin,‘ and Trinidad by
Rorer.> Of the aforementioned writers, Higgins and Cardin state
that the disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux
mixture, but their recommendations are not definite and do not
give the times and number of treatments necessary, or the experi-
mental data on which the conclusions are based.

Wester ° reports that he has had successful results in preventing
the blighting of the blossoms by spraying. His work was done in
Florida and will be discussed in another part of this paper.

It is the purpose of this paper to report in detail such data as have
been gathered during the past two years in regard to the behavior of
the disease and its control, together with an analysis and discussion
of the main limiting factor of the mango in Florida.

SOURCE OF INFECTION.

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is probably one of the most widely
distributed pathogenic fungi in the Tropics. In Florida it causes the
well-known wither-tip of citrus fruits and is pathogenic on at least
several other fruits. . ;

Bessey 7 has the following to say in regard to its distribution in
Florida: .

We see, therefore, that it is not a fungus confined to one or two hosts in a limited
area, with which we have to contend, but one of wide distribution and capable of
attacking a great many kinds of plants. I have found apparently the same fungus
on over 50 plants at Miami, some of them common weeds. This explains why, when
the weather conditions or other circumstances are favorable, the disease springs up
everywhere without any very apparent center of infection.

1 Fawcett, H.S. Mango. Bloom blight (Glocosporiwm mangiferae). Florida Agricultural Experiment
Station Report, 1906, p. 25. 1907.

2Collins,G.N. The mangoin Porto Rico. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bulletin 28, p. 20, 1903.

3 Higgins, J. E. The mango in Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 12, p. 22,
1906. ;

4Cardin, P. P. Bloom blight of mango in Cuba. The Cuba Review, v. 8, no. 5, p. 28-29, 1910.

5Rorer, J. B. Annual Report of the Mycologist, Board of Agriculture, Trinidad, p. 7, 1910.

6 Wester, P. J. Bordeaux mixture for mangos and avocados. The Florida Agriculturist, v. 34, no. 14,
p. 1-2, 1907.

7 Bessey, E. A. Report on plant diseases. Proceedings, 2ist Annual Meeting,Florida State Horticul-
tnral Society, p. 97, 1908.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 3

Beneath mango trees the disease can be found on the fallen leaves
and, as previously mentioned, the blighted peduncles frequently
remain in situ for many weeks. These produce spores when condi-
tions of moisture are suitable, and when a second bloom follows
before they have fallen the conditions for infection are ideal. Even
after they have fallen to the ground they may continue to be a source
of infection for some weeks. ‘The mango branch illustrated in Plate II,
figure 1, was photographed on March 4, 1912, and shows a persistent,
diseased peduncle of the January bloom, with the young March bloom
appearing around it.

It seems likely that the potential possibilities for infection are very
ereat at all times and that all that is needed is a favorable season as
regards moisture to produce the disease in abundance.

It is probable that the spores do not retain their viability for a
ereat length of time. Pedicels showing spores of the fungus were
collected the last week in- February, 1912. They were kept in an
envelope in a laboratory drawer until July 10 of that year, when
attempts were made to germinate them in drops of water on glass
slides. A number of slides were prepared on several successive days,
but no germination was obtained. Inasmuch as the fresh spores
germinate readily under such conditions, it is to be inferred that these
spores were no longer viable. Under tropical conditions, however,
fresh supphes of spores are being continually produced throughout
the year.

INFECTION EXPERIMENTS.

‘Infection experiments were planned to determine whether the
flower clusters of the mango could be artificially inoculated with this
fungus and whether the results of such inoculation would be similar
to the natural infection observed. The experiments were limited in
size and should, perhaps, be repeated on a larger scale, but taken in
connection with the other facts presented, i. e., the constant associa-
tion of this fungus and this alone, as no other was found on diseased
inflorescences, and the observations of Bessey and Rolfs given later,
they seem to be sufficient to remove any reasonable doubt as to the
cause of the disease in Florida. A seedling tree in the Subtropical
Garden at Miami was selected for this work. Fourteen buds which
had just begun to swell were covered on February 26, 1912, with
manila paper bags, which were then tied securely around the branches.
On March 5 the bags were removed from four buds, which were about
2 inches long at that time. One was sprayed with distilled water
with an atomizer, and three with distilled water containing spores of
the anthracnose fungus. ‘They were all immediately rebagged. The
work was done at 10 o’clock a. m. on a calm day, and no shoot was
exposed for more than three minutes. The spores for all the infec-
tion experiments were obtained from diseased panicles which had

a a

4 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

been naturally infected. On March 10 the three panicles sprayed
with spores showed minute dark spots. The control was clean. On
March 21 the four panicles were removed from the tree. The control
was still clean, while those sprayed with spores were conspicuously
marked on the peduncles and pedicels. Those showing disease were -
placed in a moist chamber, and in two days large quantities of
anthracnose spores had oozed out from the infected parts. This
experiment was repeated on two other occasions without variation,
and the same results were obtained.

Bessey 1 conducted inoculation experiments with this same organ-
ism and writes as follows:

Under Prof. Rolis’s direction, before he severed his connection with the Subtropical
Laboratory, inoculation experiments were begun, which have been continued, with
some interruption, under my direction since I assumed charge of the laboratory.
These have demonstrated that this fungus (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) is the
same one that causes the blossom blight, leaf spot, and fruit rot of the mango and
avocado, the tear staining of the mango, and the leaf spots and fruit rots of various
other plants.

SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN THE SPRING OF 1912.

It was hoped to determine two points by means of these spraying
experiments: (1) Is Bordeaux mixture effective in preventing infec-
tion of the flower clusters and fruits, and (2) how frequently and at
what times is it necessary to spray to get the best results?

Unfortunately for the success of the work, there are no large groves
of mangos in Florida. However, the work was done on as large a
scale as was possible, and certain results which will be emphasized
in other parts of this paper stand out quite clearly. Bordeaux mix-
ture was the only fungicide used, and it was made according to the
3-5-50 formula in 1912 and the 4-6-50 formula? in 1913. The
spraying outfit consisted of a 50-gallon barrel sprayer, half-inch hose,
and 9-foot bamboo extension rods equipped with double Vermorel
nozzles. The spraying was done under a pressure of approximately
75 pounds to the square inch. With one exception, noted later, no
spray injury was observed at any time, and this 1s significant, as just
such conditions existed as might be expected to induce it, 1. e., the
weather was moist and showery during the first three weeks in which
the spraying was conducted.

The experiments were carried on at Mr. Flanders’s place, about 2
miles north, and Mr. Roop’s place, about 3 miles west, of Miami.

THE EXPERIMENT IN THE FLANDERS GROVE.

The mangos on the Flanders place consisted of a double row of the
Mulgoba variety, each row containing 31 trees. They were divided

1 Bessey, E. A. Op. cit.
2 This shows the proportion of copper sulphate (bluestone), lime, and water used in the mixtures.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 5

into 7 blocks, the sprayed blocks alternating with the unsprayed.
Block 1 contained 26 trees and the remainder 6 each. Thus, 4 blocks
were sprayed and 3 unsprayed. The spraying schedule is shown in
Table I.

TaBLeE I.—Spraying schedule followed on the Mulgoba mangos on the Flanders place,
Miami, Fla., 1912.

Dates of spraying.
Block. | i
March. April. | May. | June.

| |
ING@h lo sadeteeeasseee Sasso ee eae ee Ee eee eee 8,11,14,19 4,2 13 3,24
INO. Bas soe 2 oe SR eee un ee ant een Seems 8, 12,19 4,29 7 24
INGs Bec cowded ate ene noe ae hepa eee eae eee eee 8, 13,19 4 6 10
INGy Poi Bek Ge Se Ee ee eee tee eee 8,14, 20 4 | 13 24

It was planned to spray block 1 every third day, block 3 every
fourth day, block 5 every fifth day, and block 7 every sixth day
beginning when the buds began to swell and continuing until the
flowers had opened. The treatment was suspended at that time,
March 19, until the fruit had set, and then resumed. Thereafter the
spraying was to be continued at intervals of three, four, five, and six
weeks, respectively, until about two weeks before the fruit was to be
picked. It will be seen by examining the dates that the spraying
prior to the setting of fruit was varied slightly in blocks 1, 3, and 5.
This was due to rainy weather.

On June 29 the fruits on all the trees were examined and careful
notes made of their condition. Those which showed no blemishes
were classed as clean, those but slightly marked as slightly diseased,
and the remainder as badly diseased. The fruit counts are shown in

Table II.

TaBLe I1.—Frwit counts of the Mulgoba mangos in the spraying experiment on the Flan-
ders place, Miami, Fla., 1912.

Condition of the fruit.
Block. E
lightly Badly
Clean: diseased. | diseased.
IS Gin, Th (STS AS Dp RRS aS Re at ee le eee re es > ae 10 1 0
INOS (UITIS TAY CON) hers sya = Seine a es a 5 SS ee 0 0 1
ING. & (Goma Ce) ce BS aes Meee eee ee ee i ea Se eee 71 25 9
INO NAICS DTAVCO) ee te a atl ek ah Bc ne Dee 0 2 11
ING SN (SDreby Cerne ae eee ance oem eed se oe eRe 7 1 0
INOMOK(UMSDIAy CO) peri ee 8S eee. 2. bat tak Bee aa 0 0 0
INKS ERY CCD ote sera one sneer iene Renee eee Las Saya ene os 12 0 0

The trees in this experiment bloomed lightly and irregularly, and the
total number of fruits harvested from each sprayed block is not suffi-
cient to give any definite conclusions in regard to the relative merits
of the various spraying schedules; but the fact that considerably more
fruit was. carried through to maturity on the sprayed than on the
unsprayed trees indicates that the protecting of the panicles from

6 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fungous infection was decidedly beneficial. This must not be taken as
showing that spraying made the fruit set better, for such was not the
case. The fruit set equally well on the unsprayed trees, but the dis-
eased panicles were not able to carry it to maturity.

Of the 136 sprayed fruits harvested, 74 per cent were bright and |
clean, 20 per cent slightly diseased, and 6 per cent badly diseased.
Only 14 fruits were harvested from the unsprayed trees. Of these,
2, or 14 per cent, were slightly marked by the fungus and 12, or 86
per cent, badly diseased.

THE EXPERIMENT ON THE ROOP FARM.

Two seedling trees were used in the experiment on the Roop farm,
both of which bloomed heavily. One was sprayed according to the
plan used in block 1 of the Flanders experiment. They had both
bloomed in January, and at the time of the beginning of the second
bloom a number of diseased peduncles were still on the trees. (PI.
III, figs. 1 and2.) No fruit was set from this January bloom. The
dates of spraying are given in Table III.

TaB_eE III.—Spraying schedule followed on the seedling mango on the Roop place, Miami,

Fila., 1912.
ks March. April. May. June.
Dates of spraying asses ee eee ee Lo | 29} 2,5,8,11, 14 1,22 13 | 3

The last spraying, which should have been given on June 24, was
omitted because the few fruits which remained on the tree were so
badly diseased that it was not thought worth while to spray again.
The fruit counts were made on June 29 and were as follows:

TaBLE 1V.—Fruit counts of the seedling mangos in the spraying experiment on the Roop
place, Miami, Fla., 1912.

Condition of the fruit.

Tree.
Slightly Badly ~

Clean. diseased. | diseased.

13 37
0 1

Wo. 1 (sprayed) 2-528: cree = ee beeeo leat ia eee: cee ee eee
No: 2'(umsprayed)'. sae ee ee ee kc c a ancien see one e eee

Only one fruit was set on the unsprayed and only 54 on the
sprayed tree. The panicles on the sprayed tree showed no sign of
disease up to the time of blooming. Most of the blossoms became
infected, however, as they opened. The pedicels showed disease
as far back as the flowers extended about a week after blooming.
These were covered with Bordeaux mixture practically all of the
time, but the disease spots developed beneath the covering of the

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 7

fungicide.’ They did not develop on the peduncles, however, which
points very strongly to infection having taken place through the
blossoms. ‘The panicles on the unsprayed tree began to show diseased
spots on the pedicels and peduncles before their growth in length was
more than half complete, and practically all of the blossoms blighted,
the one fruit which set being in the extreme top of the tree. Plate
IV, figures 1 and 2, shows the typical condition of a blighted panicle
as compared with one in full bloom which has not yet developed any
sign of the disease.

SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN THE WINTER AND SPRING OF 1913.

As during the preceding season, the mangos bloomed quite gener-
ally during the winter. The buds began to swell about December 18.
Most of the bloom was shed by January 10 and not 1 per cent of this
bloom set fruit.

The buds on two large seedling trees on the Roop place were begin-
ning to push out on December 24, and one of these was selected to be
sprayed every other day to test the efficacy of spraying to control the
blossom-blight form of the disease. It was considered that this
would be a thorough test, as the blighting of the blossoms is the
normal thing with the winter bloom. Mr. Roop states that these
trees have bloomed regularly in the winter for the past six years, but
have never set fruit from this bloom. Spraying was begun on.Decem-
ber 24 and continued every third day until January 16. At this time
the fruit had set, and the spraying was continued every fourth day
until February 3. At this time the young fruits had reached a diam-
eter of one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch, and the next two spray-
ings were applied at 7-day intervals. Two more were applied at
approximately 10-day intervals and the last on March 22 after a
lapse of 14 days, when the fruit was about half grown. The dates on
which spray was applied follow: December 24, 26, 28, 30; January 1,
By 6,18, 10,13, 16, 20, 24, 28; February 3, 10,17; 26; March 8, 22.

While the tree bloomed profusely, only a fair crop was set. By
this is meant that the tree could have carried twice as much fruit
without being unduly burdened. ~ The blossoms on fully half of the
panicles blighted, and all of those on the unsprayed tree blighted.

This experiment was carried a step farther in March by spraying
a portion of a Totafari tree in the Subtropical Garden at Miami every
day from March 17 to April 1; that is, while the bloom was pushing
out and developing. This was evidently too much spraying, for,
while no disease developed, no fruit was set and the young foliage
was scorched.

It should also be noted that the fruit on the seedling tree on the
Roop place received no spray after it was.half grown, but it was
clean and free from disease when harvested the middle of May,
almost two months after the last spraying.

8 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

An experiment was conducted on the spring bloom about 3 miles
northwest of Miami, on a place managed by Mr. C. O. Hickok. It
included a block of 25 seedling trees which bloomed profusely between
March 8 and 28. Spraying was begun when the panicles on most of
them were about half grown, March 14. The flowers on six trees
were beginning to open when the first spray was applied. No-trace
of disease was apparent on the inflorescence at that time. Seven
trees were left without spray, as controls. The spraying dates were
as follows: March 14, 20, 25; April 2.

Sprayed and unsprayed trees alike blighted. An occasional fruit
was set, but the total number was negligible and the unsprayed trees
had quite as much proportionately as the sprayed.

DISCUSSION OF THE SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS.

Mangos come into bloom very irregularly. On March 8, 1912, on
the Flanders place most of the buds were just beginning to swell,
but a number had reached a length of 4 or 5 inches. This habit of
irregular blooming makes it difficult to select a proper time to begin
spraying. Spraying before the buds begin to grow is of no value so
far as protecting the inflorescence, and later the young fruit, is con-
cerned. These must be kept covered with the fungicide while grow-
ing if fungus invasion is to be prevented. The difficulty of so pro-
tecting the inflorescence is at once apparent. Elongations of the pan-
icles continue for a period ranging from 10 to 15 days. Those which
were sprayed every third day were practically all disease free when
the flowers began to open. This, however, required four sprayings
in one case and six in the other. Those sprayed every fourth day
showed but little more disease than those sprayed every third day,
but those on which the spray was applied at 5 and 6 day intervals
had traces of disease, showing that they were less perfectly protected.

The spraying of the inflorescence at least three times, beginning
when the buds are just swelling and repeating every fourth day until
the flowers open, will help to prevent the dropping of fruit caused
by the disease on the peduncles and pedicels.

The blighting of the blossoms is by far the most serious form of
this disease, as it does not lend itself to control by spraying. The
inflorescence may be kept in a clean condition up to the time of bloom-
ing; but, when this takes place, immediately there are hundreds of
points which are not covered by the fungicide and are open to infec-
tion. , Observation has shown that infection takes place in this man-
ner. A Totafari tree in the Subtropical Garden bloomed heavily in
March, 1912. It was sprayed three times with Bordeaux mixture
between the times when the buds began to swell and the flowers opened.
The peduncles and pedicels showed no trace of disease when the
flowers began to open. On March 26 the tree was in full bloom and
there was every indication that a good crop of fruit would be set.

——_- 322:

ene

Bul. 52, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

A SUNDERSHA MANGO TYPICALLY MARKED BY THE ANTHRACNOSE FUNGUS.
FLA., JUNE, 1912. PHOTOGRAPHED By J. M. SHULL.

(Natural size.)

PLATE I.

MIAMI,

|
|

Bul. 52, U.S Dept. of Agricuiture.

PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—THE END OF A MANGO BRANCH SHOWING A PERSISTENT, DISEASED PEDUNCLE
OF THE JANUARY BLOOM, WITH A SECOND BLOOM APPEARING AROUND IT. MARCH,

Qe,

Fic. 2.—A PEDICEL FROM A MANGO
PANICLE WHICH BLIGHTED BE-
FORE THE FLOWERS OPENED.
MARCH, 1912.

(Natural size.)

(Considerably reduced.)

Fic. 3.—YOUNG MULGOBA MANGO FRUITS WHICH

SET ON DISEASED PEDICELS.

(Natural size. )

APRIL, 1912.

Bul. 52, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fig. 1.—A SECTION OF THE TREE SHOWN IN FIGURE 2 OF THIS PLATE, SHOWING
THE PERSISTENT, DISEASED PEDUNCLES OF THE JANUARY BLOOM, WITH THE
MARCH BLOOM APPEARING AROUND THEM. MARCH 8,1912. Fic. 2.—A LARGER
VIEW OF THE SAME TREE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1, SHOWING THE BLIGHTED CON-
DITION OF THE SECOND BLOOM 18 Days LATER. MARCH 26, 1912.

Bul. 52, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—A PORTION OF A SPRAYED MANGO PANICLE WHICH DOES NOT YET SHOW
ANY SIGN OF DISEASE. MARCH, 1912. Fic. 2.—AN UNSPRAYED PANICLE ON WHICH
THE FLOWERS HAVE BLIGHTED AND FALLEN OFF. MARCH, 1912.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 9

On March 28 all the flowers were dead and dry, and most of them
were still adhering to the pedicels. On April 5 the pedicels showed
diseased spots as far as the flowers extended. No infection developed
on the peduncles. Both the peduncles and pedicels were covered
with Bordeaux mixture at this time. The spots on the pedicels
developed beneath the mixture, indicating that infection had taken
place through the blossoms. A number of these pedicels were placed
in a moist chamber, and they all produced spores of the anthracnose
fungus in abundance. These observations coincide entirely with those
made on the sprayed seedling tree in the Roop experiment in the
spring of 1912.

Very little infection occurred in 1913 before the blossoms opened,
and this was undoubtedly due to the fact that the weather was
quite dry during seven of the first eight days that the bloom was
putting out.

Resistant varieties seem to be the only solution of the blossom-
blight problem in localities that are subject to rainy weather at
blooming time. The Mulgoba mango seems to possess this resistant
quality in some degree. A single Mulgoba tree on the Roop farm
bloomed at the same time as the seedling trees used in the experiment
in the spring of 1912 and received the same spray treatment on the
same dates, from the time the buds began to swell until the fruit was
harvested. This tree was located most favorably for infection, in
the midst of seedling trees which bloomed at the same time, but it
set a good crop of fruit and carried it through to maturity. No fruit
was set on the seedling trees, with the exception of the one that was
sprayed. .

On the Boggs farm, south of Miami, was found a collection of
Mulgoba and seedling mangos intermixed in the planting. Most of
these trees bloomed in March, 1912, and none of them were sprayed.
The seedlings set no fruit, while the Mulgoba trees set a fair crop.
The disease developed, however, quite seriously on the young fruits
a week or ten days after they were formed. The peduncles and
pedicels developed the disease also, so that none of the fruit was
carried to maturity. Plate IJ, figure 3, shows the diseased condition
of the pedicels after the fruit had set. Plate II, figure 2, shows
a pedicel which blighted without setting fruit.

On the Flanders place a similar condition was observed. The
flowers on the unsprayed blocks seemed to set fruit quite as well as
those on the sprayed blocks, but the unsprayed fruit developed disease
a week or ten days after it was formed, and, as the peduncles and
pedicels were likewise diseased, practically none of it matured. There
is some evidence to show that the Sundersha variety possesses the
quality of resistance.

Briefly, then, it seems that the mflorescence can be kept in a
disease-free condition by spraying often enough, and that after the

10 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fruit is set it can be brought through to ripening free from fungous
infection by spraying at certain intervals, but that spraying is of
little or no value in controlling the blossom-blight form of the disease
and that profitable sets of tors can be eeeeead only during seasons
which are dry at blooming time, unless varieties which are resistant
to the disease are eo aoara a cultivated. Spraying every day
prevented a set of fruit and spraying every other day did not save
sufficient fruit to justify the expense involved.

There are not sufficient data to make definite and conclusive
recommendations as to the frequency with which it will be necessary
to spray to get the best results, but it seems probable that the panicles
should be sprayed at least every fourth day between the times the buds
begin to swell and the flowers begin to open and that after the fruit
is set it should be kept covered with Bordeaux mixture during the
first 8 to 10 weeks of its development. The fruits ‘are most sus-
ceptible to infection just as they are setting. Consequently, it ap-
pears that it would be best to make three applications of Bordeaux
mixture at weekly intervals, applying the first when about one-half
to two-thirds of the blossoms have opened, and following these by |
a fourth application after a lapse of two weeks and a fifth three weeks
later, making five sprayings for the fruit aa two, or in some cases
Aipae for aye panicles.

INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHER ON POLLINATION.

It has been tentatively suggested by Fawcett? and by Collins that
the blighting of the blossoms, which is so uniformly observed through-
out the Tropics whenever the mango is subject to moist, showery
weather at blooming time, may be due to lack of pollination.

It is probable that such conditions interfere with pollination to
some extent, but the evidence at hand points strongly to the fact
that in Florida, at any rate, the anthracnose fungus 1s chiefly respon-
sible tor this phenomenon. Repeated attempts have been made to
germinate the pollen, but without success. The fact that the mango
fruits heavily in dry localities indicates that its shy bearing in Florida
is due to external conditions rather than to any inherent defect in the
plant.

An exact count was made of the number and types of flowers borne
on 10 panicles of a Mulgoba, 10 of a Totafari, and 5 of a seedling
mango tree. They were made by going over the flower clusters
every day and picking off with a pair of forceps the flowers that had
opened, the kind and number being recorded. The mango bears
two types of flowers, staminate and eet and only one stamen is
found in each flower.

The 10 Mulgoba panicles bore a total of 7,038 flowers, of which
4,119 were staminate and 2,919 perfect. The 10 Totafari panicles

1 Op. cit.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 1th

bore 9,218 flowers, of which 8,407 were staminate and 811 perfect,
and the five seedling panicles bore 2,429 flowers, of which 1,022 were
staminate and 1,407 perfect.

The flowers are opening continuously throughout the day and
night, and after opening retain their fresh appearance for about two
days. The staminate flowers wither and drop off the third or fourth
day, while the ovaries of the perfect flowers generally begin to take
on a dark-green color on the third day,

A peculiar condition is observed when panicles bearing freshly
opened flowers are removed from the tree. Within 15 to 30 minutes
the pistil and stamen of each perfect flower curve toward each other
and frequently meet, and in some cases wrap themselves together.

Fic. 1.—Complete mango flowers, much enlarged: A, A freshly opened flower; B and C, flowers which
have been removed from the tree for 30 minutes, showing the flexing of the stamen and pistil.
This condition has never been observed on the tree and is not thought
to have any bearing on the fertilizing processes of the flower. Fig-
ure 1, A, shows a freshly opened flower, and figure 1, B and C, shows
the flexing of the stamen and pistil after the flower has been re-

moved from the tree.

RELATIONS OF WEATHER CONDITIONS TO THE DISEASE.

That there is a very definite relation between weather conditions
and the productiveness of the mango has been observed by various
writers.

Fawcett and Harris,! writing of the mango in Jamaica, have the
following to say on this point:

Although the mango grows freely everywhere, it is not a fruitful tree in every dis-
trict; in the southern plains and the low, dry limestone hills it produces enormous
crops year after year, and very often two crops a year, the main crop from May to
August, and the second crop later in the year. * * * In humid districts and
along the northern coast the tree is not at all fruitful, except in very dry years, and
in the wet districts like Castleton it rarely fruits.

1 Fawcett, William, and Harris, W. The mango. Bulletin, Botanical Department, Jamaica,n.s.,v.8,
pt. 11-12, p. 161-177, 1901.

12 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Collins,’ discussing the mango in Porto Rico, says: |

As to climate, it is much more exacting, and the fact that the tree may thrive well
in a given locality and yet fail to produce fruit should be kept always in mind. It
may be considered as proven that the mango will be prolific only in regions subject
to a considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto Rico the trees grow
luxuriantly, but they are not nearly so prolific nor is the fruit of such good quality
as on the dry south side, and in the very dry region about Yauco and at Cabo Rojo
the fruit seems at its best. * * * In Guatemala and Mexico the mango was found
at its best only in regions where severe dry seasons prevailed. This position is amply
supported by reports of the mango in other localities. * * * Rains at the time of
flowering seem to be especially injurious.

Higgins * has observed the same condition in Hawai and writes as
follows: ;

In connection with what has just been said, it will be recalled that the early months
of 1904 were marked by heavy rainfall and almost continuous cloudy, wet weather,
while the corresponding months in 1905 were exceptionally dry. This unquestion-
ably had much to do with the large crop of mangos produced during the season just
passed.

Unfortunately, no bloom recoids for Florida prior to 1912 are
available, but the conditions that prevailed during that season as
regards weather and the failure to set fruit are quite in accord with
the observations just presented. The seedling mangos in the region
around Miami bloomed during ‘the first two weeks of January, 1912.
By referring to the Monthly Meteorological Summary of the United
States Weather Bureau at Miami for this month, it is seen that of the
first 15 days 9 were cloudy, 3 partly cloudy, and 3 clear. Further,
out of these 15 days rain fell on 10, the precipitation ranging from
0.01 to 0.66 of an inch, the total precipitation being 1.94 inches. As
mentioned previously, practically all of the séedling trees bloomed
heavily, but none set fruit.

Most of the second crop of bloom developed during the first 20
days of March, and while some fruit was set from this bloom it was
exceedingly light as compared with the amount of bloom. The
Monthly Meteorological Summary for the first 20 days of this month
shows 10 days cloudy, 9 partly cloudy, and 1 clear. Rain fell on 9
of the 20 days, the precipitation varying from a trace to 1.44 inches,
with a total precipitation of 3.17 inches.

The situation was quite as bad during the spring of 1913. The
blooming period extended from March 7 to 26 and rain fell on 8 of
the 19 days. The black areas in figure 2 show the distribution of
the days on which rain fell during the blooming periods of 1912 and
of 1913.

It is seen from the foregoing that the suitability of any region for
the successful production of mangos is inextricably connected with

1Collins,G.N. The mangoin Porto Rico. ‘U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bulletin 28, p. 13, 1903.
2 Op. cit.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 13

the condition of the weather at blooming time. Given clear dry
weather, a good crop of fruit may be expected. Given, on the
other hand, rainy weather at blooming time and a failure is practi-
cally certain. The only way of telling with certainty that a particular
region is suitable for the profitable production of mangos is to have
a combined crop and weather record over a sufficiently long term
of years to give a fair average. The precipitation records alone are
somewhat unreliable. However, the main limiting factor in the suc-
cessful production of this fruit on the southeast coast of Florida is
the anthracnose fungus, which is induced by rainy weather, so a
study of the precipitation records for this locality, together with such
crop records as are available, is of considerable value. Figures 3
and 4 show the number of rainy days during the months of Febru-
ary and March, respectively, for the period for which a record exists,
1898 to 1913, inclusive, and figure 4 also shows a crop curve for the
past four years. The lack of fruit in 1911 was due to the fact that the
trees were defoliated the preceding fall by a West Indian hurricane

anddidnot bloom. The
SOsqs0e0ece Scat oe
sole ree pa) ass 5

curvefor the years 1910,
1912, and 1913 shows
the relation between the
precipitation at bloom-
ing time and the crop.
There are no bloom
records prior to 1912, so
to some extent this makes the data unreliable. For example, there
might be only five days of rain in a certain month, and it might fall at
such a time as to cause no damage; or, on the other hand, there might
be five consecutive days of rain at the time that the flowers were open-
ing, which would probably be sufficient to cause the loss of the crop.
It would seem, however, that such a combination of circumstances
might be expected to be a rather rare occurrence and that an opinion
as to the suitability of this region might be predicated on such pre-
cipitation records as these with a reasonable degree of certainty.

The records for Miami which are given in figures 3 and 4 cover a
period of 16 years and show the mean number of rainy days for
February to be 2.81 and for March 4.56. The number of seasons
below normal for this term of years for February is 8 and for March
11. It 1s clearly seen here that the seasons of 1912 and 1913 have
been decidedly abnormal as regards precipitation.

Wester’s ! experiments, which have been previously referred to,
were conducted at Miami during the springs of 1906 and 1907. It
will be seen by referring to figures 3 and 4 that these two seasons
were comparatively dry, and this undoubtedly accounts for the

es |] a i
Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the blooming periods, March 1-20, 1912,
and March 7-26, 1913. The dark areas show rainy days.

1 Op. cit.

14 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

success which he reports with the use of Bordeaux mixture. He
fails to present his experimental data, however, and his statements
in this and a subsequent publication ‘ in regard to this disease are so
general that they are of practically no value to the grower.

The fact that the mango frequently blooms during
the latter part of December and the first part of
January has been previously mentioned. It is the
rare exception when any fruit is set from .this
bloom. Aside from rainy weather at the time of
blooming, the extremely heavy dews, which are an
almost nightly occurrence during the winter months,
are, it would seem, largely responsible for this.
The dew point is generally reached shortly after
sundown, and by 8 o’clock p. m. plants and other
outdoor objects are usually dripping with water.
Fig. 3.—Diagram show- With such ideal conditions for infection the uni-

eee an form blighting of the winter bloom is not to be

ruary, 1898 to 1913, in- Wondered at.

Cee a ony From a consideration of the data presented, it

The mean for this appears that, while total failures may be expected

Period is 2.8) days. to occur occasionally, more often the weather con-
ditions will be such as favor good settings of fruit on the spring bloom
and that this fruit may be brought through to maturity in a clean
and disease-free condition by a
moderate number of sprayings
with Bordeaux mixture.

SUMMARY.

The production of mangos in
Florida is seriously interfered with
in certain seasons by a fungus
which attacks the flower clusters,
fruits, leaves, and young shoots.

Infection experiments by the
writer and others have shown ‘ :

i Na Fic. 4.—A, Diagram showing the number of days
that Colletotrichum gloeosporiordes at Miami, Fia., in March, 1898 to 1913, inclusive,
Penz. is the cause of the disease with 0.01 inch or more of rainfall. The mean for

5 ; 4 this period is 4.56 days. B,Crop curve. (a) The

The blossom-blight form of the _ faiture of 1911 was due to the defoliation of the
disease is by far the most serious. trees the preceding fall by a West Indian hurri-
: : i cane, the trees not blooming that season.

The amount of damage done by
this fungus depends on weather conditions, moist, showery weather
being ideal for its ravages.

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is of little or no value in prevent-
ing the blighting of the blossoms during seasons which are rainy at

1 Wester, P.J. The mango. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 18, 60 p., 9 pl., 1911.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 15

blooming time, though spraying has served to keep the panicles and
fruits free from infection.

It appears that while total failures may sometimes occur, more
often the weather conditions will be such as to favor good settings of
o hrrairt:

It is probably never so dry but that spraying will have to be
resorted to in order to keep the fruits free from disease after they
have set, and no amount of fertilization or soil medication will take
its place.

The production of good crops of mangos in Florida and throughout
tropical and subtropical zones generally is very definitely related
to the weather conditions at blooming time. Large crops can not be
expected when the weather at this time is moist and showery. This
may be due to some extent to imperfect pollination, but the trouble
is chiefly caused in Florida by the anthracnose fungus (Colletotri-
chum gloeosporioides).

rN COPIES of this publication
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-
ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy

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BULLETIN OF THE

€ 5) USDEARIENT OFAGRCULRE

No. 53

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director.
December 31, 1913.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, AND
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, 1912-13.

INTRODUCTION.

The United States Office of Public Roads is empowered by a
provision of the agricultural act to expend a portion of its appro-
priation “ for investigations of the best methods of road making and
the best kinds of road-making materials, and for furnishing expert
advice on road building and maintenance.”+ The terms of this clause
have been interpreted to include the construction of short stretches of
various kinds of roads in different communities for the purpose of
serving as object lessons to the officials having charge of the roads
and to the citizens who use them. The desire of the office has been
to demonstrate in a practical way the need for good roads and at the
same time show to the community the proper method of economical
road construction.

The work of the office is limited to furnishing the services of one
or more expert engineers to make the surveys, estimates, and speci-
fications for the road, to supervise its construction, and to give prac-
tical advice to the local authorities who must furnish all machinery,
materials, and labor. The community where the road is to be built
is first required, through the officials having jurisdiction over the
proposed road, to make application to this office on a prescribed form.

As an illustration of the growth of the office the following table
is given. It shows the area in square yards of each type of road con-
structed during the fiscal years 1905 to 1913, inclusive:

Area, in square yards, of object-lesson roads constructed during 1905-1918,

inclusive.

Material. 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 | 19132
INGE. o32éceue Bbosedes dSesl soe ce Sel Aadoce se puseoded seeccece|sadoaone GPA) a8 ab Bale An ce 2,055
(CtOKeO sun gbe seen Saueocdod GSkea soe DASsobee| BeHeeeea aad-oIe5 aeaccose 0!) sesso celboosase 3, 218
ON Genalerats COMO. sasellooceeoso||>seccosa||seecodea|sos=cocailsoc Secec|scodescscs WOU eeocssas 1, 744
ERIOLUNTIM OTIS! CONCTELE ssa ane etree ele aerate ea cae eleia = |e etsici= letete ol Oe liste oiaie nie = tale inte michal 51 ~ oltre ee 5, 500

1 Agricultural act, 1914, Public No. 430, 62d Cong., 3d sess. Approved March 4, 1913.
2 Includes experimental roads. ;

176270 Bull, 53— 13-4)

2 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Area, in square yards, of object-lesson roads constructed, etec.—Continued.

Material. 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 | 19131
Surines treatment... ------- | - | ewe) wef ele ene fa | Seeemeteee el Gece Eee 10, 831
Macadam...........-- ---| 44,944 | 51,246 | 76,376 | 72,587 | 96, 107 50, 333 | 11,330 | 14,806 | 56, 253
WONG OES oe oe 8 so) | ened Peades=-| Be ssebod) [sescocce|[]aaas soos By eneaGic - | actin
Oilasphalt gravel. — << oon ee ena he ena fee eee mene | mm =| eee 0.0 besos - {| baseeege
Oil\eravel es = Wes cps e = Heated ee =e | ooo = See tsar <ine=| pisteenienis ye C7 Re Bape
Oil-coralline > 322 [sce eaices|scnsmres| oe cise wre [> wees eed oeice= a= Haslem! |e enehe eta ene ete] neta ee 2, 804
2,607
63, 730
218, 177 |103, 876 | 128, 496
5,337
Pat ated La & 40, 646
160, 932
SS Se eee SS SS SSS

Total...........:.-.-| 79,203 | 87,951 |200, 711 |223, 208 (680, 059 1, 007, 569 |485, 102 |722,855 | 488, 331

1Includes experimental roads.

During the fiscal year 1912-13 the Office of Public Roads, under
the general direction of the chief engineer, Vernon M. Peirce, and the
immediate control of the highway engineer in charge, B. F. Heidel,
supervised the construction of object-lesson roads as follows: One
bituminous-concrete, 1 bituminous-macadam, 7 macadam, 4 gravel, 1
eravel-macadam, 1 brick-cinder, 14 sand-clay, 1 sand-gumbo, 3 shell,
and 9 earth. Three other roads begun during the past fiscal year
were not completed, and the description of the work on them will be
reserved for the next annual report. Exclusive of the assistance
afforded by the office in the form of the salaries and expenses of its
engineers, the object-lesson roads described below cost the various
communities in which they were located $94,323.68.

This bulletin includes, in addition to the object-lesson work of
the office, a brief account of the experimental work for the past
fiscal year, and reports of the bridge work and inspection of object-
lesson roads as conducted under the immediate supervision of
Charles H. Moorefield, highway engineer, and E. W. James, chief
inspector, who report to the chief engineer.

BITUMINOUS-CONCRETE ROAD.

Curvy CHASE CLuB, Mp.—A driveway through the grounds of the Chevy Chase
Club, approximately 1,395 feet long, was graded and surfaced with bituminous
concrete on a broken-stone base between May 7, 1913, and June 28, 1913.
Three days were lost on account of unfavorable weather and 12? days for
other reasons. The road is 10 feet wide for a length of 150 feet, 15 feet wide
for 945 feet, and from 20 to 23 feet wide for 300 feet, making a total area of
2,807 square yards. Of this area 2,602 square yards were surfaced with bitu-
minous concrete and 205 square yards with Portland cement concrete. The
maximum cut was 1.5 feet, the maximum fill 0.5 foot, and the maximum
grade remained 7 per cent. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is mica-
clay. The drainage structures had all been constructed before this work was
begun and were paid for separately.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 3

Four hundred and ninety tons of crushed limestone, all passing a 3-inch
mesh screen and retained on a J-inch mesh screen, were used in constructing
the broken-stone base. This material was spread upon the prepared subgrade,
so that the compacted depth was 43 inches. Sixty tons of sand were flushed
into the voids in the broken-stone base by sprinkling and rolling. The bitu-
minous conerete was prepared according to the Topeka specifications at the
plant of a Washington contractor, and hauled in tarpaulin-covered automobile
trucks a distance of approximately 6 miles to the work. The material arrived
on the ground at a temperature of approximately 380° F., and was immediately
spread upon the completed broken-stone base. It was then rolled, first with
a 3-ton tandem roller, and finally with an 8-ton tandem roller, to a compacted
thickness of 14 inches. Pieces of 2 by 4 inch lumber, laid flat at the sides of
the road, served as forms to retain the bituminous material during the process
of laying and rolling. These were removed, however, upon completion of the
rolling and replaced with a sodded earth shoulder. A seal coat of pea gravel
and a native asphalt emulsion was finally applied to the surface of the concrete
and lightly rolled with a 3-ton tandem roller. The emulsion was applied at
the rate of approximately one-tenth gallon per square yard and the S207El at
the rate of 1 cubic yard to every 200 square yards of surface.

Automobile parkways having a total area of 205 square yards were con-
structed of Portland cement concrete mixed in the proportions of 1 part of
cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of crushed limestone. Second-hand 38 by

-€ inch lumber was set on edge for forms and the concrete was laid and struck

off to a depth of 5 inches, after which the surface was floated with a wooden
float.

Seventy linear feet of concrete gutter crossings, having a width of 43 feet
and a total thickness of 6 inches, were constructed. The concrete for the gut-
ter was mixed in the same proportion as that for the parkway, except that the
top one-half inch consisted of 1:2 mortar. The total cost of the road, ex-
clusive of drainage structures, was $3,461.56, which is at the rate of $1.211 per
square yard.

The principal items of cost were as follows: Grading and preparing the sub-
grade, 2,807 square yards at $0.174 per square yard, $490.12; total cost of
stone for the base f. o. b. siding, 490 tons at $1.10 per ton, $539; loading and
hauling the stone (length of haul 1% miles), 490 tons at $0.623 per ton, $305.30;
sand filler delivered on the work, 60 tons at $1.557 per ton, $93.40; spreading
the stone, 490 tons at $0.161 per ton, $79.01; spreading the sand filler, 60 tons
at $0.106 per ton, $6.36; rolling the broken-stone base, 2,602 square yards at
$0.028 per square yard, $59.27; bituminous concrete at the plant, 2,602 square
yards at $0.40 per square yard, $1,040.80; hauling the bituminous concrete from
the plant to the road, 2,602 square yards at $0.032 per square yard, $82.50;
native asphalt emulsion on the road, 2,602 square yards at $0.012 per square
yard, $32.50; gravel for the seal coat, 2,602 square yards at $0.011 per square
yard, $28; forms for the bituminous concrete, $5; setting the forms for the
bituminous concrete, $21.15; spreading the bituminous concrete, 2,602 square
yards at $0.089 per square yard, $101.75; rolling the bituminous concrete, 2,602
square yards at $0.024 per square yard, $62.60; cement concrete automobile
parkways, exclusive of preparing the subgrade, 205 square yards at $1.237 per
square yard, $278.45; cement concrete gutters, exclusive of the subgrade, 70
linear feet at $0.868 per foot, $60.75; miscellaneous expenses, $58.14; and gen-
eral expenses, $142.35. The above costs are based on labor at $1.60 and teams
at $4.50 for an eight-hour day.

el Cr rr CU CO

4 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BITUMINOUS-MACADAM ROAD.

SrItverR Sprines, Mp.—The seal coat was renewed on the bituminous-macadam
drive extending from Silver Springs station to the Blair estate, the construction
of which was supervised by the Office of Public Roads during the year 1912 and
described in its annual report for that year. Work was begun on June 27, 1913, -
and completed on July 1,1918. The road is 2,776 feet in length and 123 feet wide,
making a total area of 3,856 square yards. The road surface was first thor-
oughly cleaned with stiff brooms, after which a total of 1,075 gallons of a light
water-gas tar preparation was applied to the road directly from the drums at
the rate of approximately 28 gallons per square yard. This material was then
distributed by means of hand brooms so as to form a uniform coating over the
entire surface. Sixty-six tons of pea gravel were spread over the bituminous
material at the rate of approximately 0.0133 cubic yard per square yard. The
surface was then lightly rolled with a 10-ton macadam roller.

Several water-bound macadam patches, aggregating 100 square yards in area,
were made. Seven and one-fourth cubic yards of crushed limestone and 4}
cubic yards of limestone screenings were used for this purpose.

The entire cost of renewing the seal coat was $283.78, while the patches cost
$49.07. The cost of the road per square yard for the seal coat was $0.0736.
The principal items of cost were as follows: Bituminous material, delivered
at the station, 1,075 gallons, at $0.095 per gallon, $102.18; loading and haul-
ing the bituminous material to the road, $12.55; pea gravel, delivered at the
station, 66 tons, at $1.20 per ton, $79.20; loading and hauling the gravel to
the road, $7.05; sweeping the road surface, $8.33; applying the bitumen. $23.83;
spreading the gravel, $11.50; rolling, $23.65; limestone for patching the mac-
adam, 114 cubic yards, at $2 per cubic yard, $28; labor for patching the
macadam, $25.57; coal for the roller, $3.50; and general expenses, $12.50. The
above costs are based on labor at $1.60 and teams at $4.75 per nine-hour day.

MACADAM ROADS.

Buiack Rock, ARK.—Work was begun on a macadam road extending from
Black Rock westward toward Smithville on September 25, 1912, and discon-
tinued for lack of funds on October 26, 1912, with the loss of 14 days on
account of bad weather.

The land adjacent to the road is hilly, and the natural soil is clay. The road
was graded 30 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills for 2,600 feet, making
a graded area of 7,500 square yards. The maximum cut was 33 feet, the maxi-
mum fill 3 feet, and the total amount of excavation 2,620 cubic yards. Earth
was loosened with plows, hauled with drag and wheel scrapers, and spread by
band and with a road grader. The average haul for excavation was 75 feet and
the maximum, 300 feet.

A surface of macadam was laid for 1,300 feet, 12 feet wide, making 1,733
square yards. For 660 feet the macadam was applied in two courses, each 5
inches thick at the center and 4 inches at the sides before compacting, and
throughout the remaining 640 feet it was applied in one course. In both in-
stances the material was compacted 8 inches at the center and 6 inches at the
sides. The material used for surfacing was a hard magnesian limestone with
good binding qualities. The run of the crusher was used for both the first and
second courses; and the maximum size in the first course was 4 inches and in
the second course 24 inches. “ Chats,” or the tailings from a zine mine, were
used as a binder in an amount just sufficient to bind the surface properly. This
material was similar to that used for surfacing. It ranged in size from one-

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 5

half inch to dust. The stone was obtained under contract from a local quarry,
where a crusher having an average capacity of 50 cubic yards per 10-hour day
was already located. The average haul of water for the crusher was three-
fourths mile. Stone was brought to the crusher in wheelbarrows, crushed,
stored in bins, loaded from the bins into farm wagons which were equipped with
dump boards, and hauled to the road for an average distance of 3,500 feet,
where it was spread by hand with iron hooks. A 6-ton horse roller was tried
for compacting the surface, but was found to be impracticable. The hoofs of
the mules loosened the surface as rapidly as it was compacted. No sprinkler
wagon was available, and, as the road was constructed during a comparatively
dry season, it is probable that the surface could not have been properly bonded,
even with a more suitable roller. It was, therefore, left in a loose condition.
Before leaving the work, however, the representative of the office instructed the
local authorities regarding the proper manner of bonding the road when the
weather became suitable.

Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At station 2+50 the
existing concrete abutments of a culvert of 13-foot span were extended and the
wooden floor was renewed; at station 10+85 concrete wing walls were added
to an existing culvert of 4-foot span, and a new wooden floor was constructed;
at station 15-+55 a new 10-foot span reinforced concrete culvert was con-
structed; and corrugated iron culverts, 12 inches in diameter and 18 feet long,
were placed under approaches to private entrances at stations 4+00, 6+60,
13-+25, and 14++15.

The concrete used in the abutments, wing walls, and footings was made of
cement and unscreened gravel in the proportion 1:6. In reinforced work
cement, sand and screened gravel were used in the proportion 1: 2:4, and the
concrete used in the parapets was made of cement, sand, and gravel in the
proportion 1: 2:3.

The equipment consisted of one 6-ton horse roller, two steel road drags, one
road grader, and hand tools. Labor cost $1.50 per day of 10 hours, and teams
cost $2.50 and $3.

The total cost of the road was $2,153.45, which is at the rate of $1.01 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at
$0.203 per cubic yard, $532.25; shaping the subgrade, at $0.0234 per square
yard, $40.50; crushed stone, at $0.875 per cubic yard, $405.15; hauling stone
from the crusher to the road, at $0.343 per cubic yard, $178.50; spreading
stone, at $0.116 per cubic yard, $60; rolling, at $0.04 per square yard, $70;
trimming the shoulders and ditches, $46.25; culverts, $1,218.45; and general
expenses, $7.50.

LOUISVILLE, Ky.—On April 4, 1913, excavation was started on an object-lesson
macadam road at Louisville, Ky., and was continued until April 12. The |
weather conditions were so unfavorable during this period, however, that very
little could be accomplished. About $175 was expended, but on account of the
continual rain the results of the work done were practically negligible. On
April 12 the work was discontinued, but it is hoped that it may be resumed
at some more favorable season and the project eventually completed.

JERUSALEM, N. C.—Surfacing was started on a road leading from Jerusalem
southeast toward South Yadkin River on October 15. 1912, and completed on
December 2, 1912. The road had been graded before the arrival of the repre-
sentative of the Office of Public Roads, and no data concerning the cost of grad-
ing could be obtained. The land adjacent to the road is rolling, and the soil is
sandy loam from station 0-++00 to station 18+-00 and red clay from station 13+-00
to station 20+00. The macadam surface is 2,210 feet long and 12 feet wide,
making a total area of 2,950 square yards. The stone consisted of coarse-grained

6 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

light granite for the foundation course and trap or field stone for the wearing
surface. ‘The compacted depth of the foundation course was 3% inches, and of
the top course, including the screenings, 24 inches. Surfacing material to the
amount of 655 cubic yards was used, and of this 364 cubie yards was purchased.

Concrete gutters 1 foot wide, 3 inches thick, and dished from 1 inch to 2
inches, were constructed on each side of the road throughout its length. Cross
drains 14 feet long, of bell-joint pipe, were constructed at stations 3-+00, 5-+50,
10+75, 18-++00, and 18-++50. The diameter of the first four drains was 4 inches
and of the last 6 inches. The ditches for the cross drains in each case were
filled with broken stone. Underdrains of 6-inch bell-joint pipe 12 feet, 33 feet,
40 feet, and 16 feet long were constructed at stations 3+00, 5+50, 10-+75, and
13+00, respectively. Concrete drop inlets 10 inches square and 2 feet deep,
haying 3-inch walls, were provided for these drains. Three hundred and
seventy-four sacks of cement were used in constructing the gutters and drop
inlets.

The equipment consisted of a crusher having an average capacity of 50 cubic
yards per 10-hour day, a 10-ton roller, a sprinkling cart, and slat-bottom road
wagons. The crusher and roller were both borrowed, and the only cost in con-
nection with their use was the operating and maintenance expenses. The aver-
age haul from quarry to crusher was one-half mile and from crusher to road
500 feet. The water for the crusher, roller, and sprinkler was pumped.

The total cost of surfacing the road was $2,073.07, and the rate per square
yard $0.703. Labor cost $1.40 per day, teams $3 per day, and fuel $6 per ton.
The principal items of cost were: Materials for concrete gutters and drop inlets,
$192.30; labor for these gutters and inlets, $120.05; drainpipe, $17.16; labor for
the drainpipe, $7.07; surfacing material, $273; quarrying, $243.54; hauling to
the crusher, $251.52; crushing, $136.88; hauling from the crusher to the road.
$153.45; spreading, $140.17; sprinkling, $13.50; rolling, $13.13; hire of the
sprinkler, $25; explosives, $99.50; crusher repairs, $25; drill steel,.$28.40; sharp-
ening the drill steel, $16.40; fuel, $62.10; lubricating oil, $12.50; loosening old
macadam, $16.80; screening, $2.80; clearing, $25.90; and general expenses,
$197.40. .

Monroe, N. C.—A macadam road leading southeast from Monroe toward
Wingate, known as the Lee Mill Road, was started on October 12, 1912, and
completed on November 22, 1912, and during this time 33 days were lost on
account of unfavorable weather. This road had been graded before the arrival
of the office representative, and no data relative to the cost of grading were
available. The grade varies from a maximum of 3 per cent to level. The
adjacent land varies from rolling to hilly, and the soil is red clay and clay
shale. Local sandstone was used for surfacing. This stone possesses guvod
wearing qualities, but poor binding qualities, making it a good material for
the foundation course, but not well suited for the top course.

The total length surfaced was 2,510 feet and the width 10 feet, giving a sur-
faced area of 2,789 square yards. The stone was laid in three courses—the
bottom course consisting of stone varying in size from 1% inches to 4 inches,
the second course from 1 inch to 1$ inches, and the top course from dust to
1 inch. The total compacted depth of the surface was from 7% inches to 9 inches.
The crown of the finished roadway was three-fourths inch to 1 foot. Stone to
the amount of 1,133 cubic yards was crushed, but only 997 cubic yards was
used. The stone was hauled from the quarry to the crusher for an average
distance of 175 feet in wheelbarrows, and from the crusher to the road for an
average distance of 2,000 feet in slat-bottom wagons with a capacity of approxi-
mately one cubic yard. The stone was loaded directly from the bins into the
wagous. . Water for the crusher engine was carried 200 feet by hand, and

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 7

thauled 300 feet for the roller. Four tons of fuel was used at the crusher and
5% tons by the roller.

The equipment consisted of a stone crusher having 73 cubic yards’ capacity
per 9-hour day, an engine, a 10-ton roller, slat-bottom wagons, and hand
tools. Convict labor and teams owned by the county were used. The cost
to the county per day per convict and per mule was $0.45. The total cost of
the road was $647.15, making a rate of $0.282 per square yard.

The principal items of cost were: Preparing the subgrade, $22.95; quarrying,
$117.45; hauling to the crusher, $66.60; crushing, $50.40; hauling from the
erusher to the road, $112.94; spreading the stene, $22.95; sprinkling, $8.11;
rolling, $68.95; stacking and loading screenings, $31.05; shaping shoulders.
$11.70; loss of time due to bad weather, $57.35; and incidental expenses, $76.70.

NoRTHWILKESBORO, N. C.—Work was begun on a macadam road leading from
Northwilkesboro toward Wilkesboro on October 2, 1912, and was discontinued
on December 21, 1912. Thirteen and one-half days were lost on account of bad
weather. A section of road 800 feet in length was entirely completed and an
additional length of 494 feet was vartially completed. The section completed
follows the Yadkin River, and the entire road is subject to overflow at flood
seasons. To remedy this condition the grade of the road was raised and the
macadam was laid on a Telford base.

The natural soil is clay and sil and the adjacent land is level. There was no
cut, and the maximum fill was 3.9 feet and the average fill 2.1 feet. The
maximum grade of 5.85 per cent was reduced to 2.5 per cent.

A total length of 1,294 feet was graded 30 feet wide. All the material for
the embankment was taken from pits located at an average distance of three-
eighths mile from the road and in no case more than one-half mile. It was
loosened with a plow, loaded with sEoveis on slat-bottom wagons, and spread
by hand.

A subgrade 16 feet wide was prepared for a distance of 1,294 feet and a
Telford base 12 inches thick was laid upon it for the same distance. A macadam
surface was laid upon this base to the same width for a distance of 800 feet.
The surface was laid in two courses, each 3 inches thick compacted, and each
course was bonded with screenings. The stone used on the bottom course
eonsiste or pieces from 14 to 3 inches in size, and the stone used in the second
course ranged from one-half inch to 14 inches. The screenings consisted of
material ranging from dust to particles one-half inch in size.

The Telford base and the macadam surface were both made from mica
gneiss obtained from the same quarry. This material possesses excellent bind-
ing and wearing qualities. It was quarried at an average distance of 14 miles
from the road, crushed at the quarry, loaded into dump wagons by means of a
ehute rrom the bins, and hauled to the road, where it was spread with forks.

The following drainage structures were constructed: One reinforced concrete
_ culvert 2 by 4 feet by 29 feet long; one reinforced concrete culvert 2 by 6 feet
by 30 feet Icng; one reinforced concrete culvert 2 by 6 feet by 28.5 feet long: and
one wooden-box culvert 2 by 3 feet at an intersecting road.

The equipment consisted cf one stone crusher with a capacity of 25 cubie
yards per day, elevator, bins, one 10-tcn roller, six 13 cubic yard dump wagons,
slat-bottom wagons, one turn plow, and hand tools.

The labor cost for men was $0.12, $0.133, and $0.15 per hour, and double
teams cost $0.30 per hour. The working day was 10 hours long.

The total cost of the road was $3,293.29, which is at the rate of $1.8875 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation and
embankment, 979 cubic yards, at $0.40 per cubic yard, $391.60; clearing and
grubbing, 2,300.4 square yards, at $0.0017 per square yard, $4; shaping the sub-

8 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

grade, 2,800.4 square yards, at $0.06 per square yard, $189.58; Telford foun-
dation, 2,300.4 square yards, at $0.489 per square yard, $1,124.01; quarrying
and crushing the surfacing materials, 880 cubic yards, at $1.525 per cubic
yard, $579.49; hauling the surfacing materials, 380 cubie yards, at $0.645 per
cubic yard, $245.30; spreading the surfacing materials, 380 cubic yards, at
$0.108 per cubic yard, $40.93; sprinkling and rolling, 1,422.2 square yards, at
$0.15, $213.68; reinforced concrete drainage structures, $473; and general ex-
penses, $40.63. The above costs do not include any charge for the use of the
stone crusher, elevator, and bins.

JONESVILLE, VA.—Between May 1 and October 17, 1912, a macadam road was
built under the direction of the office at Jonesville, Va., and during this time
387 days were lost on account of bad weather and 5 days from other causes.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay and gravel. The road
was graded to a width of 20 feet for 8,200 feet, with the exception of a short
section which was constructed 24 feet wide. For 2,200 feet the road was
located on the side of a hill, and in this section 50 per cent of the excavation
was solid rock. The total area graded was 21,860 square yards, and the maxi-
mum grade was reduced from 17 to 9 per cent. The total volume of earth and
rock moved was 7,590 cubic yards and the maximum haul 800 feet. A mac-
adam surface 6,800 feet in length was constructed upon a part of the graded
section, 10 feet wide for a length of 4,500 feet, 12 feet wide for 1,800 feet, and
24 feet wide for the remaining 500 feet. The total area surfaced was 8,735
square yards. The surfacing material—a limestone of good binding but only
fair wearing qualities—was obtained from a quarry five-eighths mile from the
road. It was crushed at the quarry in a crusher having 50 cubic yards’ capac-
ity per 10-hour day, and after being hauled to the road in slat-bottom wagons
of 14 cubic yards’ capacity was spread in three courses with forks and shovels.
The first or foundation course, 7 inches in thickness before compacting, con-
sisted of pieces varying from 2 to 3 inches in size; the second course, 3 inches
thick, consisted of pieces from one-half inch to 2 inches in size; and the third
or binder course, applied to a depth of approximately 1 inch, consisted of pieces
varying in size from 1 inch to dust. Each course was compacted with a 10-ton
roller, and was bonded in the usual manner with a sprinkler wagon and roller.

Culyerts were constructed of corrugated-iron pipe as follows: At stations 10,
14, and 20, 12 inches in diameter and 22 feet in length; at station 17, 12 inches
in diameter and 24 feet in length; at station 20, 15 inches in diameter and 24
feet in length; at stations 28 and 82, 24 inches in diameter and 40 and 26 feet
in length, respectively; and at stations 43 and 52, 30 inches in diameter and
26 and 24 feet in length, respectively. End walls of rough stone were con-
structed at all culverts.

The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a rock crusher, 5 wheel scrapers,
1 turn plow, 1 rooter plow, 2 dump carts, 1 steam drill, and hand tools. Labor
cost $1.50 and teams $3.50 per day. ‘The other principal items of cost were as
follows: Excavation, at $0.36 per cubic yard, $2,726.95; shaping the subgrade.
at $0.024 per square yard, $206.10; quarrying and crushing the stone, at $0.93
per cubie yard, $3,142.47; hauling the stone, at $0.166 per cubic yard, $506.30;
spreading the stone, at $0.07 per cubic yard, $228.90; sprinkling, at $0.0075 per
square yard, $60.85; rolling, at $0.02 per square yard, $183.70; trimming the
shoulders, $31.30; lowering the water pipes and raising the walks, $48;
culverts, $261.56; supervision and general expenses, $382.20; making the total
cost of the road $7,778.33 This is at the rate of $0.837 per square yard.

Norton, VA.—The work of macadamizing the Wise-Norton road was begun on
August 1, 1912, and discontinued on December 15, 1912, after 3,860 linear feet or
4,340 square yards had been surfaced. The work was done »y contract, and

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 9

the grading and culvert work had been finished before the macadamizing was
started. Twenty-four days were lost owing to bad weather and 274 days from
other causes. The land adjacent to the road is hilly and the soil is yellow
clay. The maximum grade is 6 per cent and the minimum 1.2 per cent. Lime-
stone, which was used for the surfacing was put on in three courses, having
respective depths, measured loose, of 6 inches, 3 inches, and # inch, and a total
compacted depth of 63 inches. Surfacing material to the amount of 1,298 cubic
yards was used, and of this 1,005 cubic yards was local stone, while 293 cubic
yards was purchased and brought by rail. The local stone was quarried and
transported 50 feet to the crusher by means of a tram car. After crushing, it
was stored in bins having capacities of 50, 30, and 20 cubic yards, and loaded
directly into slat-bottom wagons and dump ears of approximately 1.2 cubic
yards capacity. The wagons were drawn by teams and the dump cars by a
traction engine. The average haul from the crusher to the road was 4 miles.
The stone that was shipped was hauled 70 miles by rail. Water was piped
900 feet for the crusher and hauled 1 mile for the roller and sprinkler. <A
vitrified clay-pipe culvert at station 9-+00 was broken during the surfacing,
having been placed too near the surface. In replacing it 26 feet of 18-inch
_ pipe and 23 cubic yards of concrete were used. At the crusher 45? tons of
fuel were used and 14 tons by the roller. The explosives used at the quarry cost
$118.92.

The equipment consisted of a crusher and engine having a capacity of 150
tons per 10-hour day, slat-bottom wagons, a sprinkler, a roller, hand tools, etc.,
and a traction engine was hired at $10 per 10-hour day. Labor and teams
cost, respectively, $0.15 and $0.85 per hour, and fuel cost $1.75 per ton.

The total cost of the work was $3,630.22, which is at the rate of $0.837 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were: Shaping the subgrade, $374.13 ;
replacing the culvert at station 9, $55.53; surfacing material, $366.25; quarry-
ing, $951.05; crushing, $254.06; hauling the stone to the road, $892.85; spread-
ing the stone, $240.60; sprinkling, $112.35; rolling, $350; and loading stone at
the car, $33.90.

This work was resumed on April 18, 1913, and the project was entirely com-
pleted on July 12, 1918. During this period five days were lost on account of
unfavorable weather and two days from other causes. The last section sur-
faced had not been graded throughout its length as the section above described
had. On this part the maximum cut was 14 feet and the maximum fill 3 feet; the
maximum grade remained 4 per cent, as on the old road. The land adjacent to
this section is hilly and the soil is shale clay underlain by a bed of blue marl.
In grading, the earth was loosened with plows, hauled with drag scrapers, and
spread by hand. Between stations 43 and 54+10 the foundation was of an
inferior character. Subdrainage was therefore provided by digging a ditch
along the gutter and filling part of it with sandstone and part with limestone,
and laying tile drain in the remainder. Cross drains were constructed every
25 feet between the above stations. Other necessary drainage structures had
been constructed before the work began. The equipment was the same as that
used on the first section described above.

The average haul for the excavation was 200 feet and the maximum haul
was 400 feet. The average haul from the crusher to the road was 34 miles.
The surface of this section was constructed entirely of local limestone having
good binding qualities and fair wearing qualities. Material was hauled in slat-
bottom wagons of 1 cubic yard capacity and dump wagons of 2 cubic yards
capacity, and by means of the tractor outfit.

The road was surfaced for 3,900 feet to the following widths: Twenty-four
feet wide. for 1,110 feet, 16 feet wide for 2,090 feet, and 12 feet wide for 700

17627°—Bull. 53—13——2

10 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

feet, making a total surfaced area of 7,609 square yards. It was necessary to
grade the road for a distance of 500 feet to a width of 30 feet in cuts and 22
feet in fills, making a total graded area of 1.489 square yards. The surfacing
material was spread in three courses, which, when measured loose, were, re-
spectively, 6 inches, 3 inches, and 1 inch deep. The total compacted depth was
6 inches. The material used in the first course ranged in size from 3 inches
to 1% inches; that used in the second course, from 1% inches to three-fourths
inch; and that used in the third course, from three-fourths inch down to and
including the dust of fracture. The crown of the finished surface was three-
fourths inch to 1 foot.

One: thousand cubie yards of earth were excavated, 2,261 cubic yards of sur-
facing material were crushed, and 2,114 cubic yards used, while 24 tons of coal
were used by the crusher and 19 tons by the roller. In constructing the under-
drains 1,575 feet of 3-inch vitrified pipe and common land tile and 55 cubic sands
of crushed stone were used.

The cost of labor, teams, etc., amounted to approximately the same as in the
preceding section. The total cost of the road to the community was $5,071.99,
making the cost per square yard $0.666.

The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation to the extent of 1,000
cubie yards, at $0.141 per cubic yard, $141.15; shaping the subgrade, 8,676 square
yards, at $0.078 per square yard, $673.35; 55 cubic yards of limestone for
underdrains, at $2.40 per cubic yard, $132; 1,575 linear feet of tile, at $0.034 per
foot, $52.86; labor on the underdrains, $185.83; trimming the shoulders and
ditches, $20.95; general expenses, $292.34; quarrying 2,261 cubic yards of lime-
stone, at $0.551 per cubic yard, $1,247.32; hauling this stone to the crusher, at
$0.086 per cubic yard; $195.12; crushing it at $0. 121 per cubic yard, $273.08;
hauling 2,114 cubic yards of stone from the crusher to the road, at $0.563 per
cubic yard, $1,190.80; spreading it, at $0.09 per cubic yard, $190.40; sprinkling
7,609 square yards, at $0.004 per square yard, $31.40; rolling 7,609 square yards,
at $0.049 per square yard, $371.50; and explosives used in the quarry, $73.89.

It is interesting to note that the cost of hauling the stone from the crusher to
the road, a distance of 34 miles, by means of wagons was approximately $1
per cubic yard, while the cost of hauling by means of the tractor outfit was only
about $0.21 per cubic yard. The tractor outfit, however, can not be used except

during dry weather.
GRAVEL ROADS.

JONESBORO, ARK.—A gravel road leading from Jonesboro eastward toward the
State agricultural school was begun on September 23, 1912, and entirely com-
pleted on October 25, 1912, with the loss of 53 days on account of unfavorable
weather and 3 days from other causes. The adjacent land is rolling and the
soil throughout the length of the road is clay. A section 3,848 feet long was
graded for a width of 30 feet in cuts and 24 feet in fills, giving a total area of
9,822 square yards. The gravel surface is 3,050 feet long and 15 feet wide,
making a surfaced area of 5,083 square yards. Three timber bridges having a
width of roadway of 16 feet were constructed, having respective dimensions as
follows: No. 1, length 8 feet 6 inches, clear span 6 feet 6 inches, and height of
opening 4 feet 8 inches; No. 2, length 16 feet 8 inches, clear span 15 feet, and
height of opening 2 feet 6 inches; and No. 3, length 16 feet 4 inches, clear span
14 feet 8 inches, and height of opening 4 feet 6 inches.

The maximum grade was reduced from 3.7 per cent to 2.5 per cent, while the
minimum grade remained 0.1 per cent. The maximum cut was 1.7 feet and the
maximum fill 1.4 feet. Two thousand and seventy cubic yards of earth was
excavated for an average haul of 350 feet and a maximum haul of 800 feet.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 11

This material was loosened with plows, hauled in drag and wheel scrapers, and
spread with shovels.

The surfacing material consisted of sandy chert gravel possessing fair binding
qualities and excellent resistance to wear. The gravel was applied in two
courses, the first course having a loose depth of 7 inches at the center and 5
inches at the sides, and the second course a loose depth of 4 inches at the
center and 3 inches at the sides. The total compacted depth was 8 inches at the
center and 6 inches at the sides, and the crown of the finished roadway was
three-fourths inch to 1 foot. The gravel for both courses ranged in size from
3% inches to fine sand. The surfacing material, of which 1,357 cubic yards was
used, was delivered on the road at the contract prices of $1.15 per cubic yard
for 1,171 cubic yards and $1.25 per cubic yard for 186 cubic yards.

The equipment consisted of one 6-horse road machine, one road plow, one
5-ton horse roller, 8 No. 1 wheel scrapers, 4 No. 2 drag scrapers, and hand tools.
The grader outfit, including teams and operators, was hired at the rate of $14
per 10-hour day. Labor cost $2, teams $4.67, and foremen $2.67 and $4 per 10-
hour day.

The total cost of the road to the community was $2,703.69, which is at the
rate of $0.511 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows:
Excavation, at $0.3835 per cubic yard, $698.20; shaping the subgrade at $0.018
per square yard, $101; surfacing material, delivered, $1,579.15; spreading the
surfacing material, $75.80; rolling, $19.09; explosives, $3.16; materials for the
culverts and stakes, $12.08; labor for the culverts, $6.80; trimming the shoul-
ders, $7.71; incidental expenses, $109.70; and superintendence, $96.

CotumeEvus, Miss.—On July 22, 1912, work was begun on a section of the
Tuscaloosa road, extending from Columbus eastward toward the Alabama State
line, and it was completed on September 16, 1912. The adjacent land is level
and the natural soil a sandy clay. The road was graded 20 feet wide for 2,291
feet, making an area of 5,095 square yards. Harth to the amount of 5,778 cubic
yards was moved, and the maximum grade was reduced from 5 to 0.1 per cent.
The earth was loosened with plows, picks, and shovels, loaded with shovels
into wagons, hauled in wagons and drag scrapers, and spread with shovels and
a small grader. The average haul was 450 feet and the maximum haul 700
feet. The total area surfaced was 3,564 square yards. Two types of surfacing
materials were used—a good cementing gravel for’1,166 feet and a loose pit
gravel for 1,125 feet. The former material, donated by an abutting property
Owner, was spread upon the prepared subgrade in a single course 7 inches thick
before being compacted. It compacted readily under the action of traffic, and
the surface was maintained in proper shape by frequent dressing with a road
grader. The pit gravel was spread upon the clay subgrade to a depth of 6
inches, and it was expected that it would be mixed with the clay by the traffic,
but when the representative of the Office of Public Roads left it was still in a
loose, uncemented condition. A total of 686 cubic yards of gravel was used.

Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At station 4+25 a rein-
forced concrete bridge with 18 feet 6 inches of roadway, a span of 15 feet, and
4.2 feet height of opening; and at station 9+70 a reinforced concrete bridge,
with 18 feet 6 inches of roadway and 6.5 feet height of opening, and two 15-foot
spans. Both bridges were constructed by contract, with the exception of the
center pier of the second bridge, which was built under force account.

The equipment consisted of road plows, drag scrapers, a small road grader,
and hand tools.

Based on labor at $1 per day and teams at $3, the principal items of cost
were as follows: Clearing and grubbing, at $0.017 per square yard, $84.20;
excavation and embankment, at $0.206 per cubic yard, $1,189.35; fine grading,

12 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

at $0.007 per square yard, $11.90; loosening and loading gravel, at $0.165 per
cubic yard, $104.70; hauling gravel, at $0.234 per cubic yard, $148.80; spreading
gravel, at $0.0057 per square yard, $20.60; trimming shoulders and ditches,
$5.70; culverts, $1,106.45; and general expenses, $10. The total cost of the road
was $2,681.70, which is at the rate of $0.75 per square yard. If the cost of drain-
age structures is excluded, the cost per square yard is reduced to $0.442.

Betton, Tex.—The road leading from Belton eastward toward Temple,
approximately 54 miles long, known as the Air Line Road, was graded, drained,
and surfaced with gravel. This road is about equally divided between Belton
precinct and Temple precinct, and on account of the separate road organiza-
tions in these two separate precincts it was necessary to construct the road
in two sections. Each of these sections will be described in turn.

The Belton section—Work was started on this section on December 26, 1912.
Surfacing was started on March 26, 1913; and excavation was completed on
May 22, 1913, and surfacing on June 30, 1913. All work was finished on July
3, 1913.. Unfavorable weather caused the loss of 16% days, and 164 days were
lost from other causes. i

The earth was loosened by plows, hauled by drag scrapers, and spread by
means of a road machine. The maximum cut was 13 feet and the maximum
fill 5.7 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 6.4 per cent on the old
road to 5 per cent on the new road.

The adjacent land is rolling, and the soil for the first 650 feet is ia rock ;
for the next 925 feet, gumbo; for the next 1,700 feet, sandy; for the next 3,000
feet, sand-clay; for the next 500 feet, gumbo; for the next 600 feet, loose rock ;
and for the remainder of the distance to station 124—the end of the section—
gumbo. A corrugated iron pipe culvert, 12 inches in diameter and 24 feet long,
was constructed at station 73-+65.

The equipment consisted of 2 road graders, 5 No. 3 drag scrapers, 3 No. 2
drag scrapers, 1 railroad plow, 1 turn plow, 7 wagons, shovels, picks, ete.
The wagons were slat-bottom, having a capacity of 14 cubic yards, and were
used for hauling gravel.

The average haul for the excavation was 110 feet, and the maximum haul
600 feet. The average haul from the gravel pit to the road was 4,920 feet,
and the average haul of water for the roller 13 miles.

The natural soil was used in the foundation throughout the road. Gravel
for surfacing was obtained from several different sources, and varied from
rather poor to excellent in quality. It was spread on the road partly by means
of hand raking and partly with a steel drag and a road machine.

The total length of the road graded was 12,606 feet for a width of 32 feet
in cuts and 26 feet in fills, making a total graded area of 42,920 square yards.
The total length of surface was 12,010 feet, and the width was 24 feet for
925 feet, and 18 feet wide for the remaining distance, making a total surfaced
area of 24,687 square yards. The gravel was spread sometimes in one course
and sometimes in two courses. The loose depth of the first course ranged
from 5 to 104 inches, and that of the second course from 14% to 3% inches,
while the total loose depth ranged from 5 to 104 inches. The crown of the
finished surface varied from three-quarters to 1 inch to 1 foot according to the
steepness of the grade.

Earth to the amount of 5,268 cubic yards was moved in grading; and 5,503
eubic yards of gravel was used in surfacing, of which 4,733 cubic yards was
purchased and 770 yards donated.

Convict labor cost $0.60; hired labor from $0.75 to $2.50; and teams from
$3 to $3.50 for a 9-hour day. The total cost of the work was $4,144.33, which
is at the rate of $0,167 per square yard,

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13, 13

The principal items of cost were as follows: 5,268 cubic yards of excava-
tion, at $0.143 per cubic yard, $739.15; shaping the subgrade, at $0.002 per
square yard, $45.42; 24 feet of culvert pipe, at $0.50 a foot, $12; labor for
culverts, $5.75; 4,733 cubic yards of gravel, at $0.05 per cubic yard, plus $150
for the pit, $886.65; loosening and loading the gravel, 5,503 cubic yards, at
$0.15 per cubic yard, $825.89; hauling 5,503 cubic yards of gravel from the pit
to the road, at $0.318 per cubic yard, $1,753.10; spreading the gravel, at $0.054
per cubic yard, $295.11; working and finishing the surface, $60.52; trimming
the shoulders and ditches, $18.80; and explosives, $1.94.

The Temple section—This section extends from station 124 to station
276+80. The first work was excavation, and this was begun on December
26, 1912, and finished on June 18, 1913. The surfacing was started on March
26, 1918, and finished on July 3, 1913. The road was entirely completed by
- July 5, 1918. Twenty-two days were lost on account of unfavorable weather
and 6.9 days from other causes. Harth in excavation was loosened by plows and
hauled in wagons and in drag and wheel scrapers, while rock was loosened with
picks, bars, and dynamite, and hauled in wagons. Culverts were constructed
as follows: Station 128-+10, 12-inch concrete pipe, 30 feet long; station 134-++35,
30-inch concrete pipe, 26 feet long; station 148-+-40, 12-inch concrete pipe, 34 feet
long; station 154-++10, 42-inch concrete pipe, 56 feet long; and station 172+27, 8
feet by 6 feet reinforced concrete culvert with 18-foot roadway. The maximum
cut was 3.2 feet, and the maximum fill, 13.9 feet, and the maximum grade was
reduced from 8.6 per cent to 5 per cent. The adjacent land is rolling and the
soil varies in character; it is gumbo for the first 3,400 feet, loose rock for the
next 500 feet, gumbo for the next 1,200 feet, yellow clay over shale limestone
for the next 500 feet, gumbo for the next 1,800 feet, loose rock for the next 1,600
feet, gumbo for the next 1,000 feet, soft ledge limestone for the next 700 feet,
and gumbo for the remainder of the distance to station 276+80. 'The equip-
ment consisted of one 10-ton roller, one 10-barrel tank wagon, one 600-gallon
sprinkling wagon, 2 road graders, 1 rooter plow, 1 railroad plow, 1 turn plow,
3 No. 2 wheel scrapers, 6 No. 2 and 2 No. 3 drag scrapers, two 16-foot sections
of collapsible culvert forms, slat-bottom wagons, picks, shovels, ete. The wagons
had a capacity of approximately 14 cubic yards and were used for long-haul
grading and for hauling gravel.

The average haul for excavation was 140 feet and the maximum haul 950
feet. The average haul from the gravel pit to the road was 10,320 feet. Water
was conveniently obtained from a pipe at the roadside. The gravel used was
chert and limestone, and it was loaded on the wagons by means of shovels and
drag scrapers.

The total length of the road graded and surfaced was 15,223 feet for a width
of 32 feet in cuts and 26 feet in fills, making a total graded area of 50,830
square yards. The width surfaced was 18 feet throughout, making the surfaced
area 30,446 square yards. Part of the gravel was spread in one course and
part in two courses. The loose depth of the first course varied from 4 to 63
inches, and of the second course from 1 to 5% inches. The total loose depth
varied from 44 to 10 inches. The crown of the finished surface was from
three-fourths inch to 1 inch to 1 foot. Harth to the amount of 5,927 cubic
yards and rock to the amount of 145 cubic yards were moved in excavation, and
5,877 cubic yards of gravel was used in surfacing. Two hundred and fifteen
sacks of cement, 2,740 pounds of steel, 67 cubic yards of gravel, 2,750 feet,
board measure, of lumber, one-half coil of wire, 64 feet of 12-inch concrete pipe,
and 36 feet of 30-inch concrete pipe were used in culverts. Convict labor cost
$0.60, hired labor from $0.80 to $2, and teams from $2.20 to $3.50 per nine-hour
day.

14 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The total cost of the road to the community was $6,221.55, which is at the
rate of $0.204 per square yard or $2,157.25 per mile. The principal items of
cost were 6,072 cubic yards of excavation, at $0.158 per cubic yard, $962.48;
shaping the subgrade, at $0.001 per square yard, $48.28; 100 feet of concrete
pipe, at $0.853 per foot, $85.31; labor for concrete pipe, $31.73; 8-foot by 6-foot
culvert, $397; 42-inch pipe culvert, $850; surfacing material in the pit, $3848.75;
loosening and loading, 5,877 cubic yards of surfacing material, at $0.137 per
eubie yard, $803.47; hauling surfacing material from the pit to the road, at
$0.465 per cubic yard, $2,733.71; spreading the surfacing material, at $0.047
per cubic yard, $273.63; finishing and rolling, $81.22; trimming the shoulders
and ditches, $22.27; 12 tons of coal, at $6 per ton, $72; and incidental expenses,
$16.70.

GRAVEL-MACADAM ROAD.

Brent Oak, Miss.—Work on a road extending from Bent Oak southward
toward the Gilmer Road was begun on October 14, 1912 and discontinued be-
cause of unfavorable weather conditions, on December 18, 1912. During this.
time 8 days were lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is roll-
ing and the soil is a very stiff post-oak gumbo. For a distance of 2,185 feet
the road was graded 24 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills, making an
area of 5,350 square yards graded, for which 900 cubic yards of material was
moved. The maximum grade was reduced from 7.5 to 3.6 per cent. The earth
was loosened with plows and picks, loaded by hand and with shovels, hauled
with slip and wheel scrapers and dump-board wagons, and spread with shovels
and slip scrapers.. The average haul was 630 feet and the maximum haul 1,150
feet. Two kinds of material were used for surfacing—a soft limestone and a
clay cementing gravel. The limestone was found in ledges at a maximum
depth of 3 feet below the surface and an average distance of one-half mile from
the road. It was broken by hand into suitable sizes on the road. The gravel,
on the other hand, was purchased and delivered in cars at a convenient sid-
ing, with a haul of about 750 feet. The road for 1,955 feet was surfaced 12
feet wide with two methods, and the entire area surfaced was 2,607 square
yards. According to the first method, which was followed in surfacing 1,720
square yards, a foundation course of rock was spread. with shovels and rakes 6
inches deep after compacting, and upon it a surface course of gravel was spread
with a road grader to a depth of 4 inches after compacting, while the second
method, which was used in surfacing the remaining 887 square yards, con-
sisted in spreading a single course of rock to a depth of 6 inches after com-
pacting. The crown adopted for both types of road was 1 inch to 1 foot.
The total volume of rock was 450 cubie yards and of gravel 260 cubic yards.
Cross drains were constructed as follows: At station 0+75 a 16-inch cast-iron
culvert 21 feet long and at station 19+17 a reinforced concrete culvert of 3
feet span, 30-inch height of opening, and 20 feet length.

The equipment consisted of road and turn plows, 6 slip scrapers, 2 wheel
scrapers, 1 road grader, and 1 split-log drag. The estimated cost of the con-
vict labor, which was used exclusively, was $1 per day, and, while all teams
used on the work were loaned to the local authorities free of charge, a money
value of $3 per day per team was assumed for these contributions. This cor-
responded with local prices for teams.

The principal items of cost, based on the above prices, were as follows:
Clearing and grubbing, $46.55; excavation and embankment, at $0.55 per cubic
yard, $494.36; shaping the subgrade, at $0.028 per square yard, $72.69; quarry-
ing rock, at $0.91 per cubic yard, $410.88; hauling rock, at $0.47 per cubic yard,
$211.14; placing, spreading, and “napping” rock, at $0.097 per cubic yard,

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 15

$43.75; gravel, $54; freight on gravel, $86; unloading gravel cars at siding,
at $0.043 per cubic yard, $11.29; loading gravel wagons, at $0.154 per cubic
yard, $40; hauling gravel, at $0.125 per cubic yard, $32.44; placing and spread-
ing gravel, at $0.038 per cubic yard, $10; trimming ditches and shoulders,
$62.86; culverts, $135.59; and general expenses, $34.65.

The total cost of the road was $1,746.15, which is at the rate of $0.686 per
square yard for the gravel section and $0.406 per square yard for the rock
section.

BRICK-CINDER ROAD.

CoLtumsBus, Miss.—The work at Columbus, Miss., which consisted in grading
and surfacing a section of what is known as the Military Road, extending
from Columbus toward the Alabama State line, was begun on September 18,
1912, and completed on October 9, 1912. The adjacent land is hilly, and the
natural Soil is sand and clay. For 2,128 feet the road was graded 30 feet wide
in cuts and 20 feet in fills, giving an area of 2,615 square yards. A total vol-
ume of 1,696 cubic yards of earth was moved, resulting in lowering the maxi-
mum grade from 1.5 to 0.4 per cent. The earth was loosened with a plow,
picks, and shovels, hauled in wagons and slip scrapers, and spread with shovels.
The average haul was 250 feet and the maximum 900. The surfacing materials
consisted of brickbats and brick-kiln cinders, donated by a local brick manu-
facturer. Both materials were loaded on dump-board wagons at the brickyard,
hauled an average distance of one-half mile, and spread upon the prepared sub-
grade with shovels and potato hooks. The brickbats, which were used in the
foundation course, were broken with hammers at the road, and were spread to
a width of 14 feet and a depth of 4 inches after compacting, while the surface
course was composed of the cinders spread to a width of 16 feet and a depth of
4 inches after compacting. The road was compacted principally by the action
of traffic, but a short section was rolled with a road roller loaned by the au-
thorities of the city of Columbus. The road was surfaced for 1,243 feet, and
the area of the foundation course was 1,933 square yards, requiring 322 cubic
yards of brickbats. The area of the surface course was 2,210 square yards,
upon which 343 cubic yards of cinders were used.: The road is one of the most
heavily traveled roads in the county, but judging from results obtained upon a
similar road in the same locality, it is expected that the surface will wear well
if it is given proper attention.

The equipment consisted of a road plow, slip scrapers, and a small road
grader. With labor at $1 per day and teams at $3, the principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation, at $0.14 per cubic yard, $236.15; clearing and
grubbing, $20.75; trimming the shoulders and ditches, $9.40; labor on the pipe
culvert, $2.75; loading brickbats, at $0.202 per cubic yard, $65.35; hauling brick-
bats, at $0.413 per cubic yard, $133.25; spreading brickbats, at $0.063 per cubic
yard, $20.45; leading cinders, at $0.087 per cubic yard, $63.70; hauling cinders,
at $0.323 per cubic yard, $110.65; spreading cinders, at $0.035 per cubic yard,
$12.10; and general expenses, $7.20. The total cost of the road was $681.75,
which is at the rate of $0.26 per square yard fer the completed section.

SAND-CLAY ROADS.

BROOKSVILLE, FLA.—Work was started on the Bayport Road, which leads west
from Brooksville toward Bayport, on March 10, 1913, and was completed on
April 16, 1918. The land adjacent to the road is rolling and the soil is clay
from station 0 to station 19, and a natural mixture of sand and clay from
station 19 to station 24. The maximum cut was 2 feet and the maximum fill

16 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

23 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 44 per cent to 384 per cent.
The equipment consisted of one 2-horse plow, 5 drag scrapers, one 6-horse road
grader, slat-bottom wagons, picks, shovels, ete. Labor cost $1.75 and teams $5
per 10-hour day.

The improvement consisted in grading and shaping the existing road and
surfacing it with a sand-clay mixture. The earth was loosened with plows and
hauled in wagons and on drag scrapers for an average haul of 700 feet and a
maximum haul of 1,900 feet. The material was spread and the road shaped by
means of the road grader. One drainage ditch was constructed leading away
from the road at station 25. The ditch was 5 feet wide by 1 foot deep by 300
feet long. Clay for surfacing was hauled an average distance of one-half mile,
and the sand an average distance of three-fourths of a mile. These materials
were spread in uniform layers of 7 inches and 3 inches, respectively, and
thoroughly mixed.

The road was then shaped so that the crown of the finished surface was 1
inch to 1 foot. Five days were lost on account of unfavorable weather and six
days from other causes. The weather and labor conditions were largely respon-
sible for the high cost of this work.

The road was graded to a length of 2,400 feet, with a width of 28 feet in cuts
and 20 feet in fills. The entire length was surfaced to a width of 16 feet,
making the surfaced area 4,267 square yards. Earth to the amount of 1,450
cubic yards was moved in excavation, and 1,500 cubic yards of surfacing ma-
terial was used. The total cost of the road to the community was $1,851.51,
which is at the rate of $0.317 per square yard. The principal items of cost
were: Excavation, 1,450 cubie yards, at $0.80 per cubic yard, $432; shaping
the subgrade, at $0.031. per square yard, $130.63; clearing and grubbing,
$15.50; trimming the shoulders and ditches, $55.38; excavating 303.3 cubic
yards of sand, at $0.15 per cubic yard, $45.50; loosening and loading 830
cubic yards of clay, at $0.109 per cubic yard, $90.49; hauling clay, 830 cubic
yards, at $0.265 per cubic yard, $220; loosening and loading 660 cubic yards of
sand, at $0.116 per cubic yard, $76.88; hauling sand, 660 cubic yards, at $0.24
per cubic yard, $158.75; spreading sand, 660 cubie yards, at $0.019 per cubic
yard, $12.25; spreading clay, 830 cubic yards, at $0.021 per cubic yard, $17.50;
mixing sand and clay, 4,267 square yards, at $0.0035 per square yard, $15; final
shaping, at $0.0035 per square yard, $15; and general expenses, $67.13.

QUITMAN, GAa.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road extending from Quitman
toward Spain, on January 30, 1913, and completed on February 21, 1913, with
the loss of five days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling
and the natural soil is sand from station 0 to station 15, clay from station 15
to station 22, sand from station 22 to station 30, clay from station 30 to station
34, sand from station 34 to station 44, clay from station 44 to station 48, and
sand from station 48 to station 61.

A total length of 6,100 feet was graded 30 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide
in fills, making 15,000 square yards. Harth was excavated to the amount of
1,050 cubic yards, and the average haul was 375 feet and the maximuni haul,
500 feet. Throughout its entire length the road was surfaced to a width of 14
feet, making 9,489 square yards. The sand-clay surface was constructed as
follows: The sand and clay were spread uniformly in two courses of 4 inches
and 8 inches in loose depth, respectively. These materials were then thoroughly
mixed first with a plow and then with a disk harrow, after which the road was
shaped with a road grader. It was immediately opened to traffic and as ruts
were formed they were filled by dragging. Clay to the amount of 1,590 cubic
yards was hauled to the road, dumped, and spread by hand with shovels. Sand
was used to the amount of 790 cubic yards, a part of which was hauled and

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 1,

spread by hand while the rest was obtained from the sides of the road and
spread with the road grader. The binding qualities of the clay and the wearing
qualities of the clay and sand appear to be very good.

Cross drains, 28 feet long, were constructed of 10-inch and 24-inch sewer
pipe at stations 25 and 55, respectively.

The equipment consisted of one 6-mule grader, 1 rooter plow, 1 turn plow, 1
disk harrow, wagons, and hand tools.

The total cost of the road was $513.55, which is at the rate of $0.054 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.11
per cubic yard, $115.05; shaping the subgrade, at $0.002 per square yard, $19.50;
loading and hauling clay, at $0.15 per cubic yard, $235.59; spreading clay, at
$0.015 per cubic yard, $23.10; loading and hauling sand, $30.72; spreading sand,
$2.40; mixing, at $0.0025 per square yard, $24.26; trimming shoulders, $8.80;
stripping and refilling clay pits, $19.84; moving fences, $4.65; and culverts,
$29.64. The above costs were based upon a labor cost of $0.60 per day of 10
hours, and a cost for teams of $1 per day of 10 hours. Convict labor and
county teams were used. 4

TALBOTTON, GA.—Work on the sand-clay road known as the Centerville Road,
which was begun during the fiscal year 1912, but which, owing to unfavorable
weather conditions, was discontinued on January 6, 1912, was resumed on
August 20, and finally completed on August 24, 1912. During the previous year
the road was graded 30 feet wide for 3,525 feet and surfaced 14 feet wide for
1,950 feet. When the work was resumed this surface was found to be in ex-
cellent condition with the exception of slight inequalities resulting from a lack
of proper care as the road dried out in the spring. The surface, constructed
last year, was extended 1,625 feet, with a width of 14 feet, making 2,528 square
yards, upon which 614 cubic yards of surfacing material was used. This
material, which was hauled an average distance of 1 mile, consisted of red
clay and fine loamy sand, and the clay was spread 4 inches deep before com-
pacting and the sand 8 inches. As in the previous work, the crown adopted ;
was three-fourths inch to 1 foot. The section between stations 34-+25 and
35-+25 was slightly inferior owing to the fact that the subgrade was wet and had
not fully settled when the surface was laid. An additional amount of sand
was used on this section, however, and it is expected that it will eventually be
as good as the rest of the road. The force employed was the regular county
road force, and was made up of 23 convicts, 3 guards, a superintendent, and
19 mules. Convict labor cost $0.50 per day and teams $1. The principal items
of cost were as follows: Loading surfacing material, at $0.062 per cubic yard,
$38.25; hauling surfacing material, at $0.091 per cubic yard, $56; spreading
surfacing material, at $0.001 per square yard, $2.25; mixing, at $0.0075 per
square yard, $18.50; shaping, at $0.002 per square yard, $5; repair and main-
tenance, $10; and camp.care for convicts, $17.50, making the total cost of the
work performed this year $147.50. The cost of work previously completed was
$1,067.31, and the total cost of the road was, therefore, $1,214.81, which is at
the rate of $0.22 per square yard.

Houston, Miss.—A section of sand-clay road was constructed in Chickasaw
County, leading north from Houston toward Houlka. This road is locally
known as the Pontotoc Road. A survey was made on April 22, 1913, and grad-
ing was begun on April 25, 1918. The road, as originally planned, was not com-
pleted under the supervision of the Office of Public Roads. This was due to the
fact that sufficient force was not employed to justify continuing the assignment,
On May 29, 1918, the work was turned over to a competent foreman with a view
to continuing it after the office representative was withdrawn. The land adja-

17627°—Bull. 583—13——3

18 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cent to the read is slightly rolling and the soil varies from a heavy plastic clay
to a loam Glay rich in lime, with blue clay occurring from station 17 to station
20. The maximum cut was 0.3 foot and the maximum fill 1.6 feet. The maxi-
mum grade was reduced from 3.4 to 2.9 per cent. The minimum grade remained
level. Labor cost $1 and teams $3 per 10-hour day.

The road was constructed by grading and shaping the old road, providing the
necessary drainage structures, and surfacing with a mixture of sand-clay. The
sand used in surfacing was obtained from a pit and mixed with clay from the
road. The sand was hauled in ordinary farm wagons having a capacity of
approximately 1 cubic yard, and the mixing was done with disk and spike-tooth
harrows and plows. The final finishing and shaping was done with a split-log
drag. Two reinforced concrete pipe culverts were constructed, each 16 feet in
length. The one at station 33 had a diameter of 30 inches and the other at
station 42-+81 had a diameter of 24 inches. The forms for these culverts con-
sisted of collapsible cylinders and the reinforcement of heavy woven-wire fenc-
ing. The end walls of the 30-inch culvert were 10 feet long and 9 inches thick.
Those of the 24-inch culvert were 9 feet long and 8 inches thick. The equipment
consisted of one 8-horse road grader, 1 road plow, 2 No. 1 drag scrapers, 1 split-
log drag, 1 disk harrow, 1 spike-tooth harrow, collapsible culvert forms, picks,
shovels, ete.

The total length graded was 4,080 feet. The width graded was 26 feet in cuts
and 20 feet in fills, making a total graded area of 11,787 square yards. For
2.450 feet the road was prepared for surfacing, but only 1,150 feet was finished.
The width surfaced was 14 feet, making a total surfaced area of 3,344.4 square
yards. The sand was spread to a loose depth of 6 inches and the crown of the
finished roadway was 1 inch to 1 foot. In the excavation 692 cubic yards of
material was moved, with an average haul of 10 feet-and a maximum haul of
50 feet. Sand to the amount of 583.3 cubic yards was used for surfacing and
the average haul from the sand pit to the road was 1.7 miles. In the construc-
‘tion of the culverts 12.3 cubic yards of concrete was used, and the gravel for
this work was hauled by rail for a distance of 76 miles, and then by wagon 0.6
mile from the siding to the road.

Cement cost $0.55 a sack and gravel $1.155 per cubic yard f. o. b. siding. The
total cost of the road to the community was $696.43, and the cost per square
yard, taking each item of cost separately and disregarding culverts, was approxi-
mately $0.158. The principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing and grub-
bing, $7.25; rough grading 692 cubic yards, at $0.0942 per cubic yard, $65.20;
preparing the subgrade, 3,700 square yards, at 60.0057 per square yard, $21.05;
loading sand, 583.3 cubic yards, at $0.0612 per cubic yard, $35.70; hauling sand,
583.3 cubic yards, at $0.6182 per cubic yard, $360.60; spreading sand, 583.3 cubic
yards, at $0.031 per cubic yard, $18.10; mixing 3,344.4 square yards, at $0.0086
per square yard, $28.90; shaping 6,211.1 square yards, at $0.0012 per square
yard, $7.25; superintendence, $38.40; and incidentals, assembling tools, etc.,
$4.80. The total cost of the drainage system was $109.18, and this figure may be
divided into the following items: Labor on the ditches, $16.80; excavating for
the culverts and backfilling over them, $11.40; hauling the gravel, cement, and
water 0.6 mile, $14.05; labor on the forms, $4.20; mixing and placing the con-
crete, $8; 18 cubic yards of gravel, at $1.155 per cubie yard, $20.79; 52 sacks of
cement, at $0.55 per sack, $28.60; 50 feet b. m. lumber, at $16 per thousand,
$0.80; 8 rods of heavy woven-wire fence, at 28 cents per rod, $2.24; 6 pounds of
nails, at $0.05 per pound, 30 cents; and 2 gallons of linseed oil, at $1 per gal-
lon, $2. '

Moscow, Miss.—A section of clay road 4,150 feet in length at Moscow, Miss.,
was partially relocated, graded, and surfaced with sand-clay. The graded width

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13, Ng

was 30 feet and the surfaced width 17 feet. This road lies between De Kalb
and Moscow, and is a part of what is known as the Jackson Road. The ad-
jacent land is hilly. Work was begun on September 20, 1912, and was com-
pleted on November 5, 1912. The only sand available for surfacing was very
fine grained and of poor quality. It was obtained from a pit and hauled ta
the road in farm wagons for approximately 15 miles.

The grading was done with a road machine, a railroad plow, and five slip
scrapers. The total area graded was 13,888 square yards, and the cost of
grading was $282.04. No record was kept of the quantity of material moved
in grading. The subgrade was shaped for surfacing at a cost of $0.003 per
square yard, or $20.58 for the 7,839 square yards surfaced.

Sand to the amount of 1,524 cubic yards was used for surfacing, and the cost
of surfacing was distributed as follows: Hauling 1,524 cubic yards of sand, at
$0.49 per cubic yard, $743.20; spreading 1,524 cubic yards of sand, at $0.007
per cubic yard, $10.60; and mixing 7,889 square.yards of surface, at $0.006 per
Square yard, $48.54; making the total cost of surfacing $802.34.

The other items of expense were: Ditching, $2555; clearing and grubbing,
$41.38; excavation for a bridge, $2.80; general expenses (foreman, coke, etc.),
$112.42; and miscellaneous expenses (camp, trips for provisions, etc.), $34.50.
This makes a total cost to the community of $1,321.61, or a cost per square yard
of $0.096.

All grading and other work on the road was done by the county convict force
with county teams, and the cost per convict was $0.40 per day, and the cost
per team $0.80 per day. The surfacing material was hauled by contributed
labor, the money value of which has been rated at $1 per day per man and
$2.50 per day per team.

Catypso, N. C.—A section of road leading from Calypso southeast toward
Kenansville was graded and surfaced between September 4 and September 14,
1912. The adjacent land is slightly rolling and the soil is sandy throughout
the length of the section. The grading consisted in plowing the ditches and
bringing the road to the proper cross section with a road machine. A small
amount of material was moved for an average distance of 50 feet with drag
scrapers. For 1,650 feet the road was graded. 24 feet wide and surfaced 14
feet wide, making the area graded 4,400 square yards and the area surfaced
2,563 square yards. The crown of the finished roadway was three-fourths inch
to 1 foot. Clay to the amount of 248 cubic yards was hauled an average dis-
tance of 2,400 feet, and 55 cubic yards of sand was hauled an average distance
of 1,760 feet. Farm wagons having an approximate capacity of 1 cubic yard
were used for hauling both sand and clay. They were loaded and unloaded
with shovels. Two corrugated-iron culverts were ordered for this work, but
were not received before the surfacing was completed. Directions were fur-
nished for placing them.

The equipment consisted of 1 road machine, 1 rooter plow, 1 turn plow, 1
split-log drag, 2 drag scrapers, 1 disk harrow, farm wagons, and hand tools.
Labor cost $1 and $1.50 per day and teams cost $1.20 and $2.50 per day. ‘The
total cost of the work was $133.60, which is at the rate of $0.0521 per square
yard. The principal items of cost were: Grading and shaping the subgrade,
$38.60; loading sand, $3.75; hauling sand, $6.25; spreading sand, $1.50, loading
clay, $22.65; hauling clay, $49.25; spreading clay, $5.50; mixing clay and sand,
$4.80; and final shaping with a drag, $1.60.

JERUSALEM, N. C.—A sand-clay road running from Cooleemee northeast to
Jerusalem was begun on September 38, 1912, and completed on October 18, 1912.
The land adjacent to the road is rolling and the soil varies from “ black jack”

20 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

gravel to micaceous clay. This road had been graded to a width of 24 feet
in cuts and 18 feet in fills, and the drainage structures were all completed
before the object-lesson work was begun.

The sand for use in surfacing was loosened with plows, loaded with hand
shovels, hauled approximately 1} miles in slat-bottom wagons, and spread
with grader and by hand. The subgrade prepared for surfacing was 20,020
feet long and 16 feet wide, making a total area of 35,590 square yards. The
same area was given a sand-clay surface 6 inches thick after compacting, with
a crown of three-fourths of an inch to 1 foot. For the surfacing 4,820 cubic
yards of material was used, approximately 3,000 cubic yards of which had to
be purchased. The cost of labor was $1.25 per day, and of teams $3 per day.

The total cost of the work was $1,799.61, which is at the rate of $0.0506 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were: Loading sand, at $0.0605 per
eubic yard, $291.61; mixing surfacing materials, at $0.001 per square yard,
$37.25; shaping, at. $0.0015 per square yard, $53.25; spreading sand, at $6.0187
per cubic yard, $66; hauling sand, at $0.2546 per cubic yard, $1,227; purchase.
of sand pits, $105.25; and general expenses, including water boy, ete., $19.25.
The cost of superintendence, which is included above, was 6.32 per cent of the.
total cost.

Lexineton, N. C.—A sand-clay surface was constructed at Lexington on
Fifth Avenue south from Center Street, toward the southbound railroad station.
The work was begun on July 22, 1912, and was completed on August 22, 1912.
The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is clay of a plastic nature
but lacking in toughness. ©

The first work was grading. The earth was loosened by means of a trac-
tion engine and a road plow, loaded and hauled with drag scrapers, wheel
scrapers, and wagons, .and spread with shovels. The maximum cut was 4
feet and the maximum fill 8 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from
8 per cent to 1 per cent.

The equipment consisted of 3 No. 2 wheel scrapers, 6 No. 2 drag scrapers, 2
plows, three 14-cubic-yard dump wagons, one 12-horsepower traction engine, picks,
shovels, ete. The average haul for excavation was 150 feet and the maximum
haul 400 feet. The sand mixed with the clay for surfacing was obtained from
a pit and hauled for an average distance of 3 miles in 1-cubic-yard slat-bottom
wagons. The quality of the sand was excellent for the purpose for which it
was used. Free labor cost $1.25 and $1.50, and foreman $3 per 10-hour day.
Convict labor was estimated at $1 per day, and teams cost from $2 to $3 per day.

The total length graded was 3,000 feet, and the width graded, both in cuts,
and fills, was 30 feet, making the total area graded 10,000 square yards. The
entire length of 3,000 feet was surfaced for a width of 18 feet, making the
area surfaced 6,000 square yards. The compacted depth of surfacing material
was 4 inches and the crown three-fourths of an inch to 1 foot. The earth
excavation amounted to 3,975 cubic yards, and the sand used for surfacing
amounted to 815 cubic yards. The total cost of the work was $1,177.45, which is
at the rate of $0.196 per square yard of surfaced area. The principal items
of cost were: Excavation, 3,975 cubic yards, at 11 cents per cubic, yard,
$440.35; hauling 815 cubic yards of sand, at 80 cents per cubic yard, $652;
spreading 815 cubic yards, at $0.016 per cubic yard, $12.75; mixing the sand
and clay, $60.60; sprinkling, $6; and general expenses, $5.75.

ARANSAS Pass, TEx.—A section of Commercial Street extending east from
Wheeler Avenue to the city limits was given a sand-clay surface during the
past fiscal year. Excavation was started on November 21, 1912, and the work
was entirely completed by December 16, 1912, with the loss of only one day

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 21

on account of unfavorable weather. A total length of 5,000 feet was graded
to a width of 16 feet in cuts and 18 feet in fills and surfaced to a width of 16
feet throughout, making a total area of 8,890 square yards for the surfaced
roadway.

The adjacent land is approximately level and the soil consists of fine loose
sand. Hight hundred and ninety cubic yards of earth was moved in excava-
tion, with a maximum cut of 2 feet and a minimum fill of 2.5 feet. The
excavated material was loosened with plows, hauled for an average distance
of 200 feet in wheel scrapers aud dump wagons, and spread with a road
machine. The maximum and minimum grades remained respectively 0.2 per
cent and level.

In order to increase the stability of the sand foundation, a layer of sea
moss, 2 inches thick before compacting, was spread before applying the sur-
facing material, and 117 wagon loads of moss were used. The surfacing ma-
terial, which consisted of a natural sand-clay mixture, was then spread to a
depth of 73 inches loose or 5 inches compacted, and a crown of 1 inch to 1
foot was given the roadway. The material for the surfacing amounted to
1,823 cubic yards. It was hauled 1,000 feet in slat-bottom wagons and spread
with a road machine. This material was delivered by contract at $0.50 per
cubie yard.

Labor cost $1.50 and teams cost $3.50 and $4 per 9-hour day. ‘The total
cost of the road to the community was $1,397.13, which is at the rate of
$0.157 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excava-
tion, at $0.848 per cubic yard, $309.58; surfacing material, delivered, at $0.50
per cubic yard, $911.50; spreading the surfacing material, at $0.011 per square
yard, $20; loading and spreading the moss, $82.05; shaping the finished roaa-
way, $8; and superintendence and general expenses, $66.

Corpus CHRISTI, Trex.—During the fall of 1912 a sand-clay road was con-
structed at Corpus Christi, extending in a northwesterly direction toward
Calallen. Work was begun on October 8, 1912, and completed on November 29,
1912, and during this time five days were lost on account of bad weather. The
land adjacent to the road is rolling and the nature of the soil is sand-clay
throughout, with clay predominating from station 0 to station 20, while from
station 20 to station 54 sand predominates. In all, 5,400 feet was graded 45
feet wide, making 27,000 square yards. The maximum cut was 1 foot and the
maximum fill 3.5 feet, and the grade was reduced from 6.5 per cent to 5 per
cent. The volume of excavation was 6,700 cubic yards, and the average haul
was 200 feet and the maximum haul 700 feet. Throughout its entire length
the road was surfaced with a natural sand-clay mixture of good binding and
wearing qualities for a width of 16 feet and a compacted depth of 6 inches,
making 9,600 square yards of surface covered, or 2,140 cubic yards of material
used. The material was spread with a road grader.

The crown adopted was one-half inch to 1 foot. The road was so located
that the principal problem presented was that of securing proper drainage. To
this end the grade was raised and six existing culverts were replaced by three
new ones of greater capacity, constructed as follows: At station 11+20 a
24-inch vitrified clay pipe 394 feet long; at station 24+20 two 36-inch corru-
gated metal pipes 24 feet long, replacing two 24-inch vitrified clay pipes; at
station 43-++00 a reinforced concrete box culvert, 6 feet in span, 43 feet in
height of opening, and 22 feet in length; and at station 51-+-50 an old 24-inch
vitrified clay pipe culvert was allowed to remain in place. All of the pipe used
was found on the ground, and the concrete culvert was built by contract.

The equipment consisted of 1 road grader, 4 wheel scrapers, 5 drag scrapers,
1 plow, three 14-cubic-yard wagons, 1 disk harrow, and 1 tooth harrow.

22 BULLETIN 538, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Labor cost $1.40 per 10-hour day and teams $1. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation, at $0.107 per cubic yard, $715.70; shaping sub-
grade, at $0.0007 per square yard, $10.89; clearing and grubbing, $44.99; haul-
ing the surfacing material, at $0.065 per cubic yard, $188.84; mixing, at $0.0011
per square yard; $10.92; labor for pipe culverts, $33.65; contract price of end
walls for pipe culverts, $66; contract price of box culvert, $154.50; and cost of
hauling materials for the concrete, not included in contract price, $43.25. The
total cost of the road was $1,218.74, which is at the rate of $0.127 per square
yard.

JEweETT, Tex.—Work was started on August 22, 1912, on a sand-clay road
running from Jewett westward toward Newby and completed on September 7,
1912. The land adjacent to the road is rolling, and the soil is sandy throughout
the section surfaced. In grading, the earth was loosened by plowing and
hauled in drag scrapers for an average distance of 50 feet. A section 10,500
feet long was graded for a width of 40 feet and surfaced for a width of 14
feet, making the area graded 46,666 square yards and the area surfaced 16,333
square yards. Earth to the amount of 4,850 cubic yards was moved in the
excavation, and 4,100 cubic yards of clay was used for surfacing. The clay
was hauled for an average distance of 1,850 feet and spread to a depth of
9 inches, measured loose, but on account of the continued dry weather it could
not be successfully mixed with the sand. Specifications were furnished by the
representative of the Office of Public Roads, however, for properly mixing the
materials when the weather became favorable, and this part of the work was let
to contract. Five wooden culverts, 24 feet in length, were constructed, with the
following cross sectional dimensions: Two 4 feet by 2 feet, one 10 feet by 23 feet,
and two 16 feet by 3 feet. Three thousand seven hundred and fifty feet b. m.
of pine timber and 24 oak posts were used for these culverts.

The equipment consisted of one 2-horse blade ditcher, plows, slat-bottom
wagons, and hand tools. Labor cost $1.75 per 10-hour day and teams $4. The
total cost of the work was $3,017.08, which is at the rate of $0.184 per square
yard. The principal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing, $28.75; exca-
vation and embankment, $608.75; loosening and loading clay, $637.75; hauling
Clay, $1,183.75; spreading clay, $74.75; trenching for clay at the side of the road,
$30; shaping with the grader, $27.50; contract price for mixing, $150; materials
for culverts, $121.44; labor for culverts, $51.76; superintendence, $75; and gen-
eral expenses, $27.63. _

PEARSALL, Tex.—A section of road in Frio County leading northeast from
Pearsall toward Bigfoot, known as the Sand Hollow Road, was improved by
surfacing with sand clay. The work was begun on February 20, 1913, and
continued until March 31, 1913. Bight days were lost on account of rain and
74 days for other reasons. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is a fine
sandy loam. The maximum and minimum grades remained respectively 2 per
cent and level. The existing grade of this road was such that the only grading
necessary was done with the road machine. The only exceptions to this were
at stations 23 and 27, where the material obtained in uncovering the clay pit
was hauled to fill several holes in the road. Labor cost from $1.10 to $1.25 and
teams $3 per 10-hour day.

The road was constructed by first carefully shaping it with a road machine
and then spreading a wearing course of clay over the surface. The road was
then reshaped by means of the road machine. The clay used for surfacing
contained a considerable amount of sand, and possessed excellent binding and
wearing qualities. It was spread by hand with shovels and hose, and was
obtained from pits and hauled in 1-cubic-yard slat-bottom wagons. At station

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 23

37 a wooden box 14 by 2 by 24 feet was constructed. This was the only drainage
structure provided. The equipment consisted of 1 road machine, § 4-yard drag
serapers, 8 slat-bottom wagons, 1 heavy road plow, picks, shovels, etc.

The total length of the road was 4,700 feet and the width both in cuts and fills
was 26 feet, making a graded area of 13,578 square yards. The entire length of
4,700 feet was prepared for surfacing, but only 4,200 feet was surfaced. The
width of the surface was 15 feet, making a total surfaced area of 7,000 square
yards. The surfacing material was spread to a depth of 8 inches compacted and
given a crown of three-fourths inch to 1 foot. The clay used for surfacing
amounted to 1,556 cubic yards and was hauled for an average distance of 1,050
feet. In constructing the wooden box culvert at station 37, 406 feet b. m. No. 1
pine was used. The total cost of the road to the community was $926.90,
making the cost per square yard of surfaced area $0.132. The principal items
of cost were: Grading and shaping the subgrade, $42.40; filling holes with
material stripped from the clay pits, $22.25; timber for the culvert, $12.75;
stripping the clay pits, $143; loosening and loading clay, 1,556 cubic yards at
$0.183 per cubic yard, $284.72; hauling clay, 1,556 cubic yards at $0.228 per
cubic yard, $355.50; spreading clay, 1,556 cubic yards at $0.032 per cubic yard,
$50.70; dragging, $11.70; and trimming shoulders, $3.88.

San ANTONIO, Tex.—A section of the road leading from San Antonio south
toward Laredo was improved by grading and surfacing with sand and clay.
The section is 1 mile in length and approximately 20 miles south of San Antonio.
The work was started on January 7, 1913, and completed on February 14, 1913,
with the loss of 53 days on account of rain and bad weather. The adjacent
land is rolling, and the soil is a sandy loam upon a clay subsoil throughout the
entire road. The maximum cut was 1.7 feet and the maximum fill 1.6 feet.
The maximum grade was reduced from 3.7 to 2.8 per cent. Labor cost $1.50
and teams $3.45 per nine-hour day.

The road was constructed by spreading a surface course of clay over the
natural sand soil used in the foundation. At stations 4+30 and 37+30, where
streams are forded, it was necessary to construct stone curbing on either side
of the clay surface to protect it from washings. The curb at station 4+30
was 20 feet by 12 inches by 18 inches, and that at station 37+30 was 24 feet
by 12 inches by 18 inches.

The road was graded for a total length of 5,280 feet. The width in cuts was
40 feet and in fills 24 feet, making the total area graded 23,467 square yards.
The entire length of 5,280 feet was surfaced to a width of 16 feet, making the
surfaced area 9,387 square yards. In grading it was necessary to excavate
2.775 cubic yards of earth, and 1,825 cubic yards of clay was used in surfacing.
The earth was loosened with plows and hauled a short distance with wheel and
Fresno scrapers. The clay was obtained from pits and hauled an average
distance of 305 feet in wagons. The equipment consisted of 1 eight-horse road
grader, 1 disk harrow, 2 plows, 1 spike-tooth harrow, 5 No. 1 wheel scrapers,
8 five-foot Fresno scrapers, 1 three-foot Fresno scraper, 2 No. 2 slip scrapers,
wagons, picks, shovels, ete. t

The clay was spread to a loose depth of 7 inches, and the crown of the finished
surface was three-fourths inch to 1 foot. The total cost of the road to the
community was $1,261.57, which is at the rate of $0.134 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing and surfacing the entire road,
$81.25; moving and rebuilding fences, $73.34; moving a house from the right
of way, $19.56; constructing curbing, 2.4 cubie yards, at $2.24 per cubic yard,
$5.38; excavating 2,775 cubic yards of earth, at $0.1149 per cubic yard, $318.86;
loading, hauling, and spreading 1,825 cubic yards of clay, at $0.2864 per cubic
yard, $522.65; stripping clay pits, $52.91; back-filling clay pits, $88.20; mixing

24 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

clay and sand, 9,387 square yards, at $0.0069 per square yard, $64.78; and shap-
ing the surface, 23,467 square yards, at $0.0015 per square yard, $34.64.

FRANKTOWN, Va.—A sand-clay road leading from Franktown toward Hast-
ville and known as the Hastville Road was begun on September 4, 1912, and left
as completed on October 14, 1912. The road subsequently became unsatisfac-
tory, however, and a representative of the Office of Public Roads was detailed
to investigate the causes and to supervise such additional work as the eondi-
tions seemed to warrant. Work was resumed on January 20, 19138, and the
project finally completed on February 1, 19138. Altogether 4 days were lost on
account of bad weather.

The land adjacent to the road is rolling, and the soil is sand from station 0-
to station 12; clay from station 12 to station 15; sand from station 15 to sta-
tion 25; and clay from station 25 to station 34. The maximum grade was
reduced from 5 per cent to 2 per cent, and the maximum cut was 5 feet and
the maximum fill 4 feet. In grading, the earth was loosened with plows,
hauled_with drag scrapers, and spread with shovels. The total amount moved
was 1,590 cubic yards. For 3,400 feet the road was graded 30 feet wide and
surfaced 15 feet wide, giving an area of 11,3833 square yards graded and 5,666
square yards surfaced. Clay was spread to a depth varying from 4 inches to 12
inches and mixed with an 8-inch course of sand. The crown of the finished
road was 1 inch to 1 foot.

The total cost of the road to the community was $670.60, which is at the
rate of $0.118 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Grading,
$289.31; clearing and grubbing, $61.27; shaping the subgrade, $19.50; loading
and hauling the clay, $137.75; loading and hauling the sand, $87; mixing the
sand and clay, $26.90; shaping, $25.37; trimming the shoulders, $8.75; and con-
structing road intersections, $14.75. Labor cost $1.25 per 10-hour day and
teams $2.50, $3, $4, and $4.25.

SAND-GUMBO ROAD.

CoLtuMBuUS, NreBR.—A section of sand-gumbo road extending northwest from
the Platte River toward Columbus was constructed during the fiscal year 1912
and was described in the last annual report of the Office of Public Roads. The
work was resumed on August 19, 1912, and an additional section 3,002 feet long
was graded to a width of 32 feet in cuts and 24 feet in fills and given a sand-
gumbo surface 16 feet wide. The additional area graded was 10,228 square
yards and the additional area surfaced 5,337 square yards. The section was
completed on September 4, 1912.

In the excavation 760 cubic yards of earth was moved, and the maximum
eut was 1.3 feet and the maximum fill 2.7 feet. The maximum grade was
reduced from 13.2 per cent to 4.4 per cent. The adjacent land is level and the
soil is sandy. The earth was loosened with plows and hauled in drag, Fresno,
and wheel scrapers for an average haul of 160 feet and a maximum haul of
350 feet. ;

The surfacing material consisted of a good quality of black gumbo and sharp,
clean sand. The gumbo was spread to a depth of 74 inches and the sand to a
depth of 6 inches, both measured loose. The two materials were mixed by
means of plows and harrows and shaped with a steel drag and a road machine.
The compacted depth of the finished surface was 8 inches and the crown was
three-fourths inch to 1 foot. In this work 1,165 cubic yards of gumbo and 890
cubie yards of sand were used. The gumbo was hauled approximately 2 miles
in slat-bottom dump wagons having a capacity of 1 cubic yard, and the sand was
hauled 4,000 feet in the same wagons.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 25

The outfit consisted of 4 drag scrapers, 2 Fresno scrapers, 1 wheel scraper.
one 8-horse road machine, 1 steel road drag, 1 plow, 1 disk harrow, 1 spike
harrow, and hand tools. Labor cost $2 and teams $4 per 10-hour day.

The total cost of the road to the community was $1,663.15, which is at the
rate of $0.311 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows:
Excavation, at $0.158 per cubic yard, $120; shaping the subgrade, at $0.005 per
square yard, $28.20; loading gumbo, at $0.155 per cubic yard, $180.40; hauling
gumbo, at $0.60 per cubic yard, $698.80; spreading gumbo, at $0.029 per cubic
yard, $34; loading sand, at $0.105 per cubic yard, $93.60; hauling sand, at $0.336
per cubic yard, $299; spreading sand, at $0.012 per cubic yard, $10.60; mixing,
at $0.007 per square yard, $37.20; rolling, at $0.0025 per square yard, $13.60;
shaping, at $0.001 per square yard, $4; shoulders and ditches, $46.40; purchase
of gumbo pit, at $125 per acre, $41.85; miscellaneous, $14; and superintend-
ence, $42.

SHELL ROADS.

Fort Myers, Fxia.—A shell road leading from Fort Myers toward Punta
Rassa, known as the McGregor Boulevard, was begun on May 15, 1912, and
completed on December 11, 1912. This road was constructed in two sections—
one section lying within the corporate limits of Fort Myers and paid for by
the municipality, and the other outside of the corporate limits and paid for by
the county. The land adjacent to the road is approximately level and the soil
is sandy throughout.

The town section. (waterbound).—The town section was 7,200 feet long, and
was graded to a width of 28 feet outside to outside of shoulders or 36 feet between
curbs. The shell surface replaced an old surface of the same kind which had
become badly worn, and extended the entire length of the section. It was 16 feet
wide and the surfaced area was 12,800 square yards. The shell was spread 12
inches deep and compacted to 6 inches. The total amount of shell used was
3,838 cubie yards, all of which was purchased at a cost of $1.0203 per cubic
yard. Two hundred and five feet of vitrified clay culvert pipe, ranging in
diameter from 15 inches to 24 inches, was used. A reinforced concrete girder
bridge, having a span of 24 feet, a width of roadway of 24 feet, and a 6-foot
height of opening, was constructed at station 59. This bridge was constructed
by contract and cost $1,540.

The total cost of the road, exclusive of the concrete bridge, was $6,539.36,
making a rate of $0.511 per square yard. The cost of labor was $1.50 per 10-
hour day and of teams $5 per day. The principal items of cost were: Clear-
ing, fine grading, and trenching, $579.60; scarifying the old road, $115.50; cul-
vert pipe delivered, $183.70; labor for pipe culverts, $70; surfacing material at
dock, $3,915.96; hauling the surfacing material from the dock to the road,
$1,186.35; spreading the surfacing material, $334.25; and rolling, $154. Wood for
fuel for the roller was cut by county convict force and the cost is not included.

The equipment consisted of a 10-ton road roller, slat-bottom wagons, and
hand tools. The average haul for shell was 1 mile and for water for the roller
+ mile. :

The county section (bituminous).—The county section was 9,100 feet long and
had been partially graded before the object-lesson work was begun. The ayail-
able cost data concerning grading were, therefore, not complete. The width
graded was 24 feet and the width surfaced 16 feet, making a total area of 24,267
square yards graded and 16,178 square yards surfaced. 'The shell was spread
to a depth of 14 inches in the center and 10 inches on the sides, and compacted
to 7 inches in the center and 5 inches on the sides. The shell was old and rotten
and ranged in size from whole oyster shelts to small fragments.

26 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

After this material had been spread and partially compacted, a thin bitumi-
nous binder was applied to the surface cold, at the rate of one-half gallon per
square yard, and left undisturbed until the next day. Shell fines and sand
were then spread over the bitumen and the surface was rolled until thoroughly
compacted. The length of road treated with bitumen was 8,950 feet and the
area 15,911 square yards.

Vitrified clay pipe, 168 feet by 24 inches, half-round corrugated iron pipe, 56
feet by 60 inches, and circular corrugated pipe, 32 feet by 48 inches, were used
in constructing culverts. :

The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a road grader, slat-bottom wagons
of 24 cubic yards’ capacity, and hand tools, and labor cost $1.50 per 10-hour
day for men and $5 for teams. The cost was distributed as follows: Clearing,
grading, and ditching (estimated), $1,800; wood for fuel for the roller, $150:
shaping the subgrade, 16,178 square yards, at $0.00644 per square yard, $104.25;
culvert pipe, $595.88; labor on the culverts, $136.25; shell for surfacing, 5,608
cubie yards, at $1.0125 per cubic yard, $5,678.55; hauling the shell, 5,608 cubic
yards, at $0.446 per cubic yard, $2,499.75; spreading the shell, 5,608 cubic yards,
at $0.0678 per cubic yard, $380.25; sprinkling, 16,178 square yards, at $0.00513
per square yard, $83; rolling, 16,178 square yards, at $0.01845 per square yard,
$298.50; trimming the shoulders and ditches (41,000 feet), $175.75; bitumen,
8,089 gallons, at $0.09 per gallon, $728; demurrage on car, $81; hauling the
bitumen, $68; spreading the bitumen, 15,911 square yards, at $0.00613 per
square yard, $97.50; applying shell fines and sand, 15,911 square yards, at
$0.00778 per square yard, $123.75; and incidentals, $6.

The total cost of the road to the community was $13,006.43, which is at the
rate of $0.804 per square yard.

ANNAPOLIS, Mp.—Several sections of road aggregating approximately 7,052
feet in length upon the grounds of the United States Naval Academy at
Annapolis were improved between April 17, 1918, and May 16, 1918. The land
adjacent to these roads is nearly level and the soil has been made by filling
with various materials, such as clay, brick, shells, ete. The maximum cut
and the maximum fill were each about 0.5 foot, since the grading was essen-
tially only a matter of correcting slight irregularities in the grade of the old
roads. The cost of labor was $1.28, and of 1-horse teams $2 per 8-hour day.

The equipment consisted of one 4%-ton tandem roller, one 10-ton macadam
roller, 1 spike-tooth harrow, 1 water wagon, one 2-horse grader, carts, picks,
shovels, ete. The average haul for excavation was 1,000 feet and the maximum
haul, 2,000 feet. The hauling was done in carts having about 4 cubic yard
capacity. Shell for surfacing was brought by water for a distance of about
40 miles and hauled in 25-bushel carts 800 feet from the scow to the road. It
was not necessary to provide any additional culverts or other drains on any
part of the work.

The improvement consisted in shaping the old road, a considerable part of
which had been previously surfaced with shell, and constructing a new oyster-
shell surface. The wearing quality of the shell was apparently not very good.
The surfacing was done in seven sections having the following dimensions.
length by width: 878 feet by 18 feet, 854 feet by 20 feet, 430 feet by 18 feet,
2.000 feet by 18 feet, 740 feet by 26 feet, 1,500 feet by 18 feet, and 650 feet by
15 feet, and the total area surfaced amounted to 11,935 square yards. The
depth to which the shell was spread varied from 2 inches to 13 inches,
measured loose, according to the condition of the surface, and the compacted
depth was about one-third the loose depth. Material to the extent of 1,037
cubic yards was moved in the excavation and 46,125 bushels of shells were
used in surfacing. In all, 24,300 bushels of shells were delivered on the road at

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. oF

$0.035 per bushel, while the remaining 21,825 bushels cost $0.045 delivered at
the Naval Academy docks.

The total cost of the work, exclusive of depreciation and fuel for the roller,
was $2,803.11, making the cost per square yard $0.19. The principal items of
cost were as follows: Hxcavation, 1,037 cubic yards at $0.30 per cubic yard,
$310.44; shaping the subgrade, $236.76; surfacing material delivered on the
road, 24,300 bushels, at $0.085 per bushel, $850.51; surfacing material delivered
at the docks, 21,825 bushels, at $0.045 per bushel, $982.12; hauling the surface
material, $110.40; spreading the surfacing material, $156.44; rolling the surface,
$155.16; and incidental expenses, $1.28.

EARTH ROADS.

PANGBURN, ARK.—Work was begun on the River Road leading from Pang-
burn toward. Cleburne County on September 2, 1912, and was completed on
September 13, 1912. An earth road 1,000 feet long was constructed 30 feet
wide. -

The country is hilly and the natural soil from station O to station 8 is clay
containing sandstone and shale. From station 8 to station 10, on the west side
of the road, it is also clay and rock, but on the east side the soil is loam. ‘There
was no center cut and the maximum fill was 2 feet. The maximum grade re-
mained 10 per cent, as it was before the improvement. 'The earth was loosened
with a plow and picks, hauled in drag scrapers, and spread with shovels and a
road grader. The presence of loose rock in the clay made excavation difficult.
It was removed with picks and a bar by hand labor. The maximum haul was
120 feet and the average haul 40 feet. A retaining wall 27 feet long was built
at station 8. It was made of the stone obtained in excavating and laid dry.

The equipment consisted of a road grader, a road plow, and hand tools, all of
which were in poor condition. Labor cost $0.125 per hour, and teams cost $0.375
and $0.25 per hour. The total cost of the road was $166.75, which is at the
rate of $0.05 per square yard, or $880.44 per mile. ‘The principal items of cost
were as follows: Clearing and grubbing, 3,333 square yards, at $0.005 per
square yard, $17; earth excavation and embankment, 500 cubic yards, at $0.18
per cubic yard, $90; rock excavation, 42% cubic yards, at $1 per cubic yard,
$42.75; fine grading, 3,833 square yards, at $0.0044 per square yard, $14.50; and
retaining wall, 5 cubic yards, at $0.50 per cubic yard, $2.50.

ZONA, FLA.—Work was begun on February 4, 1913, on a road leading east-
ward from the State canal, about one-half mile above Zona. The road was
built between and parallel to two tributary ditches to this canal, which were
about 40 feet apart, and the material excavated from the ditches was used
in grading the road. The work was in the nature of an experiment, having
for its object the development of a satisfactory road surface composed of the
native black muck, muck and sand, or coralline rock. The road is in the
Everglade district, and the material obtained from the ditches was of three dis-
tinct types. The top soil, to the depth of from 2 to 5 feet, was black muck,
which is in reality decayed organic matter, finely honeycombed, very light and
fluffy when dry, and very difficult to consolidate. Below this muck a layer of
fine sand was encountered varying in depth from 1 to 8 feet. The formation
below the sand was coralline rock.

The section of road improved was 6,800 feet long and 18 feet wide, making
a total area of 13,600 square yards.

It was originally intended that the first 2,000 feet would be surfaced with
coralline rock obtained from the banks of the State canal, and that the remain-
ing distance should be divided into two experimental sections, the first to be
surfaced with muck or loam, which was to be consolidated by a light tamping

ee ae a ae

28 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

roller, and the second to be surfaced with muck and sand spread in alternate
layers and mixed by puddling with the tamping roller.

At the time the work was done labor and teams were difficult to obtain and
no roller of any description was to be had. The specifications were drawn up,
however, for a light tamping roller, and it was agreed by the interested parties
to postpone the work until the roller could be made and labor and teams should
become available. The work was accordingly discontinued on February 21,
1913, but it is hoped that it will be resumed and prosecuted at some future
time when the conditions are more favorable.

The cost of the work done, which consisted in spreading the material from
the ditch banks and shaping the road, was $267.20, which is at the rate of
$0.019 per square yard. Labor cost $2 per day and no teams were employed.

Orb, NEBR.—Work was started on an earth road running from Ord eastward
toward Spelts on August 3, 1912, and finished on August 17, 1912. The land
adjacent to the road is level, while the soil is loam with a quicksand subsoil
from station 0 to station 30, and loam with a clay subsoil from station 30 to
station 50—the end of the road. Earth to the amount of 2,462 cubic yards
was moved, of which 180 cubic yards was loosened with a plow and hauled
an average distance of 250 feet with Fresno and drag scrapers; 1,550 cubic
yards was loosened and loaded with an elevating grader and hauled an average
distance of 2,870 feet in slat-bottom wagons; and 732 cubic yards was placed
with the elevating grader. The maximum cut was 0.6 foot and the maximum
fill 1.6 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 2 per cent to 1.6 per cent.

The road was graded 5,000‘feet to a width of 24 feet, and the total area
was 13,333 square yards. The.crown of the roadway was three-fourths inch
to 1 foot. Reinforced concrete culverts, 3 by 2 feet and 26 feet long, each con-
taining 11.6 cubic yards of concrete and 600 pounds of steel, were constructed
at stations 7+95 and 26+37, and a 12-inch vitrified clay-pipe culvert at sta-
tion 33-++80 was lengthened 6 feet and supplied with concrete end walls.

The equipment consisted of a 10-ton oil-burning tractor, an elevating grader,
a road machine, drag and Fresno scrapers, slat-bottom wagons, and hand
tools. The tractor, which was used for drawing the grader, consumed 270
gallons of petroleum. Labor cost $2; teams, $4; and foremen, $4.50 per 10-
hour day. Fuel oil cost $0.095 per gallon; cement, $1.84 per barrel; sand and
gravel, $0.50 per cubic yard; and steel, $0.026 per pound.

The total cost of the road was $743. 88, which is at the rate of $0.056 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were: Grading, $487.42; shaping the
roadway, $38.30; vitrified clay pipe (6 feet 12 inches), $1.35; end walls, $11.88;
concrete culverts, $203.93; and grading the road intersection, $1. The costs of
all materials are included above under the proper items.

Catypso, N. C.—On September 16 and 17, 1912, a representative of the Office
of Public Roads who had supervised the construction of an object-lesson sand-
clay road at Calypso, assisted the local road officials in getting work under way
on an earth road. During these two days a section of road 800 feet long was
partially cleared and graded, though no part of this was entirely finished.

Twenty-one dollars and twenty cents was spent for this work, of which $6
was spent for clearing and grubbing and $15.20 for grading. Instructions were
given by the office representative for continuing the work.

Mapison, 8S. Dax.—An earth road leading southward from Madison toward
Clarena, known as the Meridian Road, was begun on July 30, 1912, and a section
6,092 feet long was completed by August 6, 1912. The land adjacent to the
road is rolling, and the soil is prairie loam with a clay subsoil. The maximum
fill was 1.7 feet, and there was no cut. The maximum grade remained approxi-

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 29

mately 3.9 per cent, as it was before the improvement. Two corrugated metal
culverts 26 feet long were constructed; one, 12 inches in diameter, at station
27-++35 and one, 15 inches in diameter, at station 55-+00.

The road was graded to a width of 44 feet, making a graded area of 29,783
square yards. WHarth, 2,708 cubic yards of which was moved, was for the
greater part placed with an elevating grader hauled by a gas tractor, though
plows and scrapers were used when more practicable. After the rough grading
was completed the road was harrowed with a disk harrow and then shaped
and compacted with a blade grader hauled by the gas tractor.

The equipment consisted of 1 gas tractor, one 8-horse blade grader, 1 elevating
grader, one 4-horse blade grader, 2 small wheel scrapers, 1 drag scraper, 1 plow,
1 disk harrow, 1 spike harrow, and hand tools. The gas tractor, with operator
and supplies, was hired at a cost of $25 per 10-hour day. Labor cost $2.50 and
teams $4.50 per 10-hour day.

The total cost of the road to the community was $236.92, or, disregarding the
eost of culverts, $182.80, which is at the rate of $0.0061 per square yard. 'The
principal items of cost were: HWxcavation, at $0.0405 per cubic yard, $109.82;
fine grading, at $0.0017 per square yard, $50.48; compacting, at $0.0008 per
square yard, $22.50; culvert pipe, $49.92; and labor on culverts, $4.20.

Dickson, TENN.—Work was started on November 12, 1912, on an earth road
leading southwest from Dickson and was discontinued on November 29, 1912,
after a section 5,280 feet long had been graded to a width of 24 feet in cuts
and 18 feet in fills. The adjacent land is hilly and the soil varies from loam to
solid rock, with rock predominating. With the limited amount of funds avaiil-
able for this work, it was impossible to reduce the steep maximum grade of 10.1
per cent materially or to make the general character of the work such as was
desired.

The total area graded was 11,710 square yards, while the volume of earth
excavation was 1,700 cubic yards and the volume of rock excavation 25 cubic
yards. The maximum cut was 3.6 feet and the maximum fill 2.5 feet. Earth
was loosened with plows and hauled with drag scrapers and wagons or moved
with a road machine. Rock was excavated by hand drilling and blasting with
40 per cent dynamite, and the loosened material was moved by hand. A 12-
horsepower traction engine was used for plowing and also for pulling the road
machine.

Two timber culverts were constructed—one at station 25+18 having a span
of 2 feet, a height of opening of 1 foot 4 inches, and a length of 15 feet, and the
other, at station 41+ 48, having a span of 3 feet, a height of opening of 2 feet,
and a length of 24 feet.

The equipment consisted of one 12-horsepower traction engine, one 300-gallon
tank, 2 plows, 2 No. 2 drag scrapers, 1 reversible road machine, and hand tools.
The traction engine, road machine, and tank were hired as one outfit for $9 per
10-hour day, and this price included all charges for operators, fuel, etc. Labor
cost $1.25 and teams $3 per 10-hour day.

The total cost of the road to the community was $429.65, which is at the rate
of $0.037 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Clearing, $1.13;
excavation (earth), at $0.194 per cubic yard, $330.14; excavation (rock), at
$1.275 per cubic yard, $31.88; dynamite for rock excavation, $7.15; constructing
culverts, $4.30; materials for culverts, $12.95; fine grading, $12.60; superintend-
ence, $28; and incidentals, $1.50.

FANNETT, Tex.—An earth road, leading from Fannett northwest toward
Nome, was constructed between May 5, 1918, and June 13, 1918. The road
traverses marsh or rice land, having a black, waxy soil. The maximum fill
was 3 feet, and the average fill throughout the length of the road was 1 foot.

30 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The max!mum grade was 0.5 per cent. The material composing the embank-
ment was loosened with plows, hauled with drag scrapers, and spread with a
road grader. After the fill was brought to approximately 1 foot below grade
with the local soil it was completed with a natural mixture of sand and loam
which possesses fair binding and wearing qualities. The loam was hauled in
ordinary farm wagons with slat bottoms for an average distance of three-
eighths mile and spread with a road grader. The total length of the road con-
structed was 5,280 feet, and the width of the grade was 24 feet and of the
loam surface 14 feet, making a total graded area of 14,080 square yards and a
surfaced area of 8,213 square yards. The loam was spread to a depth of 16
inches loose and compacted to 12 inches. The crown of the finished roadway
was approximately 14 inches to 1 foot. The material removed in grading
amounted to 4,694 cubic yards, and 2,400 cubic yards of sandy loam was used
in surfacing. In making the improvement it was necessary to raise two old
wooden bridges to conform to the new grade. Labor cost $1.75 and teams $5
per 10-hour day.

The total cost of the road to the community was $1,733.24, which is at the
rate of $0.211 per square yard of surfaced area. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation, 4,694 cubic yards, at $0.171 per cubic yard,
$819.62 ; shaping the subgrade, 14,080 square yards, at $0.0026 per square yard,
$36.75; clearing the right of way, $7; raising the old bridges, $17.50; loading
sandy loam, 2,400 cubic yards, at $0.107 per cubic yard, $256.37; hauling the
sandy loam, at $0.235 per cubic yard, $564.50; and spreading the sandy loam, at
$0.013 per cubic yard, $31.50.

Patisco, Tex.—Work was begun on the Turtle Bay, Road leading northwest
from Palacios on January 27, 1913, and discontinued on March 11, 1913, with
the loss of 10 days on account of rain. It was originally intended that this road
should be surfaced with mud-shell obtained from Matagorda Bay at the mouth
of the Colorado River. After the road was graded and drained, however, for a
total length of 14,900 feet, it was decided to postpone the surfacing until the
spring of 1914. The land traversed by this road is approximately level, and
the soil consists of sandy loam from station 0 to station 320, and gumbo
throughout the remaining distance. Wooden culverts were constructed at sta-
tions 48+35, 51+30, and 59; and concrete culverts at stations 11+20, 18,
59-+50, and 97. The road was graded 50 feet wide for approximately 4,600
feet and 45 feet for the remaining distance, making a total graded area of
approximately 77,000 square yards. The total cost to the community of this
road was $2,554, which is at the rate of $0.034 Bee square yard. Labor cost
$1.75, and teams $4 for a 10-hour day.

It is anticipated that this work will be completed under the supervision of the
Office of Public Roads, and that a detailed statement of costs will appear in a
later report.

BAYFIELD, W1sS.—A section of earth road was constructed in Bayfield County
in the Redcliff Indian Reservation. This road leads north from Redcliff toward
Sand River and is known as the Redcliff Road. The road improved is only a
short section of what it was planned to improve. Plans were furnished for 34
miles of road, and this work has been pushed to completion during the past
season by the local authorities. The work of grading was begun on June 10,
1913, and completed on June 13, 1913. The adjacent land is rolling and the
soil is sandy loam from station 49 to station 51 and clay from station 51 to
station 52+20. The section improved extends from station 49 to station 62-++-20
of the survey and is new location. The maximum cut was 8 feet and the
maximum fil] 34 feet. The maximum grade was 5 per cent and the minimum
grade 2 per cent. Labor cost $2 and teams $5 per 10-hour day.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 31

The equipment consisted of 1 road machine, 6 No. 1 drag scrapers, 2 plows,
picks, shovels, ete. The only work done consisted in grading and shaping the
road.

The total length graded was 1,320 feet. The width in cuts was 27 feet and
in fills 24 feet. The total graded area was 3,960 square yards. The right of
way was cleared to a width of 66 feet. The roadway was given a crown of
three-quarters inch to 1 foot. In all, 745 cubic yards of earth was moved in the
excavation and hauled an average distance of 75 feet, with a maximum haul of
300 feet. The total cost of the road to the community was $238.50, which is at
the rate of $0.06 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Excavation,
745 cubic yards at $0.20, $149; shaping with the road machine, 3,960 square
yards at $0.006 per square yard, $24.50; and clearing and grubbing the right of
way, $65.

INSPECTION OF OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.

The arrangement adopted last year for providing for systematic inspection
of work in progress and of projects submitted to this office by the local officials
was so successful in saving time and expense that it will be continued.

A chief inspector has been appointed, and during the past year has reported
as follows: Inspections of old object-lesson roads, 3; inspections of work in
progress under field men, 14; and preliminary inspections of proposed work, 5.
Special assignments of a confidential nature were covered at Raleigh, N. C.,
relative to the improvement of post roads in that State; at Hlkhart, Ind., rela-
tive to county contract work in progress; and at Knoxville, Tenn., relative to the
cost of macadam construction and a ease at law involving contractors’ antici-
pated profits. Special assignments were also covered at Letchworth Park,
N. Y., in connection with the creation of a system of roads within the park
limits; at Augusta, Me., for a study of the State highway system and a draft
of a proposed State law establishing a highway commission, ete. Special ad-
vice and inspections of a routine nature were made at Anaconda, Mont., Nappa-
nee, Ind., Gatesville, N. C., and Arcadia, Fla.

The chief inspector also made nine general inspections in connection with
post-road projects under the Post Office appropriation act of August, 1912.

UNFINISHED WORK.

Object-lesson roads were begun at St. Johns, Ariz., Morgantown, N. C., and
Appomattox, Va., during the latter part of the last fiscal year and are still in
course of construction. These roads will be described in the report on the field
work of the Office of Public Roads for 1913-14.

EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13.

The office conducted a series of experiments in road building at the following
places during the past fiscal year: Miami, Fla.; Chevy Chase, Md.; Rockville
Pike, Montgomery County, Md.; and the Agricultural Department grounds,
Washington, D. C. These will be described in greater detail in the regular
annual progress report on experiments in dust preventives and road binders.
A brief description of each road is, however, given below.

EXPERIMENTS AT MIAMI, FLA.

On June 9, 1913, at the request of the board of county commissioners of
Dade County, Fla., an engineer was assigned from the Office of Public Roads to

32 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

supervise the construction of a series of test sections on the Biscayne Drive,
about 2 miles north of Miami, for the purpose of investigating the practicability
of a bituminous-surface treatment for the local roads. These roads have all
been surfaced with a soft oolitic limestone, known locally as marl, coralline rock,
or limestone, deposits of which are found in various sections of the county. Six
separate experiments were made on as many sections of road, and the total
area surfaced was 2,804 square yards.

EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD.

The work at Chevy Chase is the continuation of the series of experiments
begun in 1911, made possible through the appropriation by Congress of a special
fund for carrying on such work. Various experiments in surface treatment
were conducted on the section of water-bound macadam constructed in the
past fiscal year. '

In continuation of the 1911 experiments, additional sections were constructed
upon a section of Connecticut Avenue, beginning at Bradley Lane and extend-
ing to the loop of the Capital Traction Co’s. tracks at Chevy Chase Lake, The
experiments are six in number, and comprise sections of bituminous concrete,
concrete, oil-cement concrete, bituminous-surfaced concrete, surface treatments,
and vitrified brick. Up to date about 16,378 square yards have been surfaced, as
follows: Bituminous concrete, 2,898 square yards; concrete, 3,013 square yards;
oil-cement concrete, 1,744 square yards; bituminous-surfaced concrete, 4,178
square yards; surface treatments, 2,490 square yards; and brick, 2,055 square
yards. i E ee te

In addition to the construction of these sections, the entire series of ex-
periments was also systematically maintained.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON ROCKVILLE PIKE, MONTGOMERY CO., MD.

A part of the special fund appropriated for experiments in road improvement,
together with funds furnished by the community, is being devoted to resurfacing
the Rockville Pike in Montgomery County, Md. This road will be resurfaced
with limestone macadam throughout its length and the surface will be treated
with various bituminous materials in conjunction with gravel, trap-rock screen-
ings, and limestone screenings. The experiments are being made to determine
the best methods of maintaining macadam roads free from dust. During the
past fiscal year about 26,675 square yards were surfaced with water-bound
macadam.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT GROUNDS, WASHINGTON, D. C

Several sections of driveway on the Agricultural Department grounds were
given a surface treatment in October, 1912. This work was done on some of the
same sections which have already been experimentally treated and decribed in
former progress reports of the Office of Public Roads. A total of 4,485 square
yards of surface was treated in 1912.

MEMPHIS-TO-BRISTOL HIGHWAY.

Work on the eastern division of the Memphis to Bristol Highway from
Nashville to Bristol, which was started in January, 1912, was continued during
the first part of the fiscal year 1912-18. The funds raised to defray the ex-
penses of an engineer under an arrangement made with the office were exhausted
in December, 1912, and connection with the work was severed.

OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 390

Work was done in 10 counties—Cannon, Carter, Cumberland, Greene, Hamblen,
Loudon, Roane, Warren, Washington, and White. On account of the badly
sunken and worn condition of the existing roads together with the excessive
grades, a new location was made on a large portion of the route, particularly
on the section crossing the Cumberland Mountains, where the plans call for a
new location throughout practically the entire distance of 55 miles.

All new location was made permanent, and it was frequently necessary to in-
stitute condemnation proceedings before the new right of way could be secured.
The general maximum grade adopted was 5 per cent, but in one or two instances
on the mountain sections it was necessary to use a 6 per cent grade on short
stretches. Concrete or stone masonry was used in all the larger drainage struc-
tures, while corrugated metal or vitrified clay pipe was used for the smaller
drainage areas.

Preliminary surveys were made on 159.2 miles and final location was estab-
lished for 88.5 miles. On December 15, 1912, of the total unimproved mileage
between Nashville and Bristol—152.3 miles—a total of 52 miles of grade and
17.4 miles of surfacing was finished, while uncompleted contracts and work
being done by force account assured a total of 75.5 miles of finished grade and
52.1 miles of surfaced road. The status of the work on a percentage basis
was: Unimproved mileage graded, 34.1 per cent; unimproved mileage sur-
faced, 11.5 per cent; unimproved mileage which will be graded upon comple-
tion of contracts, 49.6 per cent; unimproved mileage which will be surfaced
upon completion of contracts, 34.2 per cent; and unimproved mileage remain-
ing between Nashville and Bristol upon completion of contracts, 21.8 per cent.

The total quantities, together with the average unit costs, of the work done
on the 52 miles of grade and 17.4 miles of surfacing finished were as follows:
Clearing and grubbing 76.45 acres, at $54.13 per acre; earth excavation, 225,513
eubic yards, at $0.251 per cubic yard; loose-rock excavation, 306.8 cubic yards,
at $0.89 per cubic yard; solid-rock excavation, 15,215.9 cubic yards, at $0.812 per
cubic yard; overhaul on excavation, 44,446 yard stations, at $0.01 per yard
station; concrete, 686.1 cubic yards, at $7.94 per cubic yard; masonry, 255.4
cubic yards, at $6 per cubic yard; slag and gravel, 21,826 cubic yards, at $0.634
per cubic yard; macadam, 18,332.5 cubic yards, at $1.57 per cubic yard; 1,846
linear feet of 12-inch corrugated metal pipe, at $0.74 per foot; 1,038 linear feet
of 15-inch corrugated metal pipe, at $0.90 per foot; 474 linear feet of 18-inch
corrugated metal pipe, at $1.02 per foot; 882 linear feet of 24-inch corrugated .
metal pipe, at $1.48 per foot; 40 linear feet of 36-inch corrugated metal pipe,
at $2.99 per foot; 26 linear feet of 48-inch corrugated metal pipe, at $4.29 per
foot; 786 linear feet of 12-inch vitrified clay pipe, at $0.58 per foot; 190 linear
feet of 15-inch vitrified clay pipe, at $0.78 per foot; 482 linear feet of 18-inch
vitrified clay pipe, at $0.97 per foot; 974% linear feet of 20-inch vitrified clay pipe,
at $1.125 per foot; 764 linear feet of 24-inch vitrified clay pipe, at $1.76 per foot;
39,054 pounds of steel I beams and rods, at $0.045 per pound; 9,500 feet b. m. of
bridge lumber, at $35 per thousand; and crowning and shaping, 1,181,800 square
yards, at $0.01 per square yard.

The average earth excavation per mile was 4,326 cubic yards, and the
average rock excavation per mile was 342 cubic yards.

The project was strictly a cooperative enterprise, and each county provided
the funds necessary to build the section of road within its boundaries. In
several counties the funds raised were not available during the year 1912 and
no actual construction could be attempted. The progress of the work as a
' whole would undoubtedly have been much better if the funds in these counties
had been available,

34 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BRIDGE WORK, 1912-13.

The office constructed bridges at Drake, S. C., and at Cheraw, S. C. Descrip-
tions are given below.

Drake, S. C.—A 25-foot span I-beam bridge with concrete floor, having a
clear roadway 16 feet wide, was constructed at Drake. Work began on July 29,
1913, and the bridge was entirely finished by August 23, 19138. It was necessary
to provide sluice gates in connection with this bridge, and the construction was
on that account made more difficult than it otherwise would have been.

The abutments and wing walls contained 152.2 cubic yards of concrete, which
was mixed in the proportion 1:3:6, while the floor slab and parapets contained
12.6 cubie yards of concrete mixed in the proportions 1:2:4. It was necessary
to use 175 barrels of cement, 70 cubic yards of sand, 189.6 tons of gravel, nine
15-inch 42-pound I beams 28 feet long, 600 square feet of expanded metal,
56 linear feet of pipe railing, and 3,744 board feet of lumber. Convict labor
and county-owned teams were used.

The total cost of the bridge, which includes the necessary convict camp
expenses, was $1,350.62. The principal items of cost were: Excavation, $18;
building forms, $58.50; laying concrete, $68.70; building sluice gates, $10;
placing I beams, $5.40; removing forms and back filling, $12.30; 175 barrels of
cement, at $1.70 per barrel, $297.50; 189.6 tons of gravel, at $1.45 per ton,
$274.92; nine 15-inch 42-pound I beams, at $42.04 per beam, $378.36; 600
square feet of expanded metal, at $0.044 per square foot, $26.40; paint for
I beams, $3.50; 56 linear feet of pipe railing, at $0.73 per foot, $40.88; 3,744
board feet of timber, at $15 per thousand, $56.16; Banling gravel, $45; hauling
sand, $50; and hauling lumber, $5. ~

Curraw, S. C.—At Cheraw, S. C., a concrete bridge, which had been badly
damaged, was repaired under the supervision of the office. The repair work
began on August 27, 1918, and was finished on September 14, 1913. The total
cost of the work was $225.40, and the principal items of cost were: Hauling
the materials, $57; building dams and pumping water, $27.75; work on the
forms, $8; mixing and placing the concrete, $41.25; 924 feet board measure of
lumber, at $15 per thousand, $13.86; 102 sacks of cement, at $4.47 per sack,
$47.94; and wheelbarrows, drills, bolts, buckets, nails, etc., $29.60.

PREPARATION OF PLANS.

Typical designs were prepared during the past fiscal year for concrete bridges
and culverts ranging in span from 2 feet to 16 feet and for steel bridges rang-
ing in span from 30 feet to 150 feet. About 850 blue-print copies have already
been furnished from these plans for use at specific points. Special designs,
prepared to cover cases for which the typical designs could not be used, were
distributed by States as follows: Arizona, 1; Florida, 1; Iowa, 3; Kentucky,
7; Maryland, 4; Mississippi, 6; Nebraska, 2; North Dakota, 1; South Carolina,
2; Virginia, 1; and Wisconsin, 1.

BRIDGE INSPECTIONS.

Thirty-five separate inspections were made during the fiscal year 1912-13
in connection with which the local officials were given advice as to the most
practical types of bridges for the various locations in question and as to the
advantages to be derived from employing competent engineering supervision
for all bridge work. These inspections were distributed by States as follows:
Arizona, 1; Arkansas, 1; Iowa, 10; Kentucky, 9; Maryland, 3; Mississippi, 3;
North Carolina, 4; South Carolina, 2; Virginia, 1; and Wisconsin, 1,

BULLETIN OF THE '
V7

Co) USDEDRTENT OAR &

No. 54

Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief.
May 8, 1914.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

THE TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS OF
THE UNITED STATES WITH REFERENCE TO THE POSSIBLE
OCCURRENCE OF POTASH.'

By E. E. Free, Scientist in Fertilizer Investigations.
INTRODUCTION.

In essence the “desert basin” or “dry lake” potash theory is very
simple and rests upon three propositions:

(1) Rocks and soils give up various salts, including those of potas-
sium, to drainage waters which flow over them.

(2) In areas of inclosed drainage these salts, still including those
of potassium, are concentrated wherever the waters evaporate.

(3) In this concentration the salts of potassium may have been
sufficiently segregated from other salts to form a workable deposit.

It has long been known that a considerable section of the United
States is undrained and apparently contains regions satisfying the
conditions requisite to potash? concentration. The problem set the
writer, early in the present Governmental investigation into possible
potash resources, was the study of all of these undrained areas, or
“desert basins,’ in the effort to determine which of them, if any,
might possibly contain potash deposits, and which could reasonably
be considered the more favorable from this point of view. The
problem is a complex one and includes at least three distinct and
different questions: (1) The question of accumulation; or of source,
concentration and retention; (2) the question of segregation of the
potash from the other salts; and (3) the question of the accessibility

1 Manuscript prepared July, 1912.

2 Throughout this bulletin the word ‘‘ potash ” is used in accordance with common usage, to signify any
ordinary soluble compound of the element potassium.

Note.—This paper describes a topographical examination which has been made of the desert basins
of the United States, with a view to the possible discovery of potash in commercial quantities, and
is intended particularly for those interested in the production of fertilizers.

19750°—Bull 54—14—__1

2 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the deposit if any exists. It can not be said that any one of these
questions is more important than the others, since the solution of all
will be essential to a full understanding of the greater problem. It is
fair to say, however, that the question first named must first be solved.
It takes precedence, perhaps, not logically, but chronologically. It
is obviously useless to spend time in study of the conditions which
may have controlled segregation in a basin to which no potash has
been supplied or from which it has escaped.

The problem, then, is first of all that of locating those areas in which
potash reasonably may be expected to have accumulated andfrom
which it apparently has not been withdrawn. This is not a matter of
simple observation. There are only very few of the basins in which
deposits of soluble salts are exposed on the surface and may be exam-
ined directly. Nearly everywhere the salt bodies indicated on sub-
stantial though theoretical grounds have been more or less deeply
buried by later deposits. Their character, even their presence or
absence, must be inferred from general geological evidences, appar-
ently somewhat remote from the point at issue.

Direct evidence being thus lacking and not easily obtainable, the
first question (that of accumulation) becomes essentially one of topo-
graphy and of areal geology. It is reasonable to expect that potash
will have accumulated in largest quantity in that place where the
greatest drainage has been concentrated for the longest time and
where the rocks from which that drainage is derived are such as
may reasonably be expected to yield potash most largely, easily, and
rapidly. The matter may be reduced to three formal criteria: (1)
The drainage area of the basin (past as well as present); (2) the exist-
ence or possibility of a present or past overflow (which might have
removed the potash); (3) the nature of the rocks and soils exposed to
the drainage.

Of these criteria the first two are the most important and both are
essentially topographic. It is seldom that the rocks of an area are
either entirely potash bearing or entirely the reverse. The study
of the areal geology is not only seldom conclusive, but is always
laborious and is obviously never necessary unless topographic con-
ditions are known to be favorable. The first step of the inquiry is,
therefore, the study of the topography of the undrained regions, and
it is this step only which is taken in the present report. The writer
here sets out to answer the question “In what basins has potash
probably accumulated and been retained in significant amount?’
With the no less important matters of segregation and position (es-
pecially depth) he is not here concerned.

The topographic data upon which the report is based have been
gathered from many and various sources. Chief and most important
are the topographic sheets of the United States Geological Survey,

pens seni DESERT BASINS OF THE UNITED STATES FERTILIZER INVESTIGATIONS

t Me WHITNEY, CHIEF FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE PLATE |

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TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 3

and where these were available other data have seldom been sought.
_ For areas as yet unsurveyed by the Geological Survey, use has been
made of the maps of the Wheeler and King surveys, of the maps
and notes of the General Land Office surveys, of railway surveys and
profiles, of various special maps and reports published by the Geo-
logical Survey and by the early Government surveys, of the maps
and journals of the early explorers, of many private maps, both
published and unpublished, of maps and articles in the technical
press, etc. These data have been supplemented by about 25,000
miles of personal travel through the regions in question and by con-
ference with official and private surveyors, railway engineers, pros-
pectors, and others familiar with the country. It is impossible to
acknowledge all these sources in detail, but the writer wishes to make
special acknowledgment of the kindness of Prof. G. E. Bailey, of
Los Angeles, in tendering the use of his collection of personal maps
and notes of the desert basins of California, as well as in communi-
cating the various conclusions resulting from his extensive travel in
these regions.

The topographic data from all the sources mentioned have been
collected, carefully compared, and the final conclusions used in plat-
ting on base maps the boundaries of the various basins. From these
maps have been calculated the areas given in the following pages.
Every possible care has been used in the platting of the lines and in
the computation of the areas, and it is believed that accidental errors
have been almost if not quite eliminated. In nearly all cases the
areas as given may be considered accurate within 10 per cent and in
most the accuracy is far greater. In a few places, mainly in country
of slight relief and where divides are inconspicuous, the position of
present and past water partings remains uncertain, and the areas are
coirespondingly open to doubt. All such cases are noted in detail
in the text and, in general, a perusal of the text will indicate the
probable accuracy and assurance of the various conclusions better
than could be done by any general statement.

THE GREAT BASIN AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.

The most important areas of internal drainage in the United States
lie within the so-called “‘Great Basin’’ of Utah, Nevada, and Califor-
nia. This is by no means a unit, but an area of somewhat complex
topography divided into a number of basins of various ages and
characters. In order that this topography may be the better under-
stood it is necessary to discuss briefly the history of its development,
and this is perhaps the more useful since its development has been
in many ways parallel to that of other undrained areas which lie
beyond its borders. There is scarcely a phase of basin topography
elsewhere that has not its counterpart in the Great Basin.

4 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In Paleozoic and Pre-Cambrian time the area which is now the
Great Basin was alternately above and below the sea, finally attain-
ing in late Carboniferous time an emergence which was to be perma-
nent. Its Triassic and Jurassic history is recorded only in fragments.
Apparently it was largely and more or less continuously above the sea
and was probably eroded to a low and mature relief. With the end of
the Jurassic came the birth of the Sierra Nevada and with it the move-
ments by which the basin was first outlined. The forces and the yield-
ing of which the nascent Sierra were the expression did not spend
themselves in this alone, but extended far to the east. At first by fold-
ing, later by profound and complex faulting, the former region of
inconspicuous relief was broken into a series of troughs and ranges
limited on the east by the westward-facing scarp of the Wasatch, as
on the west by the Sierra. The more prominent lines of fracture
being north and south, and the accompanying crustal displacement
mainly by monoclinal tilting, there originated the series of north-and-
south trough valleys and of parallel, monoclinal ranges so character-.
istic of the Great Basin.

Extensive faulting is likely to be pictured as cataclysmic, and one
is tempted to think of the Great Basin as breaking in a day, like a
dropped platter, from its original unity into the hundreds of structural
fragments that now compose it. Thisisradically wrong. The present
structure of the basin has grown very gradually. The movement initi-
ated at the close of the Jurassic has continued ever since and is still
in progress. So slow, indeed, has been the development of the relief
that many streams have been able to maintain what seem to be their
Jurassic channels and have cut the rising ranges as fast as they arose.
This did not always happen, and sometimes the streams were turned.
It would seem that different displacements were of different ages and
have grown with differing rapidities.

Neither must it be imagined that the structure is completely simple
and regular. The general parallelism of valleys and ranges is quite
unmistakable, but details are much more complex. Ranges sink and
bend and merge with other ranges; valleys join to other valleys and
are cut by transverse uplifts; all to make a structure of extreme com-
plexity, but through which the original simplicity may still be dis-
cerned.

It is impossible to say just when in this slow structural develop-
ment the region became a “‘basin;”’ probably not for a long time after
the structure had begun to take form. The whole of the Cretaceous
and the early part of the Tertiary seems to have been a period of open
seaward drainage and energetic erosion—an erosion which has severely
modified many of the ranges. In the early Tertiary this erosional
period was closed (though not necessarily with causal relation) by a
period of intense and long-continued vulcanism which is only now

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 5

drawing to a close and which was marked by extensive and repeated
flows of rhyolites and basalts, and by the discharge of enormous
quantities of fragmental material. This period was characterized by
the existence of a number of scattered and successive lakes, often
quite extensive but probably shallow, in which the fragmentary vol-
canic material found a resting place. Apparently the region was then
cut off partially or completely from the sea, and while most of these
lakes probably overflowed, the occurrence of salt and gypsum among
their deposits indicates that some of them were saline.

The division between this Tertiary period and the present is not a
sharp one. With the lapse of time vulcanism has decreased, move-
ment has disturbed the Tertiary lake beds, and erosion has doubtless
been active; but conditions are essentially the same now as then
and the Tertiary lakes find their direct descendants in the present
‘‘dry lakes’’ or playas and in the great lakes of the recent past.

In summary, the history of the Great Basin region begins at the
close of the Jurassic with crustal movements which have continued
ever since. At first these movements did not interfere with seaward
drainage or normal erosion, but early in the Tertiary the separation
from the sea began to be effective and the ‘‘Great Basin” (perhaps
then drained by overflow) was produced. Since that time rising
walls and increasing aridity have jomed hands to make the imprison-
ment of the drainage more effective.

So much for the general outline of the history. It is now necessary
to examine its most recent section a little more closely. In a time
which is usually correlated with the Glacial Epoch many of the
inclosed valleys of the Great Basin contained large and persistent
lakes. The beginnings, the early history, even the exact chro-
nology of the lakes remain unknown. They were probably preceded
by a period of aridity and they probably rose very slowly. All this
is yet uncertain and need not be pursued. Starting with these lakes,
we find that they were subject to extreme variations of level, probably
in response to the climatic fluctuations, now coming to be recognized
as both incessant and world-wide. These fluctuations are not yet
worked out in detail, but they seem to indicate two main periods of
lake expansion separated by a long period of contraction, probably
to complete desiccation. The second expansion was followed by a
second desiccation and contraction to the present condition. Since the
beginning of this double-lake period the structural movements,
though continuing, have been slight and have not affected the
topography.

The detailed history of this lake period—its precedent conditions,
its chronology, its various physiographic and chemical relicta—is

1See the books and papers of Ellsworth Huntington, especially the Pulse of Asia (1907) and Palestine
and its Transformation (1910).

6 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

among the most interesting of present-day geologic problems, but
it can not be pursued here. It will suffice to note briefly a few of
the effects of it and the preceding history upon the topography, and
especially upon the formation of inclosed basins. In the long period
during which the Great Basin has been cut off from the sea the
erosional waste of its mountains has been accumulating in its valleys
until all are now filled very deeply with such alluvial débris. The
character of all is the same. Where the mountain reaches the plain
it is surrounded by a broad alluvial slope or ‘‘apron,’’ which stretches
outward with ever-decreasing slope until it merges with the apron
of another mountain or into the practically level plam which forms
the deepest depression of most of the valleys. This plain may carry
a tiny lake, but more commonly it has only a clay flat or ‘‘playa,”’
on which waters gather in wet weather or after storms, but which is
usually dry. This succession of mountain slope, apron, gradually
flattening plam, and playa is typical of all the desert basins. The
playa is the place of concentration of all the present drainage and
the playa is usually more or less saline, depending upon the amount
and character of this drainage and the time during which it has
been received. y

The alluvial filling of the valleys is not of itself of much impor-
tance to this inquiry, but one phase of it is very much so. Where
canyons cut back into a mountain range the discharge of detritus is
more concentrated and the normal apron grows into an alluvial cone
or fan which may extend many miles into the valley. If two moun-
tain ranges face each other across a trough-like valley (as they usually
do in this region), and if a canyon in one range chances to discharge
opposite a canyon in the other, the fans which they build may ulti-
mately merge in the center of the valley and gradually build a ridge
or dam which rises few or many feet above the general valley level.
By this process of “‘ alluvialdamming”’ a valley trough may be cut off
at one end or both, or split into sections by dams composed entirely
of alluvial mountain waste. Obviously this is possible only where
the climate is arid. If the rainfall and run-off are sufficient to
maintain a vigorous through-flowing stream the fans can not merge.
The detritus will be carried entirely out of the valley, or graded to
slopes which permit free egress of the waters. But it is probable
that the Great Basin and its environs have been essentially arid ever
since the early Tertiary and the processes of fan-building and fan-
merging have been everywhere at work. Many valleys structurally
open to the sea have been dammed in this way and many of the
basins whose major limits are structurally defined have been divided
by one or many of these alluvial dams.

Some of the alluvial dams are very ancient, some are very recent.
The period of lake expansion was, of course, a period of vigorous

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 7

streams, and it is probable that few new alluvial dams were formed.
But with the advancing aridity which has caused the disappearance
of the lakes many valleys once freely open have been barred by
alluvial dams and converted into areas of inclosed drainage. Ob-
viously this has great importance from the present viewpoint. A
valley where inclosed drainage is a condition of recent origin can not
reasonably be expected to have retained important quantities of
salts. In cases, therefore, where the boundaries of valleys are
alluvial dams it is necessary to determine so far as may be possible
the age of the dams, and whether they are sufficiently old and per-
manent to have retamed behind them the more plentiful waters of
the lake period.

The building of alluvial dams has been accompanied by another
basin-creating process—the decay of the drainage systems due to
an excess of evaporation over rainfall and the consequent failure of
streams to maintain themselves over their whole length. In this
way local depressions in the valleys become cut-off lakes, and chan-
nels or flood-plains become alkaline flats, even without the formation
of important alluvial dams. Very much of the West is not so much
an area of inclosed drainage as one of no drainage, but thousands of
dry stream beds furrow its surface and scores of greater channels
‘bear witness to a time when rivers were not all of sand. Occasional
floods may fill these channels for a day; there may be still some
constant drainage through them as underflow, but essentially they
are dead and the alkali flats which dot their courses mark the places
of their burial.

Alluvial damming and stream decay mean two things; first that
many new and recent basins have been produced, and second, that a
large part of the drainage and salt supply of the earlier basins has
been cut off; for these processes have been just as active in the
regions tributary to the greater basins as in regions once tributary
to the sea, and the areas from which salt and water now reach those
basins are often but a smail fraction of what was once their compass.
This, however, is not a matter of great importance. The answer
to it is the same as to the statement—frequently made as an objec-
tion to the general potash theory—that the desert basins are too
arid for the occurrence of rock decay and the freeing of potash.
The basins were not always so arid. The lake period was one of
considerable humidity, and we may be sure that during it plenty of
potash was freed and carried to the central sinks. The doubt is
not whether there is any potash, but where it is and whether it has
been sufficiently segregated.

There remains to notice one more aspect of the history of the
region. It has already been noted that extensive salt deposits are
very rare on the surfaces of the present basins. In many of the

8 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

basins no salts at all are visible. There can be no reasonable doubt
that large amounts of salts have entered these basins and remained
there. Where are they now? To meet this dilemma Gilbert and
Russell devised the theory of salt burial and of “freshening by
desiccation.”’ Essentially this theory says that when a body of salt
is left behind by a desiccated lake on a playa or its topographic
equivalent, this salt body may ultimately be covered by inwashed
clay and sand without solution, and if a-second lake comes later to
occupy the basin the buried salt deposit will be protected by its
alluvial seal and will remain undissolved. Certain stagos of this
process have actually been observed, and there is little doubt of the
essential correctness of the theory or of its applicability to the present
problem. Wecan assume quite safely that the salt which must have
been in the great Quaternary lakes is now buried beneath the floors
of their basins.

There arises at once the question of the horizon at which these salts
are to be found, and the duplicity of the lake period seems to furnish
at least a suggestion along this line. Periods of lake expansion and
stream vigor are periods of salt accumulation. It should be con-
centrated and deposited when the lakes evaporate. There are, there-
fore, at least two horizons at which salt deposits are to be looked for:
(1) That corresponding to the drying of the first great lake (the
“interlake arid period’’) and (2) that corresponding to the drying of
the second great lake; that is, the arid period of the present and
the recent past. The few surface salt deposits known in the desert
basins are believed to belong (with perhaps one exception) to this
second period of accumulation. The “‘interlake” salt—probably
far larger in amount—is believed to be everywhere more or less
deeply underground,

The various undrained areas outside the Great Basin have had their
own structural histories, sometimes analogous to that of the basin
but more often not. Where necessary these structural histories will
be noted briefly in the detailed chapter which follows. The climatic
history, however, has been everywhere the same. In particular the
processes of alluvial damming and of stream decay have been as
active outside the Great Basin as within it, and indeed most of the
undrained areas external thereto have originated in this way. The
contraction and mutilation of the great drainage systems have left
tremendous areas now without seaward drainage and split into
inclosed basins of larger or smaller area. The following chapter will
furnish numerous illustrations.

A brief word as to nomenclature is perhaps necessary. The double
period of lake expansion has been variously referred to as “‘Quat-
ernary,”’ “Pleistocene,” ‘‘Glacial,” etc. All of these terms carry
suggestions of chronology and correlation, the discussion of which

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ) 9

is beyond the scope of the present report, and which it is desired
to avoid. It is thought best, therefore, to designate this period
simply by the name of the great lake which best illustrates its
history, and to refer to it as the Lahontan period. This is meant to
include the whole period of deciphered lake history from the initial
rise to the end of the second or final desiccation. No implication is
intended as to the internal character of this period, and no specific
names are applied to its various divisions.

THE UNDRAINED AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES.

It has already been noted that the Great Basin is not a unit. Its
parallel mountain ranges cut it into numerous more or less connected
valleys, and about halfway across the basin from east to west is one
range in particular—the White Pine-Ruby Range—which has formed
a major parting of the waters of the basin. East of this range is the
Bonneville Basin, whose deepest depression was occupied by the
ancient lake of that name and whose valleys now drain to its rem-
nant—the Great Salt Lake of Utah. West of the range the Hum-
boldt River cuts across the northern ends of the north-south ranges
and discharges into the Carson Sink, once the home of the ancient
Lake Lahontan. The basin of this lake then included not only the
drainage of the Humboldt River, but also that of the Carson, Truckee,
and Walker Rivers, the two latter of which have since been cut off
by desiccation. These, with various smaller basins tributary to the
early lake, form the Lahontan Basin.

North of the whole of the Great Basin and south of the eastern
or Bonneville section of it the ranges and trough valleys which char-
acterize it merge into wide, dissected plateaus, that of the Columbia
and Snake River lavas on the north and that of the Colorado Plateau
on the south. The southern limit of Lahontan is very different.
The great trough valleys which characterize the core of the Great
Basin are diverse in their slope, some draining northward and some
southward. Most often, however, they drain both ways from an
alluvial divide somewhere near the center. Thus the troughs forming
the eastern part of the Lahontan Basin drain into the Humboldt
River from their northern portions, while their southern extremities
slope and drain either toward smaller basins also inclosed or toward
some tributary of the Colorado River. Farther to the west the south-
ern boundary of Lahontan is a transitional area of irregular cross
uplift in which are a number of small basins, conveniently grouped
with those of the Nevada trough valleys that chance to be inclosed.
West and southwest of these is the great trough system of California,
containing the Owens, Searles, and Panamint Valleys and their
smaller analogues, and the great basin of Death Valley, to which

19750°—Bull. 54—14_2

10 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

belong the present and former drainage systems of the Amargosa
and Mojave Rivers.

The Great Basin contains but one other major division. North-
west of the Lahontan Basin, where the zone of uplift and fracture
extended into the great lava plateau of eastern Oregon and north-
eastern California, a number of small basins were produced. Some
of these drain or have drained to Lahontan, some to the sea, —
some have been permanently inclosed.

Outside the Great Basin there is but one inclosed area where
structure appears to have controlled the restriction of the drainage.
This is the great trough between the Sacramento and San Andreas
uplifts in central New Mexico, and extending southeastward into
western Texas. Even here the structural character of the basin is
far from certain, as will appear when the region is discussed. The
only other large and well-known basin is the Salton, in southern
California. It, too, occupies a structural trough which is, however,
open to the sea, the only barrier being an alluvial dam apparently
built by the Coloradd River.

Though the above statements cover all important structural basins
and all which have attracted any considerable attention, there remain
numerous and extensive areas where seaward drainage has ceased
because of the decay and contraction of the river systems. These
areas are of considerable diversity, but fall well into geographical
groups and will be so discussed.

In the detailed discussion which follows all undrained basins
of the United States will be treated under the following groups:

(1) The Lahontan Basin and its tributaries.
(2) The Bonneville Basin and its tributaries.
(3) The basins of the Lava Plateau.
(4) The trough valleys of Nevada and the basins of the
; Transition Zone.
(5) The trough valleys of California and the Mojave Desert.
(6). The Salton Basin.
(7) The basins of the New Mexico-Texas trough.
(8) The trough valleys of Arizona and Sonora.
(9) The Lordsburg-Membres region (New Mexico) and the
Chihuahua bolsons.
(10) The Rocky Mountain basins.
(11) The Great Valley of California.
(12) The filled lakes of the California ranges.
(13) The basins and ponds of the Colorado Plateau.
(14) The ponds and coulées of Eastern Washington.
(15) The ponds of the Great Plains.
(16) Local basins of unusual origin.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. GI

This classification, while setting out to be both genetic and geo-
graphic, has ended by being scarcely more than arbitrary, but this
seems not to be remedied, and it is hoped that the index and the key
map will help to cover the lack of a more logical arrangement. Each
basin or group of basins has been given a name by which it is known
throughout the report and which is, wherever possible, the name by
which it is known to residents of the neighborhood or in former
geologic studies. These names are given on the accompanying
map, in the index, and in the synoptic list of Table I (p. 60) and will
enable the ready location of information concerning any basin or
region.

THE LAHONTAN BASIN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.

At the present time the Lahontan Basin contains internal divi-
sions, structural and alluvial, dividing it into a number of separate
basins of which the major are the Black Rock Basin, the Humboldt-
Carson Basin, the Truckee or Pyramid Lake Basin, and the Walker
Basin. The studies of Russell! have shown that the water of Lake
Lahontan rose sufficiently to unite all of these basins into one water
body. At the highest stages of the lake the present Humboldt-Car-
son Basin was connected with the Walker through the pass south of
old Fort Churchill, with the Truckee through the Ragtown Pass
and the pass at Wadsworth, and with the Black Rock through the
pass north of Humboldt Station on the Southern Pacific Railway,
the latter basin being also connected with the Truckee at the north
end of the present Pyramid Lake. Both the Black Rock and
the Truckee Basins were connected with the smaller Honey Lake
Basin through passes at the northwest corner of the present Pyramid
Lake. At this time the drainage area of the Humboldt River was
much greater than at present, a large part of it having since been
cut off by alluvial damming. The areas tributary to the Truckee
and Walker Rivers were also slightly larger than now. The Carson
was practically the same.

As the waters of the lake went down the first divide to appear
was probably that between the Humboldt-Carson and the Allan
Springs Basin, a small tributary to the south. Next the Walker
became a separate basin, though perhaps continuing to overflow
into the Humboldt-Carson. At about the same stage the direct
connection between the Humboldt-Carson and the Black Rock
was broken, though there still remained the indirect connection
through the Truckee. A hundred feet additional lowering saw the
appearance of the divide at Wadsworth between the Humboldt-
Carson and the Truckee and the separation of the original lake into
three water bodies—the Black Rock, Honey Lake, and Truckee

1U.S. Geological Survey, Monog. XI (1835).

12 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

body to the north, the Humboldt-Carson in the center, and the
Walker to the south. The divide between the Truckee and the
Black Rock was the last of the greater divides to appear, and with
its emergence the basin assumed its present major divisions. The
total area tributary to Lake Lahontan during the period of greatest
expansion was 45,730 square miles. The investigations of Russell
have shown conclusively that the lake never overflowed, and conse-
quently all the salts received from this tremendous area must be
still within it. There follows a brief description of the topography |
of the present divisions of the basin.

THE BLACK ROCK BASIN.

The present Black Rock Basin occupies an area of 8,550 square miles, mainly in
Nevada, but with extensions into Oregon and California. Its sink, the Black Rock
Desert, lies in the great filled trough east and southeast of the Black Rock Mountains,
and, with its extensions southwestward in the Granite Creek, Smoke Creek, and Mud
Lake Deserts, covers an area of over 1,030 square miles. The main present tributary
is the Quinn River, which enters the Black Rock Desert at its northern extremity.
Though the waters of the Quinn River still reach the sink at high-water periods, the
stream now possesses scarcely a tithe of its former vigor, and its channel is much
choked with débris and contains many alkali flats caused by local evaporation. Other
streams which lead toward the sink are either dry except for occasional floods, or lose
themselves immediately on entering. the playa. Like other playas, the Black Rock
Desert is not exactly level, but in the absence of accurate surveys the position of its
lowest sink is not determinable. Probably it contains several local depressions each
a few feet below the general surface and each separated from its neighbors by gentle
slopes and invisible divides. After seasons of heavy snow and rainfall, shallow
bodies of water sometimes stand for several weeks in certain portions of the playa,
and these are probably among the areas of greatest depression.

From the mountainous country west of the Black Rock Mountains the basin receives
the overflow of High Rock Lake, with a drainage area of 670 square miles, and of
Summit Lake, which drains about 40 square miles. Water supply to both these
lakes is now so far reduced that their overflow, if any, seldom reaches the desert, but
essentially they still drain thereto and their drainage areas are included in the area
given above.

During the higher stages of Lahontan the Black Rock section of the lake was
connected with or received the drainage from the Kumiva, Granite Springs, Hot
Springs, and Jungo Basins. Including these, its Quaternary drainage area (includ-
ing the area covered by the lake) was 10,500 square miles. The Honey Lake Basin,
though long connected with the Black Rock, is discussed ds a separate unit and is not
included in the area given above.

THE KUMIVA BASIN.

The Kumiva Basin lies in the small trough east of Kumiva Peak and separated by
low alluvial divides from both the Black Rock Desert and the Granite Spring Basin,
next to be described. The age of these divides is uncertain, but both were covered
by the waters of Lake Lahontan. The divide into the Black Rock Desert is a little
the lower, and it is probable that when the Lahontan waters were subsiding the drain-
age out of the Kumiva Basin was in this direction. Indeed, it is quite probable that
this divide is recent and was formed by post-Lahontan alluviation. The lowest de-
pression of the Kumiva Basin contains a playa about,10 square miles in area, but

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 13

because of the recency of outward drainage it is not to be expected that this playa or
the basin will contain any considerable amount of salt. The area of the present basin
is 445 square miles.

THE GRANITE SPRING BASIN.

The Granite Spring Basin is essentially similar to the Kumiva, and is similarly
barred from the Black Rock Desert by a low alluvial divide which was overtopped
by Lake Lahontan. This divide is higher than that which limits the Kumiva Basin,
_ and probably it is more ancient, but the previous connection with Lahontan destroys
any possibility of important salt concentration. The area of the present basin is 890
square miles. Its lowest depression is occupied by a playa of usual character, cover-
ing about 30 square miles.

THE JUNGO BASIN.

The Jungo Basin is a small depression in the strait which once connected the Black
Rock and Humboldt-Carson water bodies north of Humboldt Station. At present the
basin is separated from the Humboldt Valley by an alluvial divide west of the Eugene
Mountains and from the Black Rock Basin by a similar and inconspicuous divide
on an approximately east-west line passing through the Dunisher Hills. This second
divide is the lower and the Jungo Basin probably retained connection with the Black
Rock Basin some time after its connection with the Humboldt-Carson was broken.
Indeed, this northern divide, though now about 125 feet above the bottom of the
basin, has probably been considerably raised by recent alluviation and perhaps also
by dune movement, and it is by no means certain that the divide existed in Lahontan
time. At any rate, there was connection with the larger lake body over the divide
and any great retention of salt in the Jungo is not to be expected. The present basin
area is 340 square miles, and the typical playa which occupies its lowest depression
covers about 5 square miles.

THE HOT SPRINGS BASIN.

West of the Granite Creek Desert and just north of Granite Peak there is a small
pocket in the mountains into which extends an arm of the Black Rock playa. This
arm is now cut off from the main desert by a low and recent divide and contains an
“alkali” flat which owes its salinity mainly to the evaporation of the waters of several
hot springs rising within and around it. Its saline accumulations are probably very
superficial and of no importance. The drainage area is 270 square miles and the
area of the alkali flat about 10 square miles.

THE HONEY LAKE BASIN.

The depression which forms the Honey Lake Basin has perhaps closer topographic
affiliations with the basins of the lava plateau region than with the Lahontan group,
but, chancing to have a low pass opening eastward, it was filled by an arm of the
great lake during most of the lake’s existence. The direction of water movement
between the two bodies is not fully certain, but that matter is beyond the scope
of the present report. The present basin has an area of 2,660 square miles, in
which is included the tributary basin of Eagle Lake. The waters of this lake
do not now reach the central basin, but they did so very recently. The main
present tributaries are the Susan River from the west and Long Valley Creek
from the south. The bottom of the basin is an extensive playa diversified by some
vegetation and a number of old dune areas. In the deepest depression of this playa
is the present Honey Lake, a shallow body of slightly brackish water and very varia-
ble in size. East of the lake the playa stretches out in a broad area known as Flan-
nigan Flat, nearly level and with few visible drainage lines. Many portions of this
flat are now alkaline from local drainage concentration, but the salinity has been

14 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

recently acquired and is unimportant. Little salt is now visible in the Honey Lake
Basin. :

On the northwest slope of Peavine Peak there is a small basin about 30 square miles
in area which contains a small marsh separated from the headwaters of Long Valley
Creek only by a low alluvial divide near the station of Purdy, on the Nevada, Cali-
fornia & Oregon Railway. During Quaternary time this small basin undoubtedly
drained into Long Valley Creek, and it has therefore no importance to the present
inquiry. Its area is included in the above figures for the Honey Lake Basin.

THE TRUCKEE BASIN.

The Truckee Basin consisted in Quaternary time, as it does now, of the drainage ;
basin of the Truckee River heading in the Sierras, notably in Lake Tahoe, and empty-
ing into the twin lakes Pyramid and Winnemucca. The approach of the river to
these lakes is over somewhat dissected alluvium, and the river has flowed at times
into the one lake and at times into the other. At the present time it flows into the
Pyramid. During the existence of Lake Lahontan the valley of Winnemucca Lake
contained a long, narrow arm of water connected with the Pyramid Lake body at its
southern extremity, while the northern end of the latter lake joined the water body
of the Black Rock Desert. This latter connection was one of the last to be broken
when Lahontan disappeared, and it is probable that the Truckee Basin continued to
overflow into the Black Rock long after the rest of the Lahontan water bodies had
fully separated. The Truckee River, being headed in a region of higher rainfall in
the Sierras has suffered less truncation than the other rivers of the Great Basin and
has been able to keep its channel fairly clear. Several tributary valleys have lost
their free outward drainage and have become somewhat saline, but they are few and
insignificant. In the Lahontan period, however, Pyramid Lake received another
considerable tributary which entered it from the west through a gap in the Virginia
Range, bringing the drainage of the so-called Winnemucca Valley (which has no rela-
tion to Lake Winnemucca).

This drainage line has entirely decayed, and a large area once tributary to it—the
Lemmon Valley, north of Reno—has been cut off by an alluvial divide and become
an inclosed basin.whose flat bottom carries a group of playas. This basin has an area
of 90 square miles. Just north of this there is the smaller Warm Springs Basin, with
an area of less than 20 square miles and separated from the Hungry Valley and the
Pyramid Lake drainage by an alluvial divide over 300 feet in height. It is impossible
to read clearly the history of this basin from data now at hand. It may be that the
divide between it and the Truckee is quite ancient and that the Lahontan period
saw it, as now, completely landlocked. However, this question is unimportant, since
the basin is too small to have accumulated any considerable salt body. Including
the Lemmon Valley, but not the Warm Springs Basin, the total area of the Truckee
Basin is 2,975 square miles.

THE HUMBOLDT-CARSON BASIN.

The Humboldt-Carson Basin is the core of the Lahontan area. Its present bottom
is a great playa covering over 500 square miles and containing in its lowest portion the
Carson Sink, a shallow and variable lake of brackish water. South Carson Lake, also
on the main playa, is a shallow lake produced by the meanders of the Carson River.
A slough connects it with the North Carson Lake, or Carson Sink. The Humboldt
River enters the playa from the north through a narrow gap near the station of Parran,
on the Southern Pacific Railway. During high water of Lake Lahontan a sand bar
was built across this gap, behind which Humboldt Lake has been formed. However,
overflow has partially cut this bar, and at high-water stages the water of the Humboldt
Lake now flows through it and into the Carson Sink.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 15

In its upper courses the Carson River, like the Truckee, has kept some measure of
its vigor and retains essentially its Lahontan drainage. Farther down, where it flows
over what was once its flood plain at the margin of the retreating lake, it has left many
local playas which are now without escape for their waters. All these were either
covered by Lake Lahontan or were tributary to it, and have no importance in the
present connection.

The history of the Humboldt River is very different. More than any other river
of the Great Basin, perhaps excepting the Mojave, it has suffered by alluvial damming
and by the decay ofits tributaries. Its present drainage area is scarcely a half of that
which it once possessed. The description of the Humboldt in detail is unnecessary.
Tn general it may be said that it cuts across the northern extremities of the trough
valleys in the eastern half of the Lahontan area, draining these valleys north as far
as the limits of the Great Basin and south to the alluvial divides which separate the
Lahontan drainage from that of the Colorado River and of the smaller basins to the
south. Several of these trough valleys, once tributary to the Humboldt, have been
cut off behind alluvial dams, creating the Buena Vista, Buffalo Springs, Crescent
Valley, Gibson, and Clover Basins. Even where the valleys have not been cut off
entirely, the decay of the streams has left them with innumerable local playas and
alkali flats but since these are still essentially tributary to the Humboldt they do not
require individual discussion.

The Humboldt and the Carson are the only important rivers tributary to the basin.
A few small valleys tributary to, or filled by, the Great Lake are discussed below
as the Fernley, Allen Springs, and Sand Springs Basins. The present drainage area
of the Humboldt-Carson, including all local playas and other areas not cut off by actual
divides, is 19,300 square miles. Its Quaternary area was 27,575 square miles.

Mention should perhaps be made of the Ragtown Soda Lakes, situated on the Carson
Playa, about 6 miles northwest of Fallon. These are small depressions, probably of
volcanic origin, in the bottoms of which are lakes of brine from which carbonate of
soda was once made commercially. From his studies of the lakes Russell concluded
that their soda content was probably derived from waters which had percolated
through the saline clays of the surrounding playas and acquired salinity therefrom.
They are not believed to have any important significance to the present inquiry.

The Wabuska topographic sheet of the United States Geological Survey shows
another small local depression in the eastern extension of the Pine Nut Mountains
about 4 miles east of Lyon Peak. Its nature is unknown to the writer, but it is too
small to have any practical importance.

THE FERNLEY BASIN.

The Fernley Basin is a small depression lying between the Humboldt-Carson and
the Truckee Basins, as does the Jungo Basin, between the former and the Black
Rock. When Lahontan was high this basin was a strait connecting these two water
bodies. On the fall of the waters the connection with the Truckee was broken first,
the connection with the Humboldt-Carson, by way of Ragtown Pass, remaining much
longer intact. At the present time the bottom of the Fernley Basin is about 100
feet below this pass, but it is not certain that this has always beenso. Recent alluvial
deposition must be taken into account and is difficult to estimate. The present bot-
tom of the basin carries three playas, the two extreme of which drain toward the
central one. All the playas are somewhat saline, but no segregated salt deposits are
known. The area of the present basin is 215 square miles.

THE ALLEN SPRINGS BASIN.

South of the Carson Playa there is a deep, narrow mountain valley which was filled
by the Lahontan waters and connected with them through a narrow strait at Allen
Springs. The bottom of this valley is about of the same level as the Carson Playa,

16 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

but a divide over 200 feet high intervenes. This divide is probably pre-Lahontan
and the Allen Springs Basin has probably always been landlocked, except when Lake
Lahontan was high enough to overflow the divide. Previous connection with the
larger lake is sufficient to destroy the probability of a large amount of salt having
been accumulated or retained. The present area of the basin is 235 square miles
and that of the pl :xya which occupies its present depressions is 4 square miles.

THE SAND SPRINGS BASIN.

From its southeast side an arm of the Carson playa stretches into the Sand Springs
Valley and is cut off from the main playa by a low and inconspicuous divide which,
according to Russell, is due to a small recent fault which cuts across the mouth of the
valley. . East of this the surface drainage of the valley has collected in a central
depression and deposited there a considerable quantity of common salt derived from
the more or less saline clays which floor this part of the playa. This deposit is entirely
recent and secondary, and there is no reason to suspect salt accumulations of impor-
tance to the present inquiry. In earlier times the Sand Springs Valley was filled
by Lake Lahontan, and even the fault-formed divide which now exists is apparently
quite recent. The drainage area cut off by this divide aggregates 200 square miles.

Just south of the Sand Springs Valley there is another arm of the main playa, also
containing an alkali flat and a salt deposit, and probably possessing a similar topog-
raphy and structure. These are not known in detail to the writer and the valley has
been included with the Humboldt-Carson in all computations.

THE BUENA VISTA BASIN.

Turning now from those cut-off valleys previously tributary to the main Carson
water body to those tributary to the Humboldt River, the’first basin to engage atten-
tion is the Buena Vista. This occupies the trough extending northeastward and
lying between the Humboldt and East Ranges. Toward the south the basin is barred
from the Carson playa only by a low divide, and a similar low divide separates it from
the Humboldt River to the north. The latter divide is apparently the lower and is
alluvial, whereas King maps the southern divide as of basalt. Both divides were.
overtopped by the waters of Lahontan, but the southern was probably the earlier
exposed and in the latest Lahontan stages the Buena Vista Valley was probably a
tributary of the Humboldt River. The present bottom of the valley is occupied by a
playa of the usual character and with an area of about 50 square miles. The total area
of the present basin is about 4,000 square miles, but this area is somewhat uncertain,
because the position of the alluvial divide at the northern end is not exactly known.

THE BUFFALO SPRINGS BASIN.

The Buffalo Springs Basin is a small valley lying north of the Battle Mountain
range and separated from the Reese River only by a low divide composed partly of
alluvium and partly of blown sand. This divide appears to be very recent and there
can be little question that the time is short since the drainage of the basin found free
egress to the Reese River and thence to the Humboldt. The area of the basin is
about 500 square miles, there being again some uncertainty as to the exact position of
the recent divide. It contains a playa approximately 25 square miles in area,

THE CRESCENT VALLEY REGION.

East of the north-south trough occupied and drained by the Reese River and extend-
ing eastward as far as the Sulphur Springs Range is an area of rather complicated
topography in which the north-south trend of valleys and ranges, while still traceable,
becomes less obvious. This area has been very inadequately mapped, and the infor-

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 17

mation at hand is not sufficient to permit a detailed statement of its past and present
drainage conditions. However, a brief personal visit indicates that it is divided by
the east-west uplift of the Simpson Park and Roberts Mountains into two divisions of
different affiliations. South of this uplift le the Monitor, Kobeh, and Dry Valleys,
which drain or drained to the Diamond Valley. North of the divide the country was
once tributary to the Humboldt River and comprised two northward-flowing stream
systems—that of Horse and Pine Creeks to the east and that of the Grass and Crescent
Valleys to the west, the two being separated by the Cortez Mountains. Both of these
drainage lines have suffered severely by stream decay and have been broken into
numerous shallow basins and local playas, the exact limits of which can not be deter-
mined from existing information. So far as known there are no areas of considerable
or long-continued drainage concentration, and all playas and marshes are believed to
be not only local but very recent.

The total area of the region believed to have been tributary to the Humboldt is
2,430 square miles.

THE GIBSON BASIN.

East of the Sulphur Spring Range, which forms the eastern border of the Crescent
area, the parallel troughs and ranges again become the distinctive features of the
topography. The first of the troughs is mainly occupied by Diamond Valley, which
has probably always been landlocked, and will be discussed among the trough valleys
of Nevada. East of this, between the Diamond and Ruby Ranges, lies the great trough
of the Huntington and Gibson Valleys, which, bending a little to the west, extends
southward through the Little Smoky, Hot Creek, and Reveille Valleys, well below the
thirty-eighth parallel. The northern part of this trough, containing the Huntington
and South Fork Valleys, now drains to the Humboldt. Just south of this is the Gib-
son Valley, the northward drainage of which is cut off by a low and poorly defined
divide southwest of Hastings Pass. This divide is probably largely alluvial, but may
be due in part to minor and local cross-uplift. At any rate, it is believed to be recent,
and the Gibson Valley is believed to belong to the former drainage of the Humboldt.
Another alluvial divide cuts the Little Smoky Valley just north of the thirty-ninth
parallel into two divisions, one of which drains northward into the Gibson, the other
southward into Hot Creek and Railroad Valley. This divide marks the southern
limit of the Lahontan Basin in this trough. The area of the Gibson Basin, including
the tributary part of the Little Smoky Valley, is 1,150 square miles. It contains a
long, narrow playa (Newark Lake) having an area of over 30 square miles. This playa
is somewhat saline, but the salinity is believed to be recently acquired and the con-
clusion of recent outward drainage removes any expectation of extensive salt deposits.

THE CLOVER GROUP OF BASINS.

The north-south mountain line represented by the Ruby Range is almost every-
where the line of the Bonneville-Lahontan divide, but beyond the northeast corner of
this range and perched on the very crest of the divide lies the Clover group of three
closely connected basins which are believed to have belonged to the Lahontan division.
This group consists of two parallel north-south valleys, the Clover to the west and the
Independence to the east, separated in their northern parts by the Independence
Mountains. To the south these mountains vanish and the valleysmerge. Independ-
ence Valley contains two local depressions due to recent alluviation and containing
playas of the usual type. Clover Valley has a single depression, which is the deepest
in the group and contains the shallow water body of Clover or Snow Water Lake. Inde-
pendence Valley is completely landlocked except for its connection with Clover
Valley. The latter has two low passes, one north into the Humboldt River, about 200
feet above the valley bottom and the other south into the Ruby Basin and a little

19750°—Bull. 54—14_3

18 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

higher. The former is alluvial and is believed to be recent. The latter is mapped by
King as basalt. It is very probable that the early drainage of this group was northward
into the Humboldt, and their interest to the present inquiry, accordingly, disappears.
The total area of the group is 1,075 square miles.

THE WALKER BASIN.

There remains for discussion only this one division of the great Lahontan water body.
It lies south of the Lahontan body proper, and consists essentially of two north and
south troughs lying on either side of the Walker Range. Rising in the Sierras, the
Walker River flows northward through the western trough, around the north end of the
Walker Range, and into the deeper eastern trough, the deepest depressions of which |
contain the present Walker Lake. Structurally, the affiliations of the Walker trough
are much more with the isolated trough valleys to the east and south than with the
valleys of the main Lahontan area. Only the accident of a low pass to the north enabled
the early Walker Lake to overflow and establish a connection with Lake Lahontan.
This connection was never a deep one, and the Walker body was the first of the main
Lahontan water bodies to become separated when the lake began to fall. It is probable
that it continued for a time to overflow into Lahontan, but advancing desiccation must
have put an early end to this, and the independent history of the Walker Basin is
probably a fairly long one. ,

Like the Truckee and the Carson, the Walker River has been able to keep its stream
fairly vigorous and its main channel fairly clear, but numerous local playas and ‘‘alkali’”’
flats have been formed in the tributary valleys. Most of these are too local and
recent to deserve especial notice. The most important is the chain of two basins north
of the Gillis Range and now separated from the Walker Valley and from each other by
low alluvial divides. Several similar basins border the Walker River in its northward
course through the western trough.

Along the west Walker River (a branch of the main river) are several basins which
are interesting because of their less usual origin, though no more important to the present
inquiry. It seems that the upper course of this river was once a series of lake basins
apparently of structural origin. In the course of time the river cut narrow canyons
through the walls of these basins and drained the lakes. But, this done, the river has
sometimes deserted the axis of the basins for a channel along a traversing delta of its
own building, leaving to one side or the other depressions still below the river or its
outlet. With complete desiccation these depressions have become undrained basins
with central playas of usual type. This appears to be the history of the playa in the
north end of Smith Valley. The playasand alkali lakes of the Antelope Valley probably
owe their origin in part to similar processes, though these processes have been much
complicated by fan-building and alluvial deposition.

The area of the Walker Basin at the present time is approximately 3,200 square miles.
Including all the areas once tributary to it but now cut off by damming or stream decay,
it covers 3,850 square miles. Walker Lake has a present area of 104 square miles, but
this has varied greatly in the recent past, as is attested by the extensive and complete
system of old-shore lines which surrounds it.

THE BONNEVILLE BASIN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.

Though somewhat larger than the Lahontan Basin, the Bonneville
Basin is much more nearly a unit. In Lahontan time it received the
drainage of all the inclosed region east of the Bonneville-Lahontan
divide, its deepest portion being occupied by the Great Lake Bonne-
ville, with an area at its highest stage of nearly 20,000 square miles.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 19

This early lake and its history have been fully studied by Gilbert,'
and the reader is referred to his report for all details. From the pres-
ent viewpoint the most important feature of Gilbert’s work is the
conclusion that the lake acquired and long retained an outlet into
Snake River and thence to the sea. During the greater part of the
existence and fluctuations of Lake Lahontan, Lake Bonneville was
an overflowing lake of normal character and was undoubtedly fresh.
This fact alone is sufficient to remove most of the importance of the
basin to the present inquiry. The salt contained in the Great
Salt Lake, which is the present remnant of Lake Bonneville, is simply
that present in the waters of the early lake at the time when
overflow finally ceased plus that added in the drainage since that
time. However large, it is probably not comparabie with that which
accumulated in Lake Lahontan.

The present Bonneville Basin is divided by a low and recent parting
into the basin of the Great Salt Lake to the north and the Sevier
Basin to the south. Local divides, for the most part recent as well,
have cut off a few small basins from the two main divisions. The
total drainage area of the Bonneville Basin during the Lahontan
period was 57,960 square miles.

THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN.

This basin is the central remnant of the original Bonneville Basin and includes the
valley of the Great Salt Lake and all valleys now tributary thereto. The north-south
trend of ranges and valleys, though here less marked than in the Lahontan Basin, is
still quite distinct and the long parallel ranges form islands in the present lake or
divide the trough valleys which drain into it. As in the Lahontan region, des-
iccation and stream decay have reduced the vigor of the rivers which once occupied
these valleys and many local playas and marshes have been produced. The chief
present tributaries of the Great Salt Lake are the Bear River from the north, the
Weber River from the east, and the Jordan River and Utah Lake drainage from the
south. Having their sources in well-watered highlands, these streams have retained
a considerable measure of their former vigor and are, indeed, largely responsible for
the persistence of the Great Salt Lake itself. There was once another considerable
tributary entering the lake from the southwest through the Snake Valley. This has
entirely decayed and the Snake Valley and some of its tributaries have acquired
small local playas and brackish marshes of very recent origin. The obstructions to
drainage out of the valleys are not considerable even now, and would be overcome
and removed by a very moderate increase in average rainfall.

The Great Salt Lake has a present area of about 2,200 square miles and a maximum
depth of approximately 50 feet, being somewhat variable in both dimensions. It
is extremely saline. West and southwest of the present lake is the Great Salt Lake
Desert, a broad playa-like flood plain but recently abandoned by the lake and cover-
ing an area of over 3,000 square miles. Innumerable local depressions in this plain
have become small and shallow areas of inclosed drainage and salt concentration and
have come to contain greater or lesser deposits of common salt formed essentially like
the Sand Springs salt deposit described on page 16. The divides between these

1U.S. Geol. Sur., Monog. I (1891).

20 BULLETIN 54, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

little basins are indistinguishable and never more than a few feet in height. A very
slight increase in rainfall would be sufficient to flood and drain them and wash their
salt back into the Great Salt Lake.

The present area of the Great Salt Lake Basin is perhaps 25,000 square miles. Includ-
ing the Great Salt Lake Desert and the other similar areas of local playas and marshes,
but excluding the basins cut off by real though recent divides, the area is 33,760
square miles. Including former tributaries, now the Steptoe and Ruby groups,
and the White Valley, Rush, and Cedar Basins, the area is 42,300 square miles.

THE STEPTOE BASIN.

During the Lahontan period one of the main tributaries of Lake Bonneville headed
between the Egan and Schell Creek Ranges, well south of the thirty-ninth parallel,
flowed northward. through the great trough of the Steptoe and Goshute Valleys,
crossed the Toano Range and entered Lake Bonneville east of the present railroad
station of Cobre. Since that time alluvial deposition, probably assisted by local
uplift, has barred the pass in the Toano Range and cut off the Goshute Valley from
discharge. At the same time alluvial damming and stream decay have broken the
former through-flowing stream into a score of separate basins, each with its local
playa and each separated from the other. by low and indistinguishable divides. The
whole valley has become an area of practically no drainage and no point or points of
considerable concentration can be distinguished. This early drainage line still
receives the insignificant discharge of what was once a considerable stream from the
Antelope Valley, and it once received also the drainage of the Ruby group about to
be described. The area of the Steptoe, Goshute, and Antelope Valleys with their
tributaries is 3,930 square miles. Adding the Ruby group, the total becomes 6,590
square miles.

THE RUBY GROUP OF BASINS.

The Ruby group les on the crest of the Bonneville-Lahontan divide, south of the
Clover group already discussed and between the Ruby and Egan Ranges. It con-
sists of the Ruby Valley to the north, with two parallel north-south valleys, the Butte
and*the Murray ! lying south from it and formerly tributary to it. The deepest
depression of the Ruby Valley proper les at its western edge under the steep slope
of the Ruby Range and contains Ruby and Franklin Lakes. Eastward from this de-
pression the valley rises very gradually toward the low gap of the Goshute Pass be-
tween the Egan and Pequop Mountains. It is reasonably certain that the Ruby
Valley previously discharged through this gap into the Goshute Valley and thence
to Bonneville. The topography of the pass is complicated by alluvial deposition
and apparently by recent and local movement, and it is not possible to determine
with assurance whether the Ruby Valley of the Lahontan period had an unresisted
drainage into the Goshute Valley or contained a lake which overflowed thereto over
a permanent dam. The writer has not found conclusive signs of lake occupation in
the Ruby Valley and hence inclines to the former opinion. In either case the valley
lacks interest from the present viewpoint.

Of the southern tributaries of the Ruby Valley, the Butte Valley is confined only
by a low and inconspicuous divide across its northern end. This divide is alluvial
and probably very recent, and there can be little question of the previous free
drainage of the valley toward the north. It contains a rather poorly developed playa
with an area of approximately 12 square miles. The Murray Valley is separated
from the Ruby Valley by divides of similar character, but higher and better defined.
They too are believed to be post-Lahontan, and the earlier outward drainage is be-

1 This valley is known locally as Long Valley, but there being numerous other Long Valleys in the Great
Basin, and this name being in general use for another basin (sce p. 29), it is impossible to retain it here.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 21.

lieved to have been unrestricted. The valley now contains a number of local playas,
but no area of considerable drainage concentration is known.

The Ruby Valley proper has a present drainage area of 1,200 square miles, Butte
Valley has 740 square miles, and Murray Valley 720 square miles, making a total area
of 2,660 square miles for the group.

THE WHITE VALLEY BASIN.

The White Valley Basin is a north-south trough lying between the Confusion and
the House (or Antelope) Ranges and directly south of the Great Salt Lake Desert.
Tt is essentially structural in origin and is entirely surrounded by mountains or hills.
However, the lower hills to the north were overtopped by the waters of Lake Bonne-
ville, and even on the recession of these waters it is probable that the White Valley
maintained for a time an outflow to the Great Salt Lake Basin, either through the
low hills west of the Fish Spring Range or through Sand Pass Canyon between this
range and the House Range and leading into the Fish Spring Valley. Both of these
passes are now over 300 feet above the floor of the valley, but may have been raised
by recent alluvial deposition. In any event, the separate existence of the White
Valley Basin can not antedate the final recession of the waters of Bonneville. The
area of the present basin is 920 square miles, and it contains two playas separated by
a low alluvial divide crossing the valley from east to west somewhat south of its mid-
dle. The northern playa is the larger and probably slightly the lower.

THE RUSH VALLEY BASIN.

The Rush Valley is essentially similar to that last discussed, but lies north and east
from it between the Onaqui and Stansbury Mountains on the west and the Oquirr
Range to the east. The surrounding divides are entirely structural, but the valley
originally drained into that of the Great Salt Lake through a gap in the northern
divide just north of the present town of Stockton. This gap was below the waters
of Bonneville and the waves of that lake built a sand bar across it. When the waters
receded this bar became a dam essentially similar to the one formed by Lahontan, at
the southern end of Humboldt Lake, as described on page 14. In this case, how-
ever, the dam has never been breached and the drainage of the valley is still retained
behind it, forming a small brackish lake in a portion of the pre-Lahontan river chan-
nel. The area now tributary to this lake is 700 square miles.

THE CEDAR VALLEY BASIN.

This is a third basin essentially like those of the White and Rush Valleys. It lies
just east of the latter and between the Oquirr and Lake Ranges. The latter range
is low and poorly defined and the waters of Lake Bonneville transgressed it in several
places, forming of the Cedar Valley a partially inclosed sound separated from the
water body of Utah Lake Valley on the east by a chain of islands. There is also a
fairly low pass leading westward from the Cedar Valley into the Rush Valley described
above, and it is possible that this also was below the highest stage of Lake Bonneville.
To the east the connection with the Utah Lake Valley was probably retained until
quite late in the recession of the great lake and the inclosed character of the Cedar
Valley appears therefore to be quite recent. Its present area is 300 square miles.
Tt contains two playas of usual character.

THE SEVIER BASIN.

Structurally the present Sevier Basin consists of three parallel troughs trending
approximately north andsouth. The middle of these, though the largest and probably
the deepest, is less well defined than the others. In its northern portion it expands
to form the great filled valley of the Sevier Desert. In its middle portion it is com-

22 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

paratively narrow and is further narrowed by the north-south range of the Mineral
Mountains, almost equidistant between its sides. Farther to the south it bends
westward and again expands into another filled valley, the Escalante Desert.

The easternmost of these three troughs is much more regular and stretches almost
unbroken from the fortieth parallel to the Arizona line, being bordered on the west
by the continuous uplift of the Parowan, Tushar, Pavant, and Canyon Ranges and
on the east by the western scarp of the high plateau country. Essentially this valley
is but a southward extension of the Jordan and Utah Lake Valleys, the depression
which lies just beneath the great west scarp of the Wasatch Range. But only the
southern part of this trough belongs to the Sevier drainage, the parting being the
local uplift of the Tintic Mountains, and a low divide, probably alluvial, in the Juab
Valley at the same latitude. This southern half of the trough is occupied by the
northward-flowing Sevier River, which, paralleling the behavior of the Humboldt,
turns westward across the north end of the Canyon Mountains through the deep
Sevier Canyon and enters the middle or main trough of the basin.

The westernmost trough is well defined but less than half the length of the others.
It consists of the Sevier Lake and Preuss Valleys and merges to the north into the
Sevier Desert. It is interesting mainly because it contains the present deepest
depression in the basin, the sink of Sevier Lake,

At the higher stages of Bonneville the middle and western troughs were largely
filled with the waters of the lake. The eastermost trough is higher and was not filled,
except fora small embayment at the northern end. It contained a northward-flowing
river, the predecessor of the present Sevier, which emptied into this embayment.
When the waters of Bonneville fell low enough to expose the comparatively low
divide separating the Sevier Basin fram that of the Great Salt Lake, the former con-
tinued for a time to overflow into the latter through a well-marked channel which
may still be seen east of McDowell Mountain and which has been described by Gil- .
bert.! With increasing desiccation the outflow of the Sevier Valley ceased and its
basin attained the inclosed character which it now exhibits.

At the present time the central and western troughs have become areas of prac-
tically no drainage. The northern end of the former—the Preuss Valley— has been
cut off from Sevier Lake by a low alluvial divide, while the Escalante Desert has been
similarly separated from the central trough. -The eastern trough has more nearly
retained its original character. The Sevier River is still a fairly vigorous stream until
it begins to cross the Sevier Desert. Here it loses itself in a succession of meanders
and local marshes, reaching the lake only in time of flood. It is probable, however,
that this failure to reach the lake continuously is very recent and due to the large
use of the waters for irrigation. The Sevier Desert itself is a succession of local
playas much like the Great Salt Lake Desert, but less saline and more often having
free but unused drainage channels to the sink. Rush Lake and Parowan Valleys
east of the Escalante Desert were once freely drained to the main lake body, but
have been cut off by stream decay and now contain gmall saline lakes. Round
Valley, east of the town of Manti, is a small structural basin of the type of the White
Rush and Cedar Valleys above described. How long it has been a separate drainage
unit is not fully certain—probably not very long and in any case its area of 170 square
miles is too little to give it any importance to thisinquiry. At the present time the
area from which Sevier Lake receives even occasional drainage is probably not over
10,000 square miles. During Lahontan time the Sevier Basin, including Parowan,

Rush Lake, Round, and Preuss Valleys, the Escalante Desert, etc., had a total area
of 16,375 square miles.

1U.8. Geol. Sur., Monog. I, p. 181 (1890).

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 23
THE BASINS OF THE LAVA PLATEAU.

The eastern two-thirds of Oregon and the southeastern quarter of

Idaho, with contiguous portions of Nevada and California, are covered
by great sheets of Tertiary lavas. In its northerly portions the
plateau thus formed, though considerably dissected, is substantially
level, but its southern portion has been invaded by the area of uplift
and faulting which created the valleys of the Great Basin, and has
been split into a number of valleys and ranges of purely structural
origin. In the main there has been little flexure and the faulting is
usually of a simple monoclinal type. As before, the main lines of
displacement run north and south, but there has been a significant
degree of irregular movement along lines otherwise directed, and the
valleys of the region possess only in lesser degree the simplicity and
regularity of structure characteristic of the trough valleys of central
Nevada. The topography bemg dependent on the monoclinal struc-
ture, is everywhere much the same. The valleys are long and rela-
tively narrow, with a gentle, somewhat dissected slope on one side
and a steep fault scarp on the other.

Many of the valleys of this region possessed from the beginning an
open drainage to the sea or soon attained it through the breaching of
the surrounding divides. (PI. II, fig. 1.) Many of these still retain
this open drainage or have lost it only recently. However, the por-
tion of the area contiguous to the Great Basin proper has been, like it,
a region of low and topographically insufficient rainfall and many of
its valleys have never had a seaward drainage. All of the valleys
which are now areas of inclosed or restricted drainage are briefly de-
seribed below. The Honey Lake Basin, described among the Lahontan
group, is not essentially dissimilar to the basins of the lava plateau,
and owes its connection with the larger group to the chance occur-
rence of a low pass leading thereto.

THE CHRISTMAS LAKE VALLEY.

The Christmas Lake Valley is the extreme northwest basin of the group and is per-
haps the least typical of all. It lies about at the extremity of the region of profound
monoclinal faulting and is characterized more by gentle folding and by minor and
irregular displacement than by the well-defined fault lines so prominent to the south.
The basin is bordered on all sides by rolling plateaus formed by gentle folding of the
lava and modified by a comparatively slight subsequent erosion. Undoubtedly these
rolling plateaus once possessed more or less well-defined drainage systems, but
increased desiccation has entirely destroyed them or reduced them to mere vestiges.
The whole region is now one of no determined drainage. This makes it nearly impos-
sible to fix accurately the boundaries of the basin. On all sides the plateau is dotted
with innumerable small pans or playas each of which receives and retains the drainage
of a greater or lesser surrounding area. (PI. II, fig. 2.) Most of these small basins rep-
resent irregularities in the folding of the plateau and are therefore structural and
original, but there can be little doubt that nearly if not quite all of them once over-
flowed either inward toward the Christmas Lake Valley or outward into the surround-

24 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ing basins or into the Columbia River. In many cases it isnow impossible to determine
the original direction of drainage of these pans and both for this reason and because of
the inadequacy of the available maps, the divides have been only very roughly deter-
minable and the calculated area is very approximate indeed. This applies particu-
larly to the Great Sandy Desert, across which passes the northern boundary of the
Christmas Lake Basin. This isa region of very low relief. The slopes are usually not
determinable except by precise leveling and most of the drainage channels which
once existed have been wholly or partly obscured by dune sand and alluvium.

The present floor of the Christmas Lake Valley is a broad plain, apparently flat and
diversified by several dune areas, especially in its eastern part. It rises more or less
gently to the surrounding rolling plateau and shows none of the usual features of lake
or playa topography. It is quite possible that it had once an outlet reaching from its
northwest corner through the Fort Rock Valley and the Deschutes River to the Colum-
bia. This region has never been mapped and was not carefully examined by the
writer. The question must be left open, though the assumption of recent and reason-
ably free outlet would explain the absence of playa or lake traces and the general topo-
graphic resemblance to a tributary rather than a receiving valley, matters which are
difficult to understand on the assumption of continuously inclosed conditions.

Christmas and Fossil Lakes, with several other small playas or marshes now present
on the valley floor, are mere local depressions formed by wind erosion or dune move-
ment, or both, and fed by springs or local drainage. Christmas and Fossil Lakes owe
their comparative permanence to supply from springs. Neither has any relation to
the earlier topography of the valley. Thorne Lake, in the southwestern corner, is a
small enlargement and local depression in the channel through which the overflow of
Silver Lake once passed into the Christmas Lake Valley. .

At the present time there is no area of considerable drainage concentration in the
valley. Peter Creek, rising in the southern slopes of the Pauline Mountains, maintains
a well-defined channel for some distance southward, but finally loses its water to the
underflow without forming a lake or playa. Christmas and Fossil Lakes receive the
drainage of their immediate surroundings only. During the Lahontan period the
drainage area was about 2,000 square miles, exclusive of the Silver Lake Basin, next
described. Including this, the area was about 2,750 square miles. Because of the
difficulty of determining the actual position of the limiting divide, the figure for the
Christmas Lake Valley proper is scarcely more than a rough approximation.

THE SILVER LAKE BASIN.

Silver Lake lies southeast of the Christmas Lake Valley, in a basin of structural
origin and bounded by lava scarps and slopes in the manner typical of the region. To
the west and southwest its drainage reaches to the crest of the lava plateau and a
somewhat indefinite parting from the headwaters of the Klamath River drainage.
Between it and the Christmas Lake Valley is the small but steep local uplift of the
Conley Hills and Table Rock. ‘There are several low gaps in this uplift, and one of
them, south of Table Rock, is only a few feet above the present Silver Lake and con-
tains a dry channel through which Silver Lake discharged into the Christmas Lake
Valley very recently indeed. The present Silver Lake occupies the southern portion
of its valley, the northern portion being occupied by the Pauline Marsh, which empties
southward through the Pauline Slough. The lake is very shallow but practically fresh,
a fact which is accounted for by the recency of overflow. The lake is somewhat
variable in size and is reported to have entirely evaporated in 1886-87. ‘The present
drainage area is essentially the same as that of the Lahontan period, and is about 750
square miles. There is some uncertainty in the position of the divides in this area,
but the uncertainty is far less than in the case of Christmas Lake Valley.

Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

Fic. 1.—KAMAS PRAIRIE, NEAR LAKEVIEW, OREG.
[A typical filled lake. The outlet is through the gap visible in the opposite rim.]

Fic. 2.—SMALL INCLOSED PAN ON THE LAVA PLATEAU NORTH OF THE CHRISTMAS LAKE
VALLEY, OREG.

Bul. 54, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. PLATE III.

FIG. 1.—SOUTHEAST CORNER OF ABERT LAKE, OREG.

[fhe high-water line of the ancient lake is visible about one-fourth way up the mountain slope
nl on the right. ]

FiG. 2.—PLAYA OF ALKALI LAKE, OREG.

[Showing the Lahontan period lake terraces at the foot of the mountains in the distance.]

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 25
THE CHEWAUCAN BASIN AND ABERT LAKE.

The Chewaucan Basin lies between the north-south fault scarps of two outward
dipping monoclines. On the west is the Winter Ridge, bounded by the 2,500-foot
scarp west of Summer Lake and dipping westward to the valleys of the Klamath and
the Deschutes. On the east is the similar scarp east of Abert Lake, and beyond that
the gentle eastward slope of the monocline down to the Warner Valley. The two
fault lines which determine these scarps come together south of Abert Lake and are
lost in a region of general uplift which forms the divide between the Chewaucan Basin
and the Goose Lake Basin to the south. Toward the north the fault lines diverge,
and the basin is bordered by the rolling lava plateau already described in connection
with the Christmas Lake Valley. The drainage of this is scarcely at all determinate
and the divides between the Chewaucan and the Alkali and Christmas Lake basins
are correspondingly uncertain.

The deepest depressions of the basin lie just beneath the greatest heights of the
scarps and are occupied respectively by Summer Lake on the west and Abert Lake
on the east. Both of these lakes are very shallow. Summer Lake is bordered by a
playa area on the north and east and Abert Lake on the north only. Summer Lake is
about 200 feet higher than Abert and was once connected with it through the Che-
waucan Marsh. This connection is now broken just south of Summer Lake by a low
alluvial dam probably due in part to delta and fan formation by the Chewaucan River,
which enters the valley just at this point. The divides surrounding the basin asa
whole are high and structural and there is no indication of any previous overflow.
Abert Lake is surrounded by terraces indicating that the water body has been much
larger and deeper than now. (Pl. III, fig. 1.) The heights of these terraces have not
been measured accurately, but hand-level and aneroid measurements place the highest
of them at about 200 feet above the lake. The terraces can be traced about the Che-
waucan Marsh, but not into Summer Lake, the present elevation of this lake being
very nearly that of the highest terrace. It is probable that the present Summer Lake
was once a shallow bay or filled estuary of the early water body, and that it was then
cut off from the main body by wave accumulation and delta building, the details of
which have been obscured by subsequent rainwash. It is impossible to determine
the date of this separation or whether or not Summer Lake continued for a while to
overflow into the Abert body. The present inclosed character of the lake may have
originated during the maximum of the lake expansion or it may have been initiated
only very much later. The writer inclines to the latter opinion, but, in any case,
Summer Lake was once a tributary to Abert, and any extensive salt accumulations
should be looked for in or under the latter rather than in the former.

The drainage of both Summer and Abert Lakes is now slightly less than formerly,
because of the decay of the drainage from the pans of the plateau region to the north,
as already described in connection with the Christmas Lake Valley. The Antelope
Valley south of Abert Lake was apparently once a small mountain lake which has

been drained by the cutting of the gorge of Crooked Creek and at the same time filled |

by alluvium. At present it has unrestricted though meager drainage to Abert Lake.
Except as water is used for irrigation, the Chewaucan River and Marsh drain freely
into Abert. The area now tributary to Abert, including everything except Summer
Lake, is about 930 square miles. The Summer Lake drainage totals about 560 square
miles, making nearly 1,500 square miles for the two. These figures are open to slight
uncertainty because of the indefinite character of the northern divide. The present
area of Summer Lake is 75 square miles and that of Abert Lake 60 square miles.

19750°—Bull. 54—14—4

26 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE ALKALI LAKE BASIN.

The Alkali Lake Basin is essentially a northward extension of the Abert Lake
trough and is separated therefrom by the region of local cross uplift in the vicinity of
Euchre Butte. On the east the basin is bordered, like Abert, by the scarp of an east-
ward dipping monocline which merges toward the north into the less simple uplifts
of Little Juniper and Wagontire Mountains. To the west the basin is separated from
the Christmas Lake and Summer Lake Valleys by the usual inconspicuous divide
across the lava plateau. It appears that the lake once received from this direction a
main tributary which drained the pans and valleys of the lava plateau north of Sheep
Rock. This drainage line has now been cut off almost entirely, and the lava plateau
has been divided into numerous local basins.

The deepest depression of the valley is Alkali Lake, a playa lake of very variable
size. In the dry season it is usually reduced to three or four saline ponds occupying

wind-eroded depressions in the playa. (Pl. III, fig. 2.) The northern extension of —

the Alkali Lake Valley, called ‘‘North Alkali,”’ is now cut off from the main valley
by a dam of wave and dune sand and has become somewhat saline. However, this
«separation is quite recent and does not affect the unity of the valley. A series of
terraces about both North and South Alkali Valleys indicates previous occupation by
a considerable lake, and, as all divides are far above these terraces, the lake must
always have been inclosed. The drainage area of the lake was about 400 square
miles, which has been reduced to perhaps a third of this value by the cutting off
of North Alkali and of the pans of the plateau.

- THE WARNER BASIN.

Mention has already been made of the eastward-dipping monocline the limiting
scarp of which forms the eastern boundary of the Abert Lake Basin. This monocline
is limited on the east by the scarp of a second monocline of precisely similar nature,
and between the two scarps lies the Warner Valley. As usual, the deepest depression
lies immediately under the scarp, being accentuated in this case by a minor parallel
faulting to the west of the axis of the depression. The depression is a long narrow
valley between a high steep scarp to the east, and to the west a much lower scarp
from the crest of which rises the gentle monoclinal slope before mentioned. ‘To the
north and northwest the valley rises into a rolling plateau like those already described,
and across which passes the inconspicuous divide between it and the Harney Basin.
At the south the basin is limited by a zone of cross uplift and irregular faulting,
beyond which lies the Surprise Valley.

The Warner Valley is entirely surrounded by high divides and seems to have been
always so inclosed. The surrounding mountains are furrowed by a series of lake
terraces of usual character, the highest of which is (by aneroid) a little over 200 feet
above the present lake. Several streams descend the gentle slope of the westward.
monocline and reach the valley proper through narrow canyons cut in the basalt of
the low western scarp. During the lake period nearly all of these streams built
typical deltas, the remnants of which may still be seen. (PI. IV, fig. 1.)

The present floor of the valley is a flat clay plain, probably once a playa, but now
diversified by considerable vegetation and by occasional dune areas or wind-scoured
hollows. Shallow depressions hold two main lakes and several smaller ones, the
whole being known as the Warner Lakes. All of the lakes are either fresh or merely
brackish, but at the southeast corner of the northern or Upper Lake is a small pond
containing a nearly saturated solution of sodium chloride. Its salt is believed to be
derived from seepage. The separation of the Warner Lakes is very recent. They
are still variable in size and are reported to have been considerably larger about forty
years ago.

ee ay

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. _ 21

The only part of the basin which has suffered severely by stream decay is the long
western slope. Here many once vigorous streams have dwindled to little or nothing
and, have ceased to overflow a few local depressions. In nearly every case, howeyer,
a very slight increase of rainfall would be sufficient to clear and, restore the drainage,
and, it can not be believed that the present cut-off condition is of any considerable
antiquity. This can not be so surely said of Juniper Lake, east of Adel. ‘The basin
of this lake, though small, is relatively deep, and Waring! reports two old strands
on its walls. It may have been inclosed for a considerable time, but the small size
of the basin destroys any present interest which it might have.

At present the area tributary to the Warner Lakes as a whole is perhaps not over
1,500 square miles but during the Lahontan period the drainage area was probably
slightly over 2,000 square miles, there being some uncertainty as to the exact position of
the northern boundary.

THE HARNEY BASIN.

East of the Christmas Lake Basin is another of very similar character—the Harney
Basin. As before, the divides are inconspicuous and run oyer plains and rolling
plateaus of little relief. In the case of the Harney, however, there is no question
of the recency of overflow. Russell? explored and described the channel through’
which the basin discharged into the Malheur River, and which is now stopped by a
dam of recent lava. Behind this dam the valley is broad and flat and the impounded
waters, instead of overflowing the dam, have spread out to form Malheurand Harney
Lakes.

THE CATLOW VALLEY AND GUANO LAKE.

It will be recalled that the eastern side of the Warner Valley was mentioned as
bordered by the west scarp of an eastward-dipping monocline, the crest of which
forms the Warner Mountains. Still farther east the Steens Mountains form a similar
range, but higher and of opposite inclination. In this case the scarp faces eastward,
while the gentle slope is toward the west. Essentially the area between these moun-
tains is a gentle syncline with its trough running approximately north and south and
its flanks cut off by the Warner and Steens Mountain scarps. In detail this simple
structure is far from apparent. ‘The region is one of gently rolling lava plains, much
like those already described and with its topography modified by local and irregular
folding and faulting and possibly by erosion. It is little known and very inade-
quately mapped, and desiccation has destroyed or obscured most of its drainage lines.
Its division into specific ‘‘basins” is therefore nearly impossible and is not attempted.
It is possible to point out only that there are at least two areas of considerable con-
centration of drainage, the northern in Catlow Valley and the southern in Guano
Lake. The Catlow Valley is of the usual flat-floor type with a shallow intermittent
lake. It receives the drainage of Rock Creek from the west and of a part of the
Steens Mountains slope from the east. Concerning Guano Lake, scarcely anything is
known beyond the fact that it receives the flow of Warner Creek coming from the
crest of the Warner Mountains to the west.

At its northeast corner a narrow pass opens from the Catlow Valley into the valley

‘of the Donner and Blitzen River, one of the tributaries of Malheur Lake. The present
divide in this pass is less than 300 feet above the level of the Catlow Valley, and it is
natural to assume that this pass was previously a discharge channel, the present
divide having been created or raised by subsequent alluvial deposition. However,
Waring * reports that the Catlow Valley is surrounded by old strand lines and that
these are below the divide. It may be, however, that the strands belong to a recent

1U.§. Geol. Sur., Water Supply Paper 281, 29 (1909).
2U.S. Geol Sur., Bul. 217, 22 (1903).
3U,S, Geol. Sur., Water Supply Paper 231, 65 (1909),

28 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and transient lake and that the basin was freely drained during the main Lahontan
period. This could be determined only by extensive detailed study. Nothing at
all is known concerning the Quaternary history of Guano Lake. The writer inclines
to the opinion that it previously drained into the Catlow Valley, but the evidence
favoring such a conclusion is too insignificant to warrant its acceptance.

The present drainage of the Catlow Valley aggregates perhaps 1,000 square miles.
During the Lahontan period about as much again is believed to have been tributary
to it, making a total of about 2,000 square miles. The remainder of the syncline,
including the Guano Lake Basin, has an area of approximately 1,000 square miles,
which may or may not have been tributary to the latter.

THE SURPRISE BASIN.

The Surprise Valley is a north-and-south trough lying immediately south of the
Warner trough and appearing at first sight to be a continuation of it. Closer examin-
ation, however, casts considerable doubt upon this conclusion. The structure of the
Surprise trough is much more complex and has never been studied in detail. The
deepest depression and highest range are here on the western side of the valley, and
if the structure is monoclinal the inclination is reversed from that exhibited in the
Warner. From a cursory examination of the valley and the range which borders it
on the west, the writer is inclined to the opivion that folding has had almost as much
to do with the structure as has faulting and that the appearance of analogy to the
Warner Valley is appearance only. To the north the valley rises rather suddenly
to the highlands running east from Mount Bidwell and which separate it from the
Warner Valley. The structure of these highlands is also unknown. Southward and
eastward the valley rises more gradually to a relatively undisturbed lava plateau,
the features of which are due to folding and erosion much more than to faulting. The
low and featureless range which separates the Surprise Valley from Long Valley on
the east suggests a gentle anticline of north-south axis, but this is by no means certain.

The present floor of the valley is very similar to that of the Warner Valley, being
essentially a great playa, in shallow depressions of which stand the Upper, Middle,
and Lower Surprise Lakes. This plain is somewhat less diversified than that of the
Warner and its playa character is more apparent. The lakes are very variable and it
is reported that the northern or Upper Lake sometimes evaporates entirely to dryness.
The Lower or southernmost lake is connected with the Middle Lake by a narrow
slough, the latter being separated from the Upper Lake by a low alluvial divide. A
series of old strands of usual character surround the whole valley and indicate previous
occupation by a single great lake which stood about 350 feet above the present floor
and was permanently without outlet. This lake has left wave bars, terraces, etc.,
which rival in completeness those of Lahontan and Bonneville. Lake Annie, north
of Fort Bidwell, lies behind a wave bar of this kind built across the mouth of a narrow
canyon which was an estuary of the ancient lake.

On the crest of the northern divide, east of Mount Bidwell, lies the small basin of
Cowhead Lake, once a tributary of the Surprise, but now cut off by desiccation.
New Year Lake, near the crest of the eastern divide, is of similar character. South of
the valley the large basin of Duck Flat, also at one time a tributary and later filled by
an arm of the ancient lake, has been cut off by a low and recent alluvial divide to form
an inclosed basin.

The present tributaries of the valley include only a number of short mountain
streams, mostly intermittent in character. The area now tributary to the valley is
about 900 square miles. With Duck Flat and the basin of Cowhead and New Year
Lakes the area is 1,580 square miles. It is possible that Long Valley, to the east, was
also once tributary to the Surprise. If the area of this be included the total becomes
2,350 square miles.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 29

THE LONG VALLEY BASIN.

Long Valley lies just east of the Surprise Valley, beyond the crest of the gentle
anticline (?) already mentioned. It is a poorly defined valley the detailed structure
of which is very complex. On all sides it merges with the folded and dissected
lava plateau already mentioned. Its floor is an irregularly shaped playa dotted
with shallow and variable lakes, between which are very low and inconspicuous
divides. Several low passes lead out of the valley at about the same elevation, one to
the Coleman Valley (a tributary of the Warner Basin) and the others either to Duck
Flat or directly to the Surprise Valley. Without detailed examination it is not pos-
sible to determine which of these, if any, was a channel of ancient discharge. The
writer inclines to the opinion that during the Lahontan period there was free or over-
flow discharge into Duck Flat and thence to the Surprise Valley, but this conclusion
can not be considered certain. The present lakes are fresh or brackish only. It is
not possible to determine the present drainage of each. The area of the whole valley
is about 775 square miles.

THE ALVORD VALLEY.

It will be recalled that the shallow syncline of the Catlow and Guano Valleys was
bordered on the east by the uplift of the Steens Mountains. The eastern face of this
range is a high fault scarp, directly below which lies the Alvord Valley. Like the
Warner and Abert Valleys it is essentially monoclinal in structure, though an anti-
clinical structure previous and parallel to the faulting has been detected by both
Russell and Waring. In the Steens Mountains this anticlinal structure seems to be
entirely overshadowed by the much more profound monoclinal movement, but east-
ward from the Alvord Valley faulting and tilting have not been so profound and the
eastward divide of the basin seems to be determined by the crest of one of the original
anticlines. To the south the basin reaches the less regular upliits of the Pine Forest
Mountains and Trident Peak. It is separated from the Black Rock Desert only by
an alluvial divide across the Pueblo Valley, but this divide is nearly a thousand feet
above the valley and is almost certainly pre-Lahontan. The northern extremity of
the Alvord Valley is little known and it is possible that there may have been an outlet
to the Malheur River, though the considerable salinity of the valley and the presence
of old strand lines around it would indicate the contrary.

The present bottom of the valley is cut by alluvial divides into the subsidiary basins
of Ten Cent, Juniper, Mann, Alvord, and Tum Tum Lakes and that of the Alvord
Desert. All of these were covered and connected by the early lake and it is possible
that most of the others drained into that of the Alvord Desert for some time after
desiccation had begun. The White Horse Basin was also a former tributary and has
been cut off by the accumulation of alluvium and dune sand in Sand Gap, through
which it formerly discharged.

The Thousand Creek and Virgin Creek Valley lying on the lava plateau east of
Long Valley, Nevada, seems to have been also a tributary of the Alvord and is now
separated thereform only by a low alluvial divide in the gap north of the Pine Forest
Mountains. This valley has suffered greatly by stream decay and now contains
numerous local playas of small area and very recent origin.

The areas of the various small basins into which the Alvord Valley is now divided
have not been computed in detail. Their total area, exclusive of the White Horse
Basin and the Thousand Creek Valley is about 1,600 square miles. The area of the
White Horse Basin is about 300 square miles, and that of the Thousand Creek Valley
1,300 square miles, making a total of 3,200 square miles for the drainage area of the
Alvord Basin during the Lahontan period.

30 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE GOOSE LAKE BASIN.

South of the Abert Basin, but without any certain structural relation thereto, is
* another north-south trough in which lies Goose Lake, between the Warner Mountains
on the east and the Modoc lava plateau on the west. The southern portion of this
valley is occupied and drained by the Pitt River, the northern, or Goose Lake por-
tion, being separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide just south of the lake.
This divide is apparently recent and is now only a few feet above the lake. It is
probable that the lake has frequently overflowed it, and indeed it is reported that this
has occasionally happened within the memory of present inhabitants. Undoubtedly
the freshness of Goose Lake is to be thus explained.

THE MADELINE BASIN.

On the lava plateau-north of the Honey Lake Basin is the very similar basin of the
Madeline Plains. The structure of its walls is very irregular and in many places the ~
divides are not exactly determinable. A number of low passes lead both to the Pitt
River drainage and to the Honey Lake Basin, and some one of these.may formerly
have served asa channel of overflow. However, old strand lines are visible at several
points about the basin and serve to indicate the existence and fluctuations of an
inclosed lake. Until passesand strands have been studied more exactly and compared
with each other it is impossible to read with any assurance the history of this ancient
lake or to determine whether it overflowed or how long the overflow continued.
Still less is it possible to decide whether the overflow, if any, was into the Pitt River
or into Honey Lake.

The present floor of the valley is flat and featureless, except for occasional dune
areas. There are many small local playas, but no area of general concentration is
noted on the available maps or was observed by the writer. The plain is nowhere
saline. At its southwestern corner an outlying tongue of the plain has been cut off
by a low alluvial divide and forms the Grasshopper Valley. This valley was evidently
once a part of the Madeline water body, but its subsequent relations thereto are uncer-
tain. Itnowcontainsasmallmarch. The total area of the Madeline Basin, including
Grasshopper Valley, is about 900 square miles.

THE MODOC LAVA BEDS.

West and northwest of the Goose Lake Valley a series of great basalt flows stretches
westward to the volcanic uplift which culminates in Mount Shasta. Diversified only
by minor faults and foldsand by a few deep and narrow canyons of erosion, the region
has not developed any extensive drainage system and advancing desiccation has
destroyed what little drainage there once was. The streams are dry and the occa-
sional shallow depressions are areas of inclosed drainage floored by local playas. The
region is not unlike that surrounding the Christmas Lake Valley as described on page
23, and, like it, has no importance to thisinquiry. The small basins of the lava beds
are so tiny and their inclosed condition is so recent that salt accumulation in them is
practically out of the question. Thisappliesalso to the basin of Medicine Lake on the
western edge of the area near Mount Hoffman, though it is not so fully desiccated as
its analogues to the east.

THE KLAMATH LAKES.

On the northeastern border of the lava bed region are a series of shallow basins
holding the Klamath Lakes. The geologic history of this region has not been studied
in detail, but a brief examination of the major features has suggested to the writer
that the present lakes probably occupy local depressions in the bed of a much larger
lake, perhaps of late Tertiary age, which lake has been drained by the cutting of the
gorge of the Klamath River. A similar history, on a smaller scale, is to be ascribed

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. oi

to two tributaries of the Klamath group—the Klamath and Sycan Marshes. During
the Lahontan period the whole of this region doubtless drained freely to the sea, but
subsequent desiccation has so weakened its streams and increased fan-building that
much of the area is now cut up into small basins and local saline playas. Even the
large Tule Lake overflows only intermittently and several of the smaller lakes do not
dosoatall. All this, however, is quite recent and essentially the region has been and
is one of seaward drainage.

THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF NEVADA AND THE BASINS OF THE TRANSITION ZONE.

The general character of these basins and their relations to the
other divisions of the Great Basin were noted briefly on page 9.
There is really no essential structural difference between them and
those similar trough valleys which have chanced to drain to Lake
Lahontan or to the Amargosa River, but this difference of drainage
is quite important from the present viewpoint and makes desirable
a separate treatment. The valleys of this division, though much
alike in essentials of structure and topography, present an almost
infinite variety of detail. It is obviously impossible to discuss
them thoroughly, and the following statements are confined to a brief
note of location and to those facts essential to the present inquiry.

THE DIXIE BASIN.

The Dixie or Osobb Valley occupies the first inclosed trough east of the Carson Sink.
It now receives the drainage of the Pleasant Valley from the north and the Middle
Gate and East Gate Valleys from the southeast. Neither of these drainage lines is
now active, but both are freely open and are still traversed by the flood waters of
heavy storms. The Fairview Valley to the south was probably once a tributary
of the Dixie, but is now cut off by a low ridge the nature of which is not fully certain.
The writer regards it as probably due to recent minor faulting, but possesses no con-
clusive evidence to this effect. Behind this barrier has been formed a small nonsaline
playa known as Labou Flat.

The northern end of the Pleasant Valley is separated from the Humboldt Valley
by a divide the present surface of which is alluvial, but this divide is high above
the bottom of the Dixie Valley and the valley is believed never to have discharged in
this direction or in any other. The greatest depression of the valley contains a mud
flat nearly 60 square miles in area, in the center of which is a body of loosely crys- -
tallized common salt about 10 square miles in area and from 2 to 10 feet thick.
This salt deposit is known as the Humboldt Salt Marsh and was once the source of
commercial salt for metallurgical purposes. Old strand lines 150 feet and 40 feet above
the present surface of the salt bed indicate the existence and fluctuations of the lake
from which it was probably derived.

The area now permanently or occasionally tributary to the Dixie Valley is 2,000
square miles. The Fairview Valley has an area of 290 square miles, making a total of
2,290 square miles for the probable Dixie Valley of Lahontan time.

THE GABBS VALLEY.

Gabbs Valley lies southeast of that last described and is the northernmost of the
small basins which constitute the transition zone. It is entirely surrounded by
mountains of considerable height and has-almost certainly never overflowed. It
contains a saline flat with a sandy instead of a mud surface and about 25 square miles
in area. There are no traces of an early lake. The total area of the basin is 1,280
square miles.

32 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE SODA SPRINGS TROUGH.

South of the Gabbs Valley and west of the Pilot Mountain Range is a short trough,
now separated by alluvial divides into four small basins—the Acme, Luning, Mina,
and Rhodes. Each basin contains a small playa, that of Rhodes being very saline,
though the others are not especially so. The present areas are: Acme 130 square
miles, Luning 175 square miles, Mina 65 square miles, and Rhodes 210 square miles,
making a total of 580 square miles.

It is very difficult to guess the topography of this trough during the Lahontan period.
Both divides and playas have been raised by post-Lahontan alluvial deposition and it
may be either that the whole trough once drained into Rhodes or that it all, including
Rhodes, drained northward into Walker Lake. The writer inclines to the opinion
that the trough drained partly one way and partly the other, the Acme Basin being
tributary to Walker Lake and the Luning and Mina Basins to Rhodes. If so, this may
account for the greater salinity of the Rhodes playa, though the writer has been unable ©
to discover any conclusive evidence of the existence of a Quaternary lake in this basin.
On the assumption stated the Lahontan period drainage area of the ‘Rhodes Basin
would be 450 square miles. There is also a bare possibility that the Garfield Flat,
next to be described, once drained into the Mina Basin and thence to the Rhodes.
Including this and the Acme Basin, the Rhodes drainage area would be 670 square
miles, which is a maximum value.

THE GARFIELD BASIN.

Just west of the Mina Basin and north of the main ridge of the Excelsior Mountains
lies a small inclosed valley, the deepest depression of which is the Garfield Flat playa.
The divide between this basin and the Mina Basin is in one place scarcely 150 feet
above the playa and it is barely possible that there may once have been an outlet
over or through this divide. The drainage area of the basin is but 90 square miles and
this is believed far too small to have attained discharge over a divide of the present
height, but the divide may formerly have been lower and subsequently raised by the
deposition of alluvium. The question could probably be settled by careful study
of the basin, but is unimportant, since the area is too small to give the basin any
interest.

THE TEELS BASIN.

The Teels Basin lies directly south of the Garfield Basin. The lowest pass opens
into the Rhodes Basin, but is over 800 feet above the floor and apparently never could
have been a channel of overflow. Neither has the basin ever had any tributaries.
The only chance of former inflow would be from the Huntoon Basin (described below)
and the dividing pass is so high as to render this extremely improbable. The area of
the basin is 320 square miles. In its deepest depression is the well-known Teels Salt
Marsh, a playa of high salinity and which has unusual interest for the present inquiry
because of the reported occurrence of hanksite and other saline minerals associated with
the potash deposits at Searles Lake, California.

THE HUNTOON BASIN.

The Huntoon Basin is another basin quite similar to the Garfield and the Teels and
lying west of the latter. The lowest pass leads into Teels, but since it is over 300 feet
above the bottom, it is not considered probable that it was ever a line of discharge.
The deepest depression contains a playa of the usual type, and not especially saline.
The area of the basin is 115 square miles.

Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.-OLD DELTA OF HONEY CREEK, IN THE WARNER BASIN, OREG.

[A delta built into the Warner Lake during the Lahontan period and since much dissected by
stream erosion.]

Fig. 2.—ANCIENT LAKE TERRACES ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE RAILROAD VALLEY, NEV.

Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ; PLATE V.

Fig. 2.—CALCAREOUS TUFA COATING ON ROCKS 300 FEET ABOVE THE BOTTOM OF
SEARLES LAKE BASIN, CAL., AND DEPOSITED BY THE WATERS OF THE ANCIENT
LAKE.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 33

THE MONTE CRISTO BASIN.

East of the Soda Springs Trough and surrounded by the Monte Cristo, Pilot, and
Cedar Mountains, lies the Monte Cristo Basin. Its lowest divide is in the gap between,
the Cedar and Monte Cristo Mountains and is but little over 300 feet above the bottom
of the valley. This divide is not alluvial, but there are some indications of recent
movement and it is not impossible that this pass was once lower and the locus of an
outflow into the Big Smoky Valley. The area of the basin is but 300 square miles,
and, whether it overflowed or not, it is too small to be of great importance. Its deepest
depression is now covered by loose blown sand.

THE COLUMBUS BASIN.

South of the Soda Springs Trough is the north-south trough of the Fish Lake Valley,
all of which drains freely northward to the playa called the Columbus Salt Marsh
and. occupying the extreme northern end of the trough. The stream which occupied
Fish Lake Valley has lost much of its vigor and a number of more or less saline marshes
and playas have been left along its course. All of these are recent and unimportant.
The lowest pass through which a discharge from the Columbus playa would be possible
leads into Rhodes and the Soda Springs Trough, but the divide is nearly 500 feet above
the playa, and there is little probability that discharge actually took place over it.
The basin has almost certainly been an inclosed one during and since the Lahontan
period. There isa system of strand lines of usual character, the highest about 150
feet above the flat. The present drainage area of the Columbus is quite small, but
including the part of the Fish Lake Valley recently tributary to it, though now cut
off, it equals 1,350 square miles. The Columbus playa is about 50 square miles in

area.
THE CLAYTON OR SILVER PEAK BASIN.

The Clayton or Silver Peak Basin occupies a rather irregular structural depression
just east of the Fish Lake Valley. Its lowest pass being 650 feet above its bottom,
there is reasonable certainty that it never overflowed, though there is no satisfactory
direct evidence that it formerly contained a lake. Its bottom is a very saline playa
with many crusts and layers of common salt, both on the surface and in the clays below.
The area of the playa is about 30 square miles and that of the basin about 550 square

miles.
THE BIG SMOKY BASIN.

Eastward of Gabbs Valley and the southern end of the Dixie Valley lie three parallel
north-and-south troughs, of which the outer two slope and drain southward, while the
middle carries the northward-flowing stream of the Reese River. Toward the south
the central trough and its limiting ranges pinch out and the two outer troughs merge
into a much broader valley which continues to slope southward. These two outer
troughs and their southward extension form the Big Smoky Basin. The whole has
suffered greatly by stream decay, with the formation of many local playas and the cut-
ting off by alluvial dams of the extremities of both of the northern troughs. The
deepest depression of the basin is in the extreme southwest corner and is a playa of
small salinity and somewhat diversified by small dune areas.

Just west of this playa between the Silver Peak and Monte Cristo Ranges is a pass
scarcely 200 feet above the playa and leading into the Columbus Basin. The drain-
age area of the Big Smoky seems great enough to have filled the depression during
the Lahontan period to a depth greater than 200 feet, but there is no evidence of dis-
charge over this pass, and the highest of a system of lake terraces which surrounds
the present playa is below the level of the pass. It is probable, therefore, that the
Big Smoky did not overflow.

19750°—Bull. 54—14—_5

34 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The area now tributary to the Big Smoky playa is probably not over 1,000 square
miles, but the addition of the area to the north cut off by stream decay makes a total
of 2,140 square mile. With the Kingston Basin, which was formerly tributary to it
and is described below, the total area is 3,325 square miles, which was probably the
drainage area of the valley during the Lahontan period.

THE KINGSTON BASIN.

The Kingston Basin occupies the northern tip of the eastern trough of the Big Smoky
Basin, as above described. The separation from the Big Smoky is by an alluvial
divide of uncertain age, but which the writer regards as recent. The floor of the
basin carries a chain of local playas of greater or lesser size, lying along what was
probably the old drainage line. These playas are separated from one another by
alluvial divides mostly very low and inconspicuous. Their basins have not been

individually traced or computed. The total area of the Kingston Basin, including ~

all the local playas north of the, main alluvial divide, is 1,190 square miles, all of
which seems to have been formerly tributary to the Big Smoky Basin. (

THE EDWARDS CREEK BASIN.

The Edwards Creek Basin lies east of the Dixie Basin above described and between
the Clan Alpine Mountains on the west and the Desatoya-New Pass Range on the east.
The surrounding divides are all well defined and mountainous, except at the south
end. This southern divide, while superficially alluvial, seems to be fundamentally
structural, and the writer regards it also as pre-Lahontan. The Edwards Creek Basin
has sain long been landlocked.

The basin now receives the drainage of the northern end of the Smiths Creek Valley
and it seems probabie that it once received the entire drainage of this valley, as
described below. The lowest depression is a playa about 15 square miles in area and
not known to be especially saline. There are a few suggestions of old lake strands
about the walls of the valley, but these are by no means unmistakable. The present
drainage area of the basin is about 490 square miles. With the Smiths Creek basin
the total is 990 square miles.

THE SMITHS CREEK BASIN.

The Smiths Creek Basin occupies the northern tip of the western trough of the Big
Smoky Basin as described on page 33. Its past and even its present drainage rela-
tions are not certainly known. ' It seems that it is limited at both ends by alluvial
divides. The southern of these is between 300 and 400 feet above the valley floor
and forms the separation from the Ione Valley, a present tributary of the Big Smoky
Basin. To the north the end of the valley is structurally defined, but the extreme
north end of the structural trough drains westward through the narrow gap of New
Pass Canyon and does not belong hydrographically to the Smiths Creek Basin. This
northern end is separated from the main body of the Smiths Creek Valley by a low
divide which the writer has not examined and concerning which no information is
available. It is probable that it is low and alluvial and that the Smiths Creek Basin
discharged over it and through New Pass Canyon into the Edwards Creek Basin above
described. If this be true the playa, which now occupies about 23 square miles in
the Smiths Creek Valley, must be of quite recent origin. The total present drainage
area of the Smiths Creek Basin is about 500 square miles.

THE GOLDFIELD BASIN.

The Goldfield Basin lies west of the town of Goldfield and occupies what is struc-
turally a southward extension of the eastern trough of the Big Smoky. It is cut off
from the latter basin by an alluvial divide about 500 feet above the bottom of the

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 35

Goldfield Basin and about 600 feet above that of the Big Smoky. There is another
divide at about the same elevation in a gap leading into the Clayton Basin. Both of
these divides are believed to be pre-Lahontan and the Basin is thought to have beer
always inclosed. It has an area of 330 square miles and contains a small playa of

usual character.
THE DIAMOND BASIN.

The Diamond Valley proper is a narrow north-south trough stretching north from
Eureka, Nev., between the Sulphur Springs and Diamond Ranges. In itself it has
an area of less than 1,000 square miles, but into its southwest corner discharges the
remnant of a former great drainage system which drained the southern portion ofthe
topographically poorly-defined region mentioned on page 16. The area of this
drainage system aggregated 1,870 square miles and included the present Kobeh, Dry,
and Monitor Valleys, the latter extending south to the north end of the Ralston Valley
(Armagosa drainage system) near the old town of Belmont. Most of this drainage
system is still essentially open, though never fully occupied by water. Storm waters
occasionally fill part of it, but seem never to reach the Diamond Valley itself. In
many places, especially in the southern end of the Monitor Valley, low and recent
alluvial dams have been built and have caused the formation of local playas and
marshes. None of these have any present importance.

The deepest depression of the Diamond Valley contains a very saline marsh or
playa carrying a body of common salt of unknown extent and character. The lowest
outward pass is Railroad Canyon at the northeast corner and leads into the Hunting-
ton River and thence to the Humboldt. This pass is now about 275 feet above the
Diamond Valley salt marsh and it is uncertain whether it ever served as a channel
of discharge. The writer inclines to the opinion that it did, but that the discharge
was by overflow and occurred only during the maximum of the lake expansion. A
long subsequent history as an independent valley seems very probable and is directly
indicated by traces of old strand lines on the walls of the valley. In this report the
valley is classed as landlocked and its area is not included in that of the Humboldt-
Carson Basin.

The present drainage area tributary to the Diamond Valley playa is perhaps 900
square miles. The Lahontan period area was 2,800 square miles.

THE RAILROAD VALLEY.

The Railroad Valley is the largest of the inclosed troughs of Nevada and lies just
southeast of the geographical center of the State, between the White Pine Range to
the east and the Pancake Mountains to the west. The former range is one of the best
defined of the Great Basin and, being high and continuous, it has formed a permanent
divide between the Railroad Valley and the drainage of the Colorado River. The
Pancake Mountains are much lower and less well defined and are crossed by several
fairly low passes, through one of which (Twin Springs Pass) the Hot Creek Valley
still drains into the Railroad Valley. West of the Hot Creek Valley is the Hot Creek
Range, for the most part high and continuous, but cut about its middle by the canyon
of the Hot Creek, through which comes the drainage of the southern portion of Fish
Spring Valley, lying still farther west. The northern portion of this valley is now
cut off by a low alluvial divide, but this is almost certainly very recent. Hot Creek
Valley has also two other tributaries—part of the Little Smoky Valley from the north
and part of the Reveille Valley from the south. The former is cut by an alluvial
divide, north of which the drainage goes to the Gibson Valley, as discussed on page 17.
This divide is believed to be pre-Lahontan and to have been a permanent parting
between the Lahontan and Railroad Valley drainages. Reveille Valley is cut into
three portions by two alluvial divides, the northern portion draining into the Hot
Creek Valley, the southern portion into the Kawich (see p. 36), and the middle por-

36 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tion eastward into the Railroad Valley proper. At its northern extremity the Rail-
road Valley proper is limited by an alluvial divide across the narrow Newark Valley;
but this divide, though superficially alluvial, is really due to the general uplift of
this region and is unquestionably pre-Lahontan. The southern extremity of the Rail-
road Valley is determined by the eastward bend of the Quinn Canyon Mountains
(White Pine Range) to join the Reveille Range, which is the southward extension
of the Pancakes. It is probable that the Penoyer Valley, lying south of this divide,
was once a tributary of the Railroad Valley, but this will be discussed below.

The present deepest depression of the Railroad Valley lies rather north of its center
and is a typical playa about 80 square miles in area and not unusually saline. South
of this area large number of smaller playas determined by recent alluvial divides
and receiving the drainage of their immediate surroundings only. One of these,
lying south of the Twin Springs Pass, is of considerable size and is separated from the
main valley by a fairly high divide due mainly to the fan built eastward by the Hot
Creek Valley discharge as it leaves the Twin Springs Pass. This divide may be of ©
considerable antiquity and the basin behind it may have had a significant independent
history. It is, however, the writer’s opinion that both divide and basin are post-
Lahontan. Some of these southern playas are of considerable salinity and about
the north end of the main playa are a number of small pans apparently caused by
previous dune accumulations and which are also quite saline. The salts of some of
these pans contain significant proportions of potassium and the Railroad Valley
Company of Tonopah is now (1912) drilling at the north end of the main playa in the
hope of finding buried deposits of potassium salts.

Hot Creek Valley and its tributaries have suffered less from alluvial damming than
has Railroad Valley proper. The channel which traverses it is still open, though
seldom occupied, and no significant areas of local concentration are known. A small
stream apparently derived from the Hot Creek Valley underflow traverses the Twin
Springs Pass, but does not reach the main Railroad Valley playa.

There can be no doubt of the permanently inclosed character of the Railroad Valley,
and a series of old strand lines and wave bars witnesses its former occupation by a per-
sistent lake. (PI.IV,fig.2.) The highest of these strands is 155 feet by aneroid above
the main playa.

The area now tributary to the main playa is perhaps 2,000 square miles. Includ-
ing Hot Creek Valley and its present tributaries and all the playas of the Railroad
Valley proper, the area is 4,555 square miles. Fish Spring Valley adds 415 square
miles, making a total of 4,970 square miles which is reasonably certain to have been
tributary to the valley during the Lahontan period. With the Kawich and Penoyer
Valleys, which were probably though not certainly once tributary, the total drainage
area would be 6,340 square miles. This isa maximum value.

THE KAWICH BASIN.

The Kawich Valley has already been noted as lying south of the Reveille Valley
and separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide. This divide is now about 400
feet above the bottom of the valley, but has probably been considerably raised by
recently added alluvium. The writer is of the opinion that it is post-Lahontan and
that the Lahontan period drainage of the Kawich was north, through the middle por-
tion of the Reveille Valley, and thence northeast into the Railroad Valley. The pres-
ent floor of the Kawich Valley is a flat on which are a number of playas of the usual
character. The area of the basin is 370 square miles.

THE PENOYER BASIN.

The Penoyer Valley lies south of the Railroad Valley proper and is believed to be
separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide of recent origin. However, the maps
of the region are very inadequate and the writer’s personal examinations have not

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ST

been sufficiently thorough to warrant a decided opinion. The bottom of the valley
is known to carry a playa, but its nature is unknown. The basin area is about 1,000

square miles.
THE GOLD FLAT BASIN.

Gold Flat lies west of the Kawich Basin and below the northern slope of the Pahute
Mesa. Its lowest side is toward the north and is never less than 600 feet above the
flat. The topography is such that it can not be considered entirely impossible for
this north boundary to be due to recent alluvial accumulation, but it does not seem
probable. The writer is of the opinion that the inclosed character of the basin is pre-
Lahontan. The flat carries one playa about 3 square miles in area and several smaller
ones. The basin area is 640 square miles.

THE EMIGRANT BASIN.

The Emigrant or Timpahute Valley lies south and southeast of the Penoyer Basin.
No satisfactory maps of it are available, and it has not been visited by the writer.
Nearly everything concerning it is uncertain, but it is believed to be inclosed by per-
manent divides and to have a drainage area of about 800 square miles, concentrating
ina playa about 10 square milesinarea. Thereis, however, great uncertainty as to the
position of the divide between it and the Pintwater Basin (see below), and the actual
drainage area may be as large as 1,000 square miles or as small as 400 square miles. It
is more likely to be smaller than larger than the figure of 800 square miles given above.

THE YUCCA BASIN.

The Yucca Basin lies directly southwest of the Emigrant Valley. Little is known
concerning it, but it is separated from the Frenchman Flat Basin to the south by an
alluvial divide less than 100 feet high and is believed to have been tributary thereto.

It now contains a small playa. The basin area is slightly less than 300 square miles.

THE FRENCHMAN FLAT BASIN.

Frenchman Flat lies south of the Yucca Basin in the depression within the crescent
of the Spotted Range. There is a pass about 500 feet high opening into the Amargosa
Valley, but this divide, though partly alluvial, is believed to be pre-Lahontan, The
basin has probably been permanently inclosed. It contains a typical playa. Alone,
the area of the basin is about 450 square miles, but including the Yucca Basin (see
above), which was probably once a tributary, the area is about 740 square miles.

THE INDIAN SPRING BASIN.

The Indian Spring Valley is a north-south trough lying east of the Frenchman Flat
Basin and between the Spotted and Pintwater Ranges. It is separated from the Lee
Canyon Basin by a divide only 130 feet high. This divide is alluvial and almost cer-
tainly recent and there is little doubt that the basin once drained into the Lee Canyon
Basin and, thence to the Las Vegas Valley and the Colorado River. The area of the
present basin is 650 square miles.

THE PINTWATER BASIN.

The Pintwater or Desert Valley is a trough similar to that of the Indian Spring
Valley and lying east of it. At its south end it is separated from the Lee Canyon
Basin by a recent alluvial divide only a few feet high. There is no doubt that the
basin was very recently a part of the Colorado drainage. The area of the basin is esti-
mated at 730 square miles, but the position of the northern boundary is very uncertain
and this area is a very rough approximation.

38 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE LEE CANYON BASIN.

“The Lee Canyon Basin is of very recent origin, occupying the northwestern end of
the Las Vegas Valley, being separated from the main drainage of that valley by a
divide less than 15.feet high. It was once the channel of the drainage of the Pint-
water and Indian Spring Basins, as above noted. Because of its recency the basin
has no importance to the present inquiry. Its area is 300 square miles.

THE SHEEP RANGE BASIN.

The Sheep Range Basin lies between the Sheep and Desert Ranges and east of the
Pintwater Basin. Its northern third has never been mapped and is almost unknown.
It may have drained into the Pintwater or directly into the Colorado drainage, or it
may have been always inclosed. In any case, its small area of less than 300 square
miles renders it unimportant.

THE SPRING VALLEY BASIN.

The Spring Valley is a trough valley of regular and normal type lying east of the
southern part of the Steptoe Valley (see p. 20) and parallel thereto. Its northern end
has never been mapped accurately and has not been visited by the writer. It is con-
sidered probable that the valley once drained either northward into the Goshute
Basin or northwestward into the basin of the Great Salt Lake, but it can not be said
definitely that this is the case. The area of the basin is about 1,550 square miles, this
area being somewhat approximate, owing to uncertainty as to the position and nature
of the northern boundary.

THE DESERT VALLEY DRY LAKES:

In the Desert Valley, southwest of the town of Pioche, Nev., is a group of small
playas or ‘‘dry lakes.’’ These playas and the trough in which they lie were very
recently tributary to the Colorado River drainage and are now cut off therefrom only
by low alluvial divides. Neither they nor their basin has any importance from the
present point of view.

THE GANNETT BASIN.

Near the station of Gannett, east of Las Vegas, on the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt
Lake Railway, a former tributary of Muddy Creek has been dammed by alluvium
with the formation of a small and shallow basin of very recent origin. Its drainage
area is less than 150 square miles and both this small size and its recent origin render
it of no importance.

THE OPAL MOUNTAIN BASIN.

The Opal Mountain Basin lies in an isolated trough between the McCollough Range
and the Opal or Eldorado Range in the extreme southern corner of Nevada. It
appears to be mainly structural and those divides which are superficially alluvial
are high and probably ancient. The writer is inclined to regard the basin as pre-
Lahontan, but has never visited it and can not advance a decided opinion. If over-
flow ever did occur it was unquestionably into the Colorado River. The area‘of the
basin is 580 square miles. It contains a playa of unknown area and character.

THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF CALIFORNIA AND THE MOJAVE DESERT.

South of the Lahontan Basin, the western boundary of the Great
Basin is still the crest of the Sierra Nevada, which continues to run
nearly north and south until just north of the thirty-fifth parallel,
where the Sierras bend slightly westward to form the lower and more
diffuse Tehachapi Mountains. These merge to the south into another

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 39
_
main uplift, that of the San Bernardino Mountains, but the trend is
here northwest and southeast, instead of north and south.

These trends of the basm boundary are paralleled by the troughs
within it. In the northern part of this division are four great troughs
running very nearly north and south and hence parallel to the Sierra.
In the southern portion are two similar troughs, but running north-
west and southeast in parallelism to the crest of the San Bernardinos.
Between the two sets of troughs is a considerable area of more com-
plex structure and less pronounced relief. Of the northern troughs
the westernmost, under the crest of the Sierra, contains the Owens
Valley, with the Mono and Searles Basins to the north and south, re-
spectively. The next trough to the east is the Panamint Valley, with
what are essentially its northern extensions in the Saline, Eureka, and
Deep Springs Valleys. The third trough is that of Death Valley, and
the fourth and last is that of the Amargosa Valley, with the Pahrump
and Ivanpah Valleys cut off from its southern end. The interme-
diate zone of less concentrated uplift is mainly dramed by the Mojave
River, though the Kane, Willard, Granite Mountain, and Owl Basins
lie within it and seem to have been permanently undrained. The two
southern troughs parallel to the San Bernardinos belong partly by the
Mojave drainage and partly to the former drainage of the Colorado
River, being cut by alluvial divides in the same manner as the trough
valleys of Nevada south and east of the Lahontan Basin.

THE MONO BASIN.

The Mono Basin is here classed as belonging to the westernmost or Owens Valley
trough of this division, but its structural affiliations are quite as close with the basins
of the Nevada transition zone and the classification adopted is entirely arbitrary. It
occupies a structural depression of considerable depth, contains the saline Mono Lake,
and has always been without outlet. The Quaternary history of the basin has been
studied by Russell,! to whose report the reader is referred for details. One part of
the structural basin, the Aurora Basin, is now cut off from the valley of Mono Lake
by a divide nearly 300 feet high, but this divide was below the waters of the greater
lake which occupied the valley during the Lahontan period, and the independent
history of the Aurora Basin is post-Lahontan only. The area of the present Mono
Basin is 675 square miles. With the Aurora Basin, the total is 770 square miles.

THE OWENS BASIN.

The Owens Valley occupies the central and largest portion of the trough just east
. of the Sierra. Its general slope is southward and it is occupied for most of its length
by the Owens River, which empties into Owens Lake at the southern extremity of
the valley. South of the lake is an alluvial divide only 166 feet above the present
surface of the lake. This divide is apparently of some antiquity, but it is considered
practically certain that the lake overflowed it during the Lahontan period and dis-
charged southward into the Searles Basin described below. The independent history
of the Owens Basin is therefore comparatively short, and the considerable salinity of
Owens Lake acquires unusual interest for the interpretation of the geochemical
history of the Great Basin.

1U.S. Geol. Sur., 8th Annual Report, Part I, pp. 261-394 (1889).

40 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At its northern end Owens Valley now receives the drainage of Long Valley, and
doubtless once received that of Adobe Valley, now a region of several local depressions.
Except for the loss of Adobe Valley the basin has suffered very little by stream decay,
having been saved by its proximity to the Sierra. The present area of the Owens
Basin is 2,550 square miles; with the Adobe Valley it is 2,825 square miles.

THE SEARLES BASIN.

The Searles Basin lies directly south of the Owens, and the greater portion of its area
is a direct continuation of the Owens Valley trough. The deepest depression, how-
ever, lies eastward beyond the Argus Range, which is here cut by a narrow canyon
of erosion—Salt Wells Canyon. This deepest depression is the so-called Searles Lake.
The tributary area to the west is known in various parts as the Indian Wells, China
Lake, and Salt Wells Valleys. The bottom of the Searles depression is a body of white
crystalline salts almost 12 square miles in area and with a maximum depth of about
75 feet. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) Under this are saline muds and sands, sometimes more or
less cemented. The salts are mainly the chloride, carbonate, and sulphate of sodium,
with lesser amounts of borax and of salts of potassium, the latter being largely in the
brine which saturates the salt body. The potassium and other salts are believed to
be very valuable commercially, and preparations are now under way for their
exploitation. —

The Salt Wells Canyon is pre-Lahontan, but the lake which occupied Searles during
the Lahontan period stood a little over 600 feet above the present salt flat and extended
through this canyon and a considerable way into the valley to the west. Both then
and since this latter valley has acted asa settling basin for alluvium, and this is believed
to have much to do with thé exceptional purity of the Searles salt body. A series of
old lake and estuarine beds clinging to the walls of Salt Wells Canyon records a period
of some length during which the lake stood at a moderate elevation, perhaps 300 feet
above the present surface, and permitted the partial filling of the canyon, which was
then an estuary. This same intermediate level and several others, both above and
below it, are recorded in a complex peries of lake terraces, tufa deposits, etc., which
surround the basin. (PI. V, fig. 2.) These relicta of the ancient lake have suffered
much more by erosion than have the similar records of Lakes Lahontan and Bonne-
ville, but the significance of this fact is yet obscure.

It will be recalled that the Owens Valley probably once overflowed into Stanles
through the Salt Wells Valley, and it is quite possible that Searles itself had a period
of overflow. The highest of the lake strands about the basin is a trifle over 600 feet
above the floor and the divide at the southern end of the basin between it and the
drainage of the Panamint is at very nearly the same elevation. It is possible that
the lake spilled for a time over this divide into the Panamint. The question could
doubtless be settled by a careful study of this divide and the approaches to it, but
the study has not been made, and it is not now possible to be certain. In any case,
the lake can hardly have overflowed for long, since the divide is not an alluvial dam,
and, if anything, has probably been lowered rather than raised by post-Lahontan rain-
wash. Furthermore, the series of terraces below the divide indicates a long and
varied independent existence of the lake, and the absence of tufa on or near the highest
terrace suggests that when the lake did overflow (if it did) it was essentially fresh.

At the present time the tributary valley west of Searles has suffered greatly by
stream decay and has come to contain a large number of more or less local playas, the
most important of which is China Lake. All these are shallow and recent and
would again become tributary to Searles if the rainfall were to increase only very
slightly. Including them and the whole of its present tributaries the area of the
basin is 2,030 square miles. With the entire Owens Basin the area is 4,850 square
miles, which almost certainly represents its area during the Lahontan period.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 41

THE PANAMINT BASIN.

The Panamint Valley occupies the southern portion of the trough east of that of the
Owens Valley, being the second trough east of the Sierra. It has two tributary valleys,
the Leach Valley in the southeast corner and a part of the Coso Valley to the north-
west, from both of which the drainage is still entirely open. The floor of the Panamint
is divided by a low alluvial divide into two sections, each of which contains a playa,
the northern one having a present or very recent drainage into the southern. Both
of these playas are saline, the southern one especially so. Stream decay has also pro-
duced a number of small local playas in both ends of the valley, all of which are
recent and unimportant.

The most interesting feature in the topography of the Panamint is the possible former
drainage from the Searles Basin, as discussed above. However, as there noted, this
inflow was at most very brief and has probably not affected very greatly the geochem-
ical history of the valley. Excepting the pass into Searles all outlets from the
Panamint are high and all are far above any possible lake level. The history of the
valley has been essentially one of independence. The present drainage areas of the
various playas are impossible of accurate estimation. Very seldom is there any
drainage at all. The total area of the basin is 1,950 square miles, including all tribu-
taries except Searles. Including Searles and Owens the area would be 6,800 square
miles, but it must be remembered that this greater area was tributary to the Panamint
only very transiently, if at all.

THE SALINE VALLEY.

The Saline Valley occupies what is essentially a northern extension of the Panamint
trough, though cut off therefrom by a prominent cross uplift. The basin is entirely
surrounded by high structural divides, the lowest pass being nearly 4,000 feet above the
deepest depression. There is no possibility of overflow since the basin has had its

present structure. Inthe southeast corner of the basin are two small subsidiary basins,
previously tributary, but now cut off by stream decay and alluvial damming. One of
these contains a playa known as the Racetrack. The other contains a very small
playa unnamed. The deepest depression of the Saline Basin is occupied by a very
saline playa having an area of about 12 square miles and carrying a deposit of common
salt, the commercial exploitation of which is now being attempted. The area of the
basin, including the small subsidiary basins above mentioned, is 845 square miles.

THE EUREKA BASIN.

The Eureka Basin lies just north of the Saline Valley (last discussed) and is very
similar thereto, except that the only playa it contains is small and not saline. The |
lowest pass is over 2,000 feet above the present bottom, all divides are structural and
ancient, and there is no possibility of overflow during or since the Lahontan period.
This basin and the Saline Valley are perhaps the best and simplest known examples
of the inclosed basin of structural origin, and would probably well repay careful
scientific study.

Cowhorn Valley, in the mountains west of the Eureka Basin, is now cut off behind a
_ low alluvial divide, but was formerly tributary. Including this, the area of the
Eureka Basin is 590 square miles. It is probable that the Deep Springs Valley (next
below) was also tributary to the Eureka during Lahontan time. Including it, the
total area is 775 square miles.

THE DEEP SPRINGS VALLEY.

West of the northern end of the Eureka Valley lies the similar, though smaller, basin
of the Deep Springs Valley. In the main, the surrounding divides are high and struc-
tural, but: the eastern wall of the basin is breached by the narrow canyon of Soldier

42 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Pass, opening into the Eureka Basin. The present divide in this canyon is over 400
feet above the bottom of the Deep Springs Valley, but has probably been raised to some
extent by post-Lahontan alluvium. It is not possible to be certain that this canyon
ever served as a line of discharge, but the writer considers it probable that it did,
especially since the basin drains high and well-watered mountain slopes on which the
Lahontan period rainfall must have been quite high. It is probable, therefore, that
the basin was once tributary to the Eureka Basin. The drainage area of the Deep
Springs Valley is 185 square miles. It contains a small variable lake, fed largely by
springs. ;
THE KANE BASIN.

Mention has already been made of the zone of less concentrated uplift which lies
south of the great north and south troughs of Owens, the Panamint, Death Valley,
and the Amargosa. . Of the four permanent basins which the zone contains, the largest
and westernmost is that of Kane Lake. It lies immediately south of Searles and might
be considered a part of the Owens-Searles trough, being separated therefrom by the
cross uplift of the El Paso Mountains. The southeastern divide of the basin runs
across a region of less definite topography bordering the Mojave Desert, and is fre-
quently inconspicuous. It is possible that the basin once discharged over some unde-
termined point on this quarter of its rim, but the general difference in elevation be-
tween rim and flat is about 600-feet and discharge is not considered probable. The
present bottom of the basin isa playa with an area of about 15 square miles and having
a considerable salinity. There are also several local playas north, east, and southeast
of the main playa, but all are recent and unimportant. Into the southwest corner of
the basin opens the high Tehachapi Valley, on the crest of the mountains of that name.
Stream decay and alluvial damming have cut off a portion of this valley, with the for-
mation of a local playa of little antiquity and slight importance. The area of the Kane
Basin, including the Tehachapi Valley, is approximately 900 square miles, a moderate
possible error being introduced by uncertainty as to the exact position of the south-
eastern divide.

THE WILLARD BASIN.

The Willard Basin isa small basin lying just east of the Kane and not unlikeit. The
divide which separates it from the Mojave drainage is neither well defined nor well
known, and previous outflow is distinctly a possibility. The deepest depression is
occupied by the playa of Willard Lake, which offers no exceptional features. The
basin area is somewhat uncertain, because of lack of exact knowledge of the divides,
but is certainly less than 250 square miles.

THE GRANITE MOUNTAIN BASIN.

The Granite Mountain Basin isa small structural basin south of the Leach Valley
extension of the Panamint and between the Leach and Granite Mountains. It is
little known, but is believed to be entirely surrounded by high and permanent di-
vides. Its floor carries several playa areas, the mutual relations of which are un-
known. The basin area is 150 square miles.

THE OWL BASIN.

The easternmost and smallest of the four permanent basins of the transition group is a
tiny mountain valley just south of Death Valley and which contains the Owl Lake
playa. It has never been mapped or scientifically studied, and its nature is almost
entirely unknown. Its inclosed condition is believed to be structural and pre-
Lahontan, but a previous drainage into Death Valley is not impossible. In any case
its area of less than 60 square miles makes it of little importance.

| TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 43

THE DEATH VALLEY BASIN.

East of the Panamint trough lies the great trough of Death Valley, the deepest depres-
sion on the continent and with its tributary drainage, the third of the three greater
divisions of the Great Basin, the other two being Bonneville and Lahontan. In itself
the trough of Death Valley is not especially large, nor is it exceptional for anything
except depth. It derives its unusual interest to the present inquiry from the fact
that it at present receives the drainage of the Amargosa River and but recently
received that of the Mojave River as well. These river systems are briefly described
in the two following sections. It is sufficient here to note that they entered the
Death Valley trough at its southern extremity through a common channel.

The floor of Death Valley is an immense playa occasionally constricted but not
broken by tongues of alluvium pushed outward from the mountains. (PI. VI, fig. 1.)
This playa is very nearly of one level, but there is apparently a very shallow depression
close to the eastern wall of the valley, northeast of Bennetts Wells, and which is usually
occupied by a shallow lake of saturated brine. Wet-weather drainage lines reach this
sink both from the north and south, the latter carrying what remains of the water of the
Amargosa. The whole playa is extremely saline, much of it is constantly moist and
muddy, and all ground waters are nearly saturated brines. In places on the playa
common salt has crystallized in the surface clays in such a way as to form a broken
crust or ‘‘salt reef” not unlike in appearance the “‘ice pillars” produced by frost in
moist clay soils (Plate VI, fig. 2). The irregularities of this broken crust have some-
times an altitude of several feet and are quite without parallel in North America,
though Dr. Ellsworth Huntington informs the writer that similar forms occur on the
salt desert of Lob Nor in central Asia. The north arm of Death Valley contains a
playa-like flat which is comparatively nonsaline and has a present drainage south-
ward. All other tributaries are mountain streams of usual type.

The most interesting question concerning the Death Valley depression is that of its
age. The Panamint Range, which forms its western boundary, is unquestionably
ancient and the great apron which fringes its valleyward slope seems also to be very
old. But the Funeral Mountains to the east are apparently much more recent, beds of
apparently Tertiary age are prominent within them, and it is quite possible that they
and the present topography of the valley originated quite within the period we are
discussing. Neither space nor available data permit the discussion of this question in
detail. It must suffice for the writer to express his personal opinion that this movement
though mainly post-Tertiary and probably still in progress, is essentially pre-Lahontan
and has not affected the fundamentals of the valley topography.

The drainage area now tributary to the Death Valley flat, including that part of the
Amargosa where the channel is still unclogged, is very nearly 7,970 square miles. The
cut-off portions of the Amargosa drainage add an additional 5,430 square miles, and the
Mojave drainage, past and present, aggregates 10,160 square miles, making a grand
total of 23,560 square miles in the entire Lahontan period basin.

AMARGOSA DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

The main trunk of the Amargosa River occupies the fourth and easternmost of the
system of troughs parallel to the Sierra Nevada. In Lahontan times its remotest
tributaries headed far north in the trough valleys of Nevada, touching the fringe of the
Lahontan drainage at the divides which head the branches of the Ralston Valley. The
tributaries from these two branches were joined a little to the south by a third flowing
westward from Cactus Flat and the augmented stream continued southward west of
Stonewall Mountain and the Pahute Mesa, across the Sarcobatus Flat and through a
narrow pass in the Bullfrog Hills into the Amargosa Desert and the valley still followed
by the river. Somewhat north of the thirty-sixth parallel the great trough divides, its
main branch rising southeastward toward the Pahrump and Ivanpah Valleys, practi-

44 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cally parallel with the Nevada-California line, while a lesser though deeper branch
diverges a little to the west between the great Amargosa Range on the west and the
Resting Springs and Kingston Mountains on the east.

It was this western branch which was followed by the Amargosa River, the eastern
trough being occupied by a northward-flowing tributary which joined the greater river
near what is now the station of Death Valley Junction on the Tonopah & Tidewater
Railroad. Just north of the Avawatz Mountains the Amargosa was joined by the Mojave
and the united river turned sharply to the west through an apparently structural pass
between the Avawatz Range and the south end of the Amargosa Mountains, thus enter-
ing the southern end of the Death Valley depression. This Quaternary Amargosa was

a river of no small proportions beside which its present descendant is indeed puny. -

Stream decay and the building of alluvial dams have robbed it of over half its length and
nearly three-fourths of its drainage area, and the former great valley is cut into a multi-
tude of shallow basins and local playas, each with its tiny tributaries and its ‘‘alkali”
flat. At the northern end of the Ralston Valley an area of nearly 1,750 square miles has
been cut off by an alluvial divide about 150 feet high, itself losing its former tributary
from Cactus Flat. Next southward a segment of the early valley has been cut off to
form the basin of Stonewall Flat, while just beyond, under the shadow of Stonewall
Mountain, lie two other playas, and westward in the formerly tributary valley between
Jackson and Montezuma Peaks lies a third, all now cut off behind recent alluvial divides.
From these basins south to the Bullfrog Hills is the basin of Sarcobatus Flat, with an
area of nearly 800 square miles and carrying besides its main playa many smaller and
more local ones, and several once tributary valleys now cut off to form small basins.
Once this flat discharged southward through a valley north of the Bullfrog Hills, but
this is now closed by two alluvial divides with a small inclosed basin between. South-
ward of this divide the channel of the Amargosa proper is still essentially clear, though
many more or less local playas and saline flats have been left along the filled floor of the
trough and in small tributary valleys. However, another considerable tributary has
been lost by the cutting off of over 1,400 square miles of the eastward-trending trough
already noticed and which now forms the Pahrump Basin. : Alluvial divides have not
only cut this valley from the main drainage, but have split it into three parts, the Stew-
art Valley to the north, the Pahrump Valley proper in the middle, and the Mesquite
Valley at the south. The divide which bars the latter is of considerable elevation and
may conceivably be pre-Lahontan. If so the basin belongs to the class of the perma-
nently inclosed, but the writer does not incline to this opinion and prefers to regard it
as formerly a part of the Amargosa. South of the Pahrump lies the Ivanpah Basin, but
this is probably pre-Lahontan and is separately discussed on page 45.

The mutilation of the Amargosa, though due essentially to aridity and stream
decay, may quite possibly have been affected favorably or unfavorably by local and
recent movement. The detailed history of the valley is extremely complex and,
though as interesting as it is intricate, is scarcely germane to the present study.
Apparently both Tertiary and Quaternary have seen a chain of lake basins, whose
alternate filling and cutting has gone on under the complex interaction of frequent
though moderate movement and of continuous and complicated climatic change.
These changes have been incessant and are still in progress, but it is not believed
that during or since the Lahontan period they have affected the essentials of the
topography or caused the persistent concentration of drainage elsewhere than in the
Death Valley sink.

The area of the Amargosa drainage is given in connection with Death Valley on
page 43.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 45

THE MOJAVE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

The Amargosa was and is essentially a single stream occupying a long, narrow trough.
The Quaternary Mojave was more dendritic. Rising in the northern slopes of San
Bernardino Peak, it cut, like the Humboldt, directly across the main structural
features of the region, entered at Soda Lake a north-south trough which is perhaps
related to that of the Amargosa, and followed this north to the junction with the
Amargosa and the western turn into Death Valley. How far this course was deter-
mined by the structure of the country and how far it was anterior to and imposed
upon it, it is impossible to say. The writer is strongly inclined to consider it largely
the latter. In any case, from each trough that it cut and each plain that it tapped it
received its greater or lesser tributaries each with its own dendritic drainage, or per-
haps its chain of lakes. All of this isnow changed. Perhaps more than any other
American area the Mojave Desert shows the effects of lessened rainfall. Itisa country
where lakes are dead and streams are dying and where only the occasional arroyos
galvanized into vigor by rare and sudden storms maintain the semblance of a drainage.
The Mojave River has lost all its tributaries, and its main stream, though fed by the
well-watered slopes of San Bernardino Peak, flows no farther than Soda Lake and
seldom even so far. Dams of dune sand and alluvium have blocked the greater
valleys and cut the flatter areas into a checkerboard of minor basins. | ‘‘ Dry lakes”’
lie in nearly every township. Indeed, so numerous are they that the writer possesses
authentic information concerning nearly 50 of them. It would scarcely be profita-
ble to review all of these in detail. Larger or smaller, relatively old or relatively
young, all were once part of the Mojave and all are post-Lahontan. Rodriguez,
Rosamond, Rabbit, and Harper Lakes in the west, and Coyote, Coolgardie, Cronese,
Garlic, and Langford Lakes to the north, are among the most important and all are of
the same type.

Some of the larger and older playas are somewhat saline, but this salinity is recent
and superficial. Even in Soda Lake, which is the present terminus of the Mojave
River, waters a score of feet under the surface are practically fresh. North of Soda
Lake there is a river channel, but no river. Local rainfall and an occasional brief
overflow from Soda Lake have created a small playa at Silver Lake, about 20 miles
north. North of this is a dam of recent dune sand and then the valley of the Amargosa
and free drainage into Death Valley.

It has been considered useless to compute the area of the various basins into which
the Mojave drainage has been divided. The total is 10,160 square miles.

THE IVANPAH BASIN.

The Ivanpah Valley lies*in the extreme southern end of that offshoot of the Amar-
gosa trough which carries the Pahrump Basin (see p. 44). However, the divide which
separates it from this trough is high and structural, as are all the other divides which
limit the basin. It is practically certain that its inclosed and independent condition
is both ancient and permanent. The bottom of the valley now contains two playas
of usual character and separated by a very low alluvial divide. There are alsoin the
northeastern end of the basin two small basins and playas, now independent but
believed once to have been tributary either by free drainage.or by overflow, probably
the latter. The total basin area is 900 square miles.

THE MESQUITE TROUGH.

Mention has already been made of the two structural troughs which lie north of
and parallel to the San Bernardino Mountains. The southernmost of these is struc-
turally continuous and open from the Mojave Desert to the Colorado River, but, like
the similar troughs of central Nevada, it is higher in the center than at the extremities,

46 BULLETIN 54, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this elevation determining a water parting, which is superficially alluvial but never-
theless quite ancient. This divide crosses the trough in the neighborhood of Wilburs
Well, located by the surveys of the General Land Office in township 3 north, range
5 east, San Bernardino base and meridian. West of this point the trough was once a
tributary of the Mojave, and now contains a series of playas due to this tributary’s
decay. East of the divide the trough once drained to the Colorado River, but alluvial
damming has now cut it into a half dozen basins each independent and inclosed and
each with its typical playa. It has not been considered necessary to attempt the
delineation and study of each of these local basins in detail. The most important
are those of Mesquite, Dale, and Palen Lakes. The exact heights of the various.
divides are unknown, but all are believed to be recent and the basins they form are
thought to have belonged quite recently to the Colorado drainage and to have, there-
fore, slight importance to the present inquiry. The total area of present inclosed
drainage in this trough and east of the Wilburs Well divide is 3,520 square miles.

THE BRISTOL TROUGH.

The second trough north of the San Bernardino Mountains is occupied by the basins
of Bristol, Cadiz, and Danby Lakes, the first receiving also the drainage of a high
valley running toward the northeast between the Providence and Piute (or Pahute)
Ranges. The exact interrelations of these lakes and their basins are not fully known,
but they are believed to be analogous to those of the trough last discussed, and to have
drained quite recently into the Colorado River. The divide between the westernmost
or Bristol Basin and the Mojave is the local uplift of Ash Hill and is believed to have
originated in connection witha center of recent vulcanism a little to the west. This
divide, though of no considerable antiquity, is believed ‘to be pre-Lahontan. The
only chance of importance of these basins to the present inquiry lies in the possibility
that one or more of them may have been inclosed longer than is assumed and may
have been an area of salt accumulation during a considerable period. The surveys
of the region are so few and so inaccurate that this possibility can not be absolutely
denied; though it is believed to be remote. Danby Lake is known to contain a
considerable deposit of common salt, but this is believed to be of recent and secondary
origin. The total area of the basins of all three lakes is approximately 4,150 square
miles.

THE SALTON BASIN.

South of and parallel to the San Bernardino Range is another
structural trough similar to those north of 1t but deeper, and open
southward to the Gulf of California. This trough is now cut off
from the Gulf by a low divide of alluvial material and its deepest
depression is occupied by the Salton Sea, the surface of which is over
200 feet below sea level. W. P. Blake, who made the first scientific
examination of the basin! and discovered its negative elevation,
concluded that the trough had once contained an arm of the sea
and had been cut off by the gradual out-building of the delta of the
Colorado River from the eastern shore. The delta having been built
above the water level, the river might have flowed northward into
the basin or southward into the Gulf. As a matter of fact it has
done both. Being an alluvial river of very variable bed, it has flowed
alternately to the basin and to the Gulf, probably many times in
each direction. The present Salton Sea was created by an accidental

1 Pacific Railway Reports, Vol. 5 (1856).

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. AY

turning of the river toward the basin in 1905 and 1906, a condition
which it cost millions to remedy. Had no attempt been made to
return the river to its seaward bed, or had this attempt been unsuc-
cessful, the basin would have filled until it overflowed into the Gulf
or until the Colorado turned southward of its own accord. In either
case desertion by the river would have left an inclosed sea to slowly
evaporate as the Salton Sea is now doing. That this history was
actually enacted in the recent past is indicated by a deeply cut old
beach line surrounding the basin at about 40 feet above sea level and -
a series of lesser and lower strands marking stages of retreat. The
similarity of conditions then and now is attested by the fact that this
older series of strands can not be distinguished from the strands
which have been formed by the retreat of the present Salton Sea.

This interpretation of the recent history of the Salton Basin may
require modification in detail. For instance, there has been some
degree of post-Tertiary movement along the north side of the basin,
and the exposed beds have been found to contain saline strata which
exactly simulate beds deposited in continental inclosed lakes or
playas. It is difficult to reconcile this with the hypothesis of long
marine occupation of the trough. In this and other directions Dr.
Blake’s theory may need revision, but its essentials will probably
stand. In any case, it is apparent that both the topography and the
history of the Salton have been very different from that of the basins
previously discussed. The major factor has been, not varying
climate but a vagrant Colorado. This difference of history makes the
usual criteria of little value.

The size and nature of the drainage basin, its mutilation by stream
decay, the probabilities of inflow or overflow, are here of little im-
portance. Of course, salt accumulation is quite possible either by
the evaporation of marine water, the assistance of the river, or the
ordinary continental processes, but the problem is in no case one of
topography ands therefore beyond the scope of the present paper.

A word should perhaps be devoted to the delta of the Colorado.!
This is a broad, alluvial plain, of no visible relief, and traversed by a
network of bayous. The position occupied by the divide between
gulf and basin is entirely indeterminate, and there is no rainfall to
developit. The lower channel of the Colorado is exceedingly variable
and the delta is dotted with lakes and marshes, which are souvenirs
of its presence. So far as known, all of these are essentially fresh,
except some small ponds near the so-called Volcano Lake, and the
salinity of these is due to recent and present fumarole activity. One
of the lakes contains a considerable percentage of potash alum, which
will doubtless be developed when transportation and political condi-

1 For information concerning the delta I am indebted mainly to the papers of Dr. D. T. MacDougal and to
personal communication from him.

48 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tions become sufficiently favorable. Down the west side of the delta
runs the so-called Rio Hardy or Hardy Colorado, which is fed by
seepages or direct channels from the larger river to the east. West
of the Cocopa Mountains and close to this Rio Hardy is a shallow |
basin separated from the river only by a wide and flat plain of very
little elevation. In times of flood the Hardy sometimes covers this
plain and fills the depression. On the retreat of the river there is
formed an inclosed lake known as Laguna Maquata. When low
it is quite saline, but the salinity is destroyed whenever a flood
reconnects it with the Hardy.

The area of the Salton Basin can not be accurately computed
because of the character of the delta and the uncertainty in the posi-
tion of the divide across it. It is probably about 8,000 square miles.

THE BASINS OF THE NEW MEXICO-TEXAS TROUGH.

The central portion of New Mexico has a structure very similar to
that of the Great Basin. A somewhat warped and folded plateau has
yielded to great north-south fractures, producing parallel ranges and
trough valleys as in Nevada and California. The most prominent of
these troughs is that occupied by the valley of the Rio Grande north
of El Paso. This was once a.series of separate basins or “bolsons,”’
but the divides have been cut by the river and the entire valley is
now essentially drained, though stream decay has recently created a
number of local and unimportant playas. Hast of this trough hes
another which, not possessing a vigorous through-flowing stream,
has not been cut down or kept clean, and contains the several inclosed
basins next-to be discussed.

THE OTERO BASIN.

The middle portion of this trough is occupied by the Otero Basin, lying between
the Sacramento Mountains on the east and the San Andreas Mountains on the west.
The writer has published elsewhere ! a report of a reconnoissance of this basin from
the present viewpoint, and it is necessary here only to review the essentials of the
topography. East and west the basin is limited by the high walls of the trough.
To the north it merges with the Gallinas highland and the Chupedera Mesa, both high
and certainly pre-Lahontan. At the southern end the divide is alluvial and though
apparently ancient, is probably less than 300 feet above the present deepest depres-
sion. It is quite possible that the basin has overflowed this divide and drained into
the Rio Grande, but there is no direct evidence of this, and the writer does not con-
sider it probable. In any case, a series of ancient strands about the present bottom
indicates an inclosed history of some duration. The present deepest depression is a
large and very gypsiferous playa, the southern end of which carries a deposit of hydrous
sodium sulphate believed to be of secondary origin. There are several small local
playas of no importance.

The most interesting and unusual feature of the basin is a great area of gypsum
dunes, south and east of the main playa. The study of these dunes has yielded con-

1 Circular 61, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. of Agr. (1912). The reconnoissance was made in the company
of Dr. Elisworth Huntington.

Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

FiG. 1.—BoTTOM OF DEATH VALLEY, CAL.

[Showing the salt-covered mud flat northwest of Furnace Creek Ranch.]

FIG. 2.—ROUGH CRUST OF IMPURE SALT ON THE FLOOR OF DEATH VALLEY, CAL.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 49

clusions of some geologic interest but quite foreign to the present subject. The area
of the Otero Basin is a little over 7,000 square miles.

THE ESTANCIA BASIN.?!

The Estancia Valley lies at the northern end of the trough in which is the Otero Basin
and where this trough begins to merge with the plateau of northern New Mexico. It is
separated from the Otero Basin by the Gallinas and Chupedera uplift and the northern
and western boundaries are similarly structural. The eastern boundary is much lower
and in several places is less than 250 feet above the bottom of the valley. Overflow in
this direction and into the Pecos Valley is possible but not probable. The bottom of
the valley is diversified by a number of shallow and irregularly-shaped depressions,
believed by Meinzer to have been scooped by the wind from the beds deposited in the
bottom of an ancient lake. Some of these depressions now contain salt or brackish
lakes. There is the usual series of old strands about the valley.

At present the drainage of the valley is almost entirely by underflow and impos-
sible to define. The area is about 2,050 square miles. In the northeastern corner is
the small basin of White Lake, now cut off by desiccation but once a tributary.
Including this the area is about 2,100 square miles. Both of the areas given are
only approximate because of the comparatively low relief of the surrounding highlands
and the difficulty of accurately defining the divides.

THE ENCINO BASIN.

The Encino Basin lies east of the Estancia Basin and is very similar to it. The
surrounding divides, though poorly defined, are relatively high and the basin has
probably been permanently inclosed. It contains the usual saline depression,
believed by Meinzer to be wind-formed, and is surrounded by the usual series of old
strands. Its area is about 300 square miles, great accuracy being unobtainable
because of uncertainty as to the position of the divides.

THE PINOS WELLS BASIN.

The Pinos Wells Basin lies just south of the Encino Basin and is similar thereto in
every way except that the eastern divide is much lower and the lake strands are
lacking. The writer is of the opinion that this basin was once tributary to the Pecos
Valley and has only recently been inclosed. Itis not impossible that this basin isa
part of a former eastward overflow channel of the Estancia Basin and, if the Estancia
Basin ever did overflow, it was probably by this path. The area of the Pinos Wells
Basin is about 325 square miles.

THE SALT BASIN.

Directly southeast of the Otero trough, though probably not structurally related
thereto is another similar trough which contains the so-called Salt Basin, historic
as the scene of the ‘‘salt riots” of 1878. The divides which surround this basin are
essentially structural and ancient and though several passes are superficially alluvial,
all are over 600 feet above the flat. The basin is believed to have been permanently
inclosed. The floor is a nearly level plain dotted with hillocks of dune sand and with
small saline lakes and playas. The present drainage is insignificant and the areas
tributary to the various lakes can not be computed with any exactness. The area of
the basin as a whole is about 8,600 square miles.

1 The description of the Estancia, Encino, and Pinos Wells Basins is drawn largely from the report of
Meinzer, U.S. Geol. Surv.; Water Supply Paper 275 (1911).

}

50 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF ARIZONA AND SONORA.

Arizona south of the Gila River and the northern and western
portions of Sonora form another region of great parallel ranges and
valleys essentially similar to the Great Basin though somewhat more
complex in the details of its structure. The trough form of the valleys
is especially well developed north of the international line, being
typified by the Lechuguilla and Tule “Deserts”? and the Mohawk
and Ajo Valleys to the west; the Quijotoa, Baboquivari, and Santa
Cruz Valleys in the center, and the San Pedro, Arivaipa, and San
Simon Valleys to the east. South of the line the topography is less
simple and the dendritic drainage of the Altar River has cut trans-
versely across range and valley in a way which strongly suggests
the character of the Quaternary Mojave. |

The great troughs of the northern section resemble those already
discussed in that they are usually higher in the middle than at the
ends, thus creating in each a water parting north of which drainage
was once to the Gila, while southward it joined the Altar or flowed
directly to the Gulf. Without exception the troughs are essentially
open in one direction or the other and in the whole region there is no
known basin of structural origin. Furthermore, most of the drain-
age lines are still open and, paradoxically, because the aridity has
been too complete. ‘The process of alluvial damming so character-
istic of the troughs of the Great Basin has been impossible because
the rainfall has been too meager to move the alluvium. Even the
minimum of rainfall necessary for the formation of local playas has
been lacking. Two streams, the San Pedro and the Altar, have
their sources-in higher and better watered regions, and manage to
maintain a precarious existence over part of thew former channels.
The Sonoita, the Santa Cruz, and a few other streams have a transient
and truncated wet-weather flow. With these rare and shrunken ex-
ceptions there is no drainage at all. An occasional cloudburst in the
mountains is imperceptible a dozen miles below. Yet because of the
very paucity of drainage the region is not one of great salt accumula-
tion. It is too arid to be saline. The drainage has not decayed but
vanished, and there is water neither for chemical rock decay and salt
solution, nor for the carrying to areas of concentration of such salts
as do chance to be freed. Such salt accumulations as there are are
in the better watered valleys rather than in the worse.

The Quaternary history of this region is a field for speculations of
peculiar interest, and not without their present importance. Cli-
matic changes have been continent-wide and probably world-wide,
and the evidences of a previous lesser aridity are unmistakable in the
region to the north. Is it not probable, therefore, that the present
unmitigated aridity of this southern area has replaced a time of less
extreme conditions when a more moderate desiccation permitted and

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ak

caused the formation of playas and alluvial dams? This region then,

_ was perhaps what the Great Basin is now, and salt accumulations

descended from such a period are by no means impossible. But
whether or not these speculations have a basis of truth, they are as

_ yet without supporting evidence. No direct indication of such a
-moderately arid period has been discovered, and the country is so in-

hospitable that it has not invited the efforts of speculative geologists.
For the present the matter must remain open and it would seem
useless to search here for hypothetical salt accumulations when there
are other regions, the promise of which rests less on speculation and
more on fact.

THE COCHISE BASIN.

In the eastern part of the region just discussed there is one basin of more usual
type. The Arivaipa-Sulphur Springs Valley, being better watered than its more
westerly analogues, has had a history more nearly parallel to that of the Great Basin
valleys, and the central portion of it has been cut off by alluvial dams to form the Co-
chise Basin. Northward the valley drains to the Gila and southward to the Rio
Yaqui. The northward divide is the lower and probably the more recent, and there is
little question that the basin once had free drainage in this direction. The area of
the basin is approximately 1,250 square miles. It contains a playa of usual character.

THE LORDSBURG-MEMBRES REGION AND THE CHIHUAHUA BOLSONS.

In the southwestern corner of New Mexico are two trough valleys
not essentially dissimilar to the Arizona trough valleys which border
them on the west, but of much less regular structure. The western
of these troughs contains the present Lordsburg and San Luis Valleys
and belongs in many ways with the Cochise Basin and the San
Simon Valley, in the group last discussed. Once it drained north-
ward into the Gila and it is now cut off thereform only by a low
alluvial divide. Internally the valley shows a topography essen-
tially similar to that of the valleys of the Great Basin. The struc-
tural trough has two branches, each of which once contained a con-
siderable stream, the two uniting somewhat south of their mutual
discharge into the Gila. Stream decay and alluvial dams have cut
these tributaries into chains of shallow basins and local playas,
notable among which are the Llano de los Playas, or Playas Valley,
lying southeast of the Pyramid Mountains, and the Lordsburg Dry
Lake near the railroad junction of that name. All of these sub-
sidiary basins are recent and unimportant and their individual areas
have not been computed. The total area of inclosed drainage in the
trough is about 2,900 square miles.

East of this trough is another irregular trough valley now con-
taining the valley of the Membres River and the Florida Plains. In
this trough the inclination is reversed and the former drainage was
southward across the international line. Indeed, there is now
searcely any barrier to southward drainage and a very moderate

B2 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

increase of rainfall would suffice to reestablish the outflow. Stream
decay has produced a few local playas, but none of any importance.

Southward of the line the ancient drainage line reaches the Laguna
Guzman, which is the sink of the northernmost of the Chihuahua
bolsons. The area of the Membres Valley and its tributaries within

the United States is over 5,000 square miles. In Mexico an area of

6,800 square miles is or has been tributary to the Laguna Guzman,
making a total of about 11,800 square miles for the area of this
bolson.

These bolsons are wide, shallow basins once tributary to the Rio
Grande and now cut off therefrom only by low dams of alluvium
and dunesand. They are products of the decay of the drainage sys-
tem which once served the broad featureless plains between the
Rio Grande and the Sierra Madre. All are very recent and unim-
portant. The larger ones contain intermittent or permanent lakes
fed by the perennial streams which head in the well-watered high-
lands of the Sierra Madre. The region of the bolsons extends from
the western boundary of Chihuahua southeastward to the edge of
the drainage system of the Rio Salado, about half way across the
State of Coahuila, but this region is divided into two parts by the
still vigorous drainagé system of the Rio Conchos. The north-
western portion is the smaller and contains the bolsons of the Laguna *
Guzman (already discussed), the Laguna de Santa Maria, the Rio
Carmen, and the Laguna de Patos, as well as many smaller playas
and transient ponds. The more important bolsons of the southern
division are those of Laguna Palomas, Laguna de Coyote, Laguna
Parras, Laguna Viesca, Laguna de Jaco, and Laguna de Agua Verde.
Areas have not been computed in detail. The total area covered
by all the bolsons, including the Guzman, is probably not less than
125,000 square miles.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN BASINS.

The crests of broad mountain ranges are frequently regions of
poorly determined drainage and wherever the crest of the Rockies
is flat and imperfectly defined, advancing desiccation has left small
valleys and local depressions partially or entirely without outward
drainage. All such basins are more or less recent and nearly all are
small. Only two require specific notice.

THE SAN LUIS BASIN.

The San Luis Valley or San Luis Park lies in south-central Colorado at the head
of the great trough of the Rio Grande. It is separated from the valley of this river
by a broad and featureless alluvial plain, crossed by an inconspicuous divide. The
present drainage of the valley is not sufficient to overflow this divide, and accumulates

1 Laguna is the Spanish word for lake; rio is that for river.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 53

in a group of small and variable lakes. The inclosed condition of the valley is un-
doubtedly very recent and due only to stream decay. The area of the present basin
is about 2,800 square miles.

THE RED DESERT BASIN.

The Red Desert Basin, or group of basins, lies in south-central Wyoming, on the very
crest of the Rocky Mountains, occupying a broad plain bordered on three sides by
mountain ranges but essentially open toward the south. Atatimeby no means remote
thissouthern divide was nonexistent and the basin drained, probably freely but at least
by overflow, into the Little Snake River and thence to the Colorado. The present
barrier is a series of low divides which are superficially alluvial and probably entirely
so. The basin is by no means a unit but is cut by alluvial or structural divides into
a complex series of smaller basins each with its playa and its greater or lesser drainage.
The past and present relations of these basins are not known in detail, but it is im-
probable that their discharge ever concentrated in a single basin or a single channel
of escape. The region is more a decayed drainage system than a single basin.

None of these basins is ancient, and none would have.any importance were it not
for the fact that part of the western slope of the area.is formed by the Leucite Hills,
a zone of volcanic activity in which are large masses of leucitic rocks containing con-
siderable proportions of potash.!- How fully the drainage of these hills has been
localized and retained can not be determined from present data. The writer inclines
to the opinion that both retention and concentration have been comparatively slight,
but the evidence is far from conclusive, and the region can not be disregarded. It
should be noted that the presence of extensive deposits of sodium salts in the basins
of the Red Desert and in other small basins both west and east of it is no proof of
long-continued concentration. The shales and sandstones which make up the greater
portion of the areas tributary to these basins contain large quantities of occluded
sodium salts, which rapidly find their way into the drainage and to the places where
it concentrates.

West of the Red Desert and on the westward slope of the Leucite Hills are several
small and local basins now without overflow and which share the topography and
geochemical characteristics of the western part of the Red Desert proper.

The total area of the Red Desert Basin is approximately 3,600 square miles, but it
is apparent from the above discussion that importance lies not in the total area, but
in the areas and topographies of the various subsidiary basins and in what propor
tion of leucitic country chanced to be tributary to each. These facts can not be
determined from the information now available.

THE GREAT VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA.

Through the heart of California, between the Sierra Nevada and
the Coast Range, runs a great filled trough which differs from the
‘basin troughs” east of the Sierra only in its greater size and in the
fact that its western wall is breached by the Golden Gate, giving free
egress to the sea. Southward through the north end of this valley
flows the Sacramento River, and northward from the south end comes
the San Joaquin, both rivers uniting to form the Straits of Suisan
and entering the sea through San Francisco Bay and the Golden
Gate. In essence both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys are
regions of free seaward drainage, but rainfall is low, and is insufficient
to keep the valleys entirely clear. Local playas and ‘‘alkali” spots

1 See Schultz and Cross, U. S. Geol. Sur., Bull. 512 (1912).

54 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are not uncommon, and, especially in the San Joaquin, shallow local
depressions have become small inclosed basins or lakes like Kern and
Tulare, which overflow only at times. Here, as in the Great Basin,
evidences of stream decay are everywhere. None of these local basins

are structural, none have walls high enough to be even directly per- |

ceptible, and none have any significant antiquity. The saline accu-
mulation gets no further than the formation of ‘‘ alkali” soil, and has
no significance to the present inquiry.

THE FILLED LAKES OF THE CALIFORNIA RANGES.

Tn the mountains of these ranges, as of most others, are many small
depressions which are or have been filled by lakes. In the course of
time these lakes have been slowly filled by alluvium, and at the same
time their outlets have been slowly lowered by stream corrasion,
until at last the rising alluvium met the falling water surface and the
lakes have become flat-filled valleys with a more or less vigorous
original or through-flowing drainage. Examples of this process,
locally modified, have already been mentioned—the Antelope Valley
in Oregon (p. 25), the Smith Valley in Nevada (p. 18), and the
Tehachapi Valley in California (p. 42). Literally hundreds of others
in all stages of development may be found in the Sierra, the Coast
Range, the Cascades, and elsewhere. Plate I, fig. 1.

Where the drainage is sufficiently vigorous, either because through-
flowing or for some other reason, these filled lakes do not interest us.
In many cases, however, an original drainage, never very vigorous,
has not been able to maintain itself and has been imprisoned within
the valley. . Probably the most extreme instance of this is the basin
of the Carriso Plains in the southeastern corner of San Luis Obispo
County, Cal.1_ Nearly 500 square miles of this valley, once tributary
to the San Juan Creek, have been cut off by alluvial deposition and
stream decay probably complicated by local movement, and have
developed an internal drainage concentrating in Soda Lake, which is
now a playa saturated with a strong salt solution in which sodium
sulphate predominates. Of course this condition is quite recent,
and, from the present viewpoint, quite unimportant.

THE BASINS AND PONDS OF THE COLORADO PLATEAU,

The northern third of Arizona, the northwestern quarter of New
Mexico, and adjoining portions of Utah and Colorado make up the
Great Colorado Plateau. Subjected to some movement and consid-
erably dissected by the Colorado and its tributaries, this plateau
nevertheless retains wide areas in which relief is small and slope
imperceptible, and over which drainage is at best sluggish and uncer-
tain. These areas have suffered greatly from the prevalent desicca-

1 Arnold and Johnson, U.S. Geol. Sur., Bul. 880, 369 (1909).

| TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS, 55

tion. Valleys dammed by alluvium, local depressions dried below
their outlets, ponds like those of the Great Plains and coulées, as well
developed as those of Washington, allabound. Many of these inclosed |
areas are of considerable salinity, but all are recent and most are tiny, |
and it does not seem necessary to discuss them in detail. In area
they vary from ponds or playas that drain a few acres to the large but }
shallow basin of the plais of San Augustine in western New Mexico,
compassing perhaps 1,500 square miles. This latter basin and the
smaller ones in its vicinity probably once drained into the Rio Grande |
instead of the Colorado, but otherwise they do not differ from their
western analogues. In the absence of full and detailed knowledge of |
the entire plateau region it is impossible to deny categorically the |
existence of basins, the size or antiquity of which would give them
present interest. However, it seems very probable that, with one
exception, no such exist. ‘This exception will now be described.

THE HUALPAI BASIN.

In its southwestern portion the Colorado plateau has been more modified than else-
where, both by movement and erosion, and here lies the Hualpai or Red Lake Valley,
occupying a depression in the making of which both movement and erosion have had
ahand. There is little doubt that this valley once drained northward to the Colorado,
but this drainage may have been a long time ago. The present divide, though allu-
vial, is high and may be pre-Lahontan. The writer, while inclining to the opinion
that it is, does not care to advance any conclusion. The area of the basin is
approximately 1,450 square miles and its deepest depression contains a playa which
is not known to be especially saline.

THE PONDS AND COULEES! OF EASTERN WASHINGTON.

The central and eastern part of Washington is largely a great lava
plateau, somewhat warped and cracked by the movement which was
more pronounced farther south and west, but preserving much of its
original character. Being of little relief and in general of poorly devel-
oped drainage, this plateau has suffered severely by desiccation and is
now dotted with literally hundreds of small inclosed basins, due prima- |
rily to inequalities in the lava surface and resembling in every way the |
small pans of the Christmas Lake, Abert and Alkali Valleys, as dis- me)

cussed on pages 22 to 26. Some of these depressions now carry per-
manent or intermittent lakes, most are slightly or moderately saline,
but all are recent and owe their inclosed condition to the decay of the
drainage system to which they once belonged. So far as known none
drain an area of over a few square miles and none are important.
Another and less usual type of inclosed basin is represented by the
‘‘coulées,”’ or long, narrow valleys with steep walls and flat floors, the
floors being dotted with lakes. Essentially these are old stream chan-
nels, the history of which, stripped of all details, is as follows. When
the lava plain was uplifted and warped, numerous cracks formed

1 The word ‘‘coulée”’ is here used as locally understood.

56 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

across it, usually without much vertical displacement on either side.
As the rainfall was then (or later) much greater than at present, these
cracks determined stream channels and became eroded to considerable
depths and. with a steep-walled, canyon topography. Later ice-
dammed lakes occupied these valleys and supplied the alluvium
which forms the present flat bottoms. With the disappearance of
these lakes the valleys again became stream channels but apparently
not for long. Desiccation intervened and the once through-flowing
streams were split into a series of pools or playas. This is the present
condition of the coulées. Some of the lakes overflow and are fresh,
others do so seldom if ever and are brackish or saline. In Grand
Coulée is one—Soap Lake—which is a nearly saturated brine and
contains an extraordinarily large proportion of carbonate of soda.
But interesting as is this history of the coulées, it indicates clearly
the recency of the lakes which occupy them, and therefore their unim-
portance to the present inquiry. None of their areas have been
computed. Ne

THE PONDS OF THE GREAT PLAINS.

The western half of the Mississippi Valley is a great apron sloping
imperceptibly upward to the mass of the Rockies. Over this in
Quaternary time stretched a complexly dendritic drainage system, its
finger tips reaching to the crest of the mountains and to every ridge
and hill between, so that each township had its river and every acre
its rill, But advancing aridity has respected this greatest river
system no more than the lesser ones to the west. Its streams have
been clogged and truncated and its remotest and slenderest tendrils
withdrawn, until to-day there is a large area at the foot of the Rockies
which has nearly no drainage at all. In all this region alluvial dams
and sand dunes (the latter much more than the former) have advanced
upon the defenseless drainage, damming the little streamlets in a
dozen places, cutting off here and there a tributary of more consider-
able size, creating tiny and tinier basins now numbered by the thou-
sands. These dot the whole plains region of Nebraska and Wyoming,
the northwestern corner of Kansas, the eastern fourth of Colorado,
the dune areas of southwestern Kansas, and the great plains of the
Pecos Valley and the Llano Estacado, but they are perhaps best
exemplified in the Sand Hills of Nebraska.t Here alluvium and
dunes and have conspired against the drainage and with entire suc-
cess. The region is a wilderness of rolling hills, originally dunes but
now fixed by vegetation with the intermediate valleys dotted with
lakes varying in area from a few acres to 2 or 3 square miles. There
is usually an annual fluctuation in level of 1 or 2 feet from a maxi-

1 For much of the information here given I am indebted to Prof. Raymond J. Pool, of the University of
Nebraska,

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 57

mum in early spring to a minimum in late autumn. Most of the
lakes do not overflow and many of them are brackish. All are un-
questionably recent and due to sand accumulations which the drain-
age has never since been vigorous enough to clear away.

Farther south, where the rainfall is less, are playas instead of lakes,
but otherwise conditions are the same. Everywhere the outposts of
the drainage system have retreated and their channels have been
barred. The bars are sometimes alluvial, sometimes eolian, more
often both. The result is the same.

Of course none of the basins thus created could ever become the
place of accumulation of any large quantity of salt. It is an essential
of the process outlined that large basins can not be created, since their
concentrated drainage would be sufficient to sweep away the dam.
Where a stream of any size is permanently dammed by sand or allu-
vium it must be dammed in many places and split into many basins
in order that evaporation may be sufficient to balance or overbalance
the inflow. In places ponds may become quite saline, but the total
amount of salt accumulated is always small.

It is of special interest in the present connection to note that some
small saline ponds in western Nebraska have been found to contain
very large proportions of potassium carbonate undoubtedly derived
from the concentration of the run-off of burnt-over prairies. Were
there a place where concentration of this kind had occurred for a long
time or from a considerable area, a workable deposit of potassium
salts might have accumulated. No such place has been discovered
and it is probable that none exists.

LOCAL BASINS OF UNUSUAL ORIGIN.

For the sake of completeness it is necessary to note briefly a few
areas of inclosed drainage which have originated from local and
unusual causes. These are of two types—volcanic and eolian. The
craters of extinct volcanos frequently contain inclosed lakes and there
is at least one example of this in the United States—Crater Lake,
Oreg. The Ragtown Soda Lakes, near Fallon, Nev., noted on page
15, are probably of similar origin, though the vulcanism was far less

vigorous. Apparently the Zuni Salt Lake on the plateau of north-
western New Mexico is of the same type.t In both the latter cases
the salinity of the inclosed lake is due to the concentration of water
received from seepage or springs.

Basins due to “‘deflation,” or eolian erosion, have only one promi-
nent example in the United States. West of Laramie, Wyo., are three
or four isolated depressions, one of which, Bates Hole, is of consider-
able size and depth. These have been studied by Blackwelder ? who

1 Darton, U.S. Geol. Survey, Bul. 260, 565 (1905).
? Jour. Geol. 1, 443 (1909)... |. ay ig VUES bys Bac

58 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

regards them as due to wind erosion. The similar though smaller
wind-eroded hollows of the Estancia Basin, New Mexico, were noted
on page 49, and the writer has seen analogous depressions in the
Alkali and Warner Basins, Oreg. Both volcanic and eolian basins .
are likely always to be too small to have importance for the present
study. This is certainly true of all known American examples.

THE POSSIBILITIES OF POTASH.

In the preceding pages there are named specifically nearly 200
inclosed basins. Some of these are so obviously unimportant as to
require no further mention. One hundred and twenty-six, which are
somewhat more important, are given in Table I, with the area and a
brief description of each, the arrangement being the same as that
followed in the text. It is certain that any basins of possible value
for potash will be included in this list, and it is just as certain that
many that are included will have no possible value. Many of the
latter are easily eliminated. First, it is obvious that no accumulation
is to be expected in a basin which has recently overflowed either into
the sea or into another basin. Applying this to the list of Table I, it
is possible to eliminate from further consideration 62 basins, of which
16 were once tributary to Lahontan, 9 to’ Bonneville, 11 to the
Amargosa and the Mojave, 7 to miscellaneous inclosed basins, and 19
more or less directly to the sea. These totals include 10 basins the
previous drainage of which is not absolutely certain, though ex-
tremely probable. These are the Clover Basin, the Goshute-Steptoe
Valley, the Murray Valley, the Ralston Valley, Stonewall Flat, Sum-
mer Lake, Long Valley (northwestern Nevada), Duck Flat, the Big
Smoky Valley, and the Smiths Creek Valley. The nature of the
doubt in each case can be ascertained by reference to the preceding
chapter.

A second general elimination can be made on the ground of small
area. It is difficult to set exactly the limiting area which a basin
must have in order to be promising, but it seems probable that basins
which cover less than 500 square miles may safely be disregarded.
Their potash deposits, if existent, would doubtless be small, and de-
tailed prospecting would scarcely be warranted at least until larger
basins have been explored. Applying this criterion to the remaining
basins of Table I, we eliminate 10 more, Alkali Lake, Garfield, Teels,
Huntoon, Goldfield, Sheep Range, Willard, Granite Mountains, Owl,
and Encino. It is possible also to eliminate 12 others which were
very probably drained, but which, in any event, are smaller than the
upper limit which we have set. These are Warm Springs, Allan
Springs, Mesquite (part of the Pahrump), Acme, Luning, Mina,
Monte Cristo, Kawich, Yucca, Aurora, Deep Springs, and Pinos Wells.
The conclusion that these small basins lack practical value does not

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 59

necessarily mean that they lack scientific interest. For instance, the
small saline ponds of Alkali Lake are known to contain about 4 per
cent of potash (K,O) in their total dissolved solids, and the Teels
Marsh carries a number of the minerals which are associated with
potash brines at Searles. It is quite possible that some of these
smaller basins may prove to contain potash accumulations of rela-
tively high grade, but the amount of the material is likely to be too
small to warrant commercial exploitation.

It is possible to eliminate two additional basins on special grounds.
First, Bonneville, in spite of its great size, can be safely dropped from
the list of possibilities. This is true on Swo grounds—previous over-
flow and the areal geology of the basin. The overflow in itself might
not be sufficient, for there has been a considerable period since the
overflow ceased and time has probably been available for extensive
potash accumulation. But the Bonneville Basin is set almost en-
tirely in sedementary rocks, which can not reasonably be expected to
yield any important quantity of potash to the drainage. Further-
more, nearly all of the saline material accumulated within the basin
is probably now in the Great Salt Lake, and the salts contained in
this lake carry less than 2 per cent of potash (K,O).

The last basin to be eliminated is the Otero, in central New Mexico.
This was possibly once subject to overflow and is set almost entirely
in nonpotash rocks, but its elimination is not based upon these facts
so much as upon a detailed examination made of the basin specifically
from the present point of view, and which resulted in a strongly
negative conclusion.*

The basins which remain may be divided into three divisions:
(1) Those in which the known topographic and geologic conditions
are fully favorable, (2) those in which some conditions are favorable
and some adverse, and (3) those concerning which there is sufficient
uncertainty to render classification doubtful and decision as to promise
impossible. The basins of these three divisions are given in Tables
II and III and IV, respectively. Of those in Table III the topo-
eraphic features are favorable in all cases but one—Owens. In this
case the previous overflow into Searles introduces an unfavorable
factor which has, however, been partially overcome by the length of
time elapsed since this overflow ceased. At the present time the salts
of Owens Lake contain approximately 2.25 per cent of potash (K,O).
With the other basins of Table III the unfavorable factor is in all
cases a lack of potash-bearing rocks in the drainage basin, the Che-
waucan Basin being set almosi entirely in basalts and the others in
Paleozoic sediments. :

Of the uncertain basins of Table IV, the Salton is doubtful, because
of the difficulty of interpreting the influence of the Colorado River

1 Free, Cire. No, 61, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1912).

BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

upon it; Rhodes is unpromising, because of its small drainage area
and the probability that this area was really considerably smaller
than that given, and the uncertainty concerning the Red Desert
arises from lack of knowledge of its internal topography. In all
other cases the doubt is due to uncertainty as to area or previous
Details of all cases are contained in

overflow, usually the latter.

previous pages.

The basins of Table II are, so far as known, all favorable to potash
accumulation and, other things equal, they should be promising in

proportion to their area.

These ‘‘other things” are believed to be

really equal so far as accumulation is concerned. Questions of segre-
gation and accessibility introduce many other factors which are
beyond the province of this report and will not be discussed.

It is believed, however, that the introduction of these additional
factors into the discussion would find its main effect in altering the
order in which the basins stand in Table II rather than in adding
basins thereto or subtracting them therefrom. The basins of greatest
promise from all points of view are probably contained in Table II,
with the possible addition of such of those of Table IV as further
investigation may show to be favorable.

Taste I.—Areas of the undrained basins.

Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description.
Sq. m.
Mahontan sce 2 -| seme soba se 45,730) ||) Wiatner.. 2-52 sc--e- Landlocked ...........
BlackeRock-.e-=-- Part of Lahontan...-- 10,500 |} Harney..-..------- Tributary to Colum-
IKumivas- ee 2-2 | see GO Aaraps Sees kee 445 bia River.
Granite Spring dosesass2 ees se 890 || Catlow....--..-.-- cee tributary to
JOH OS sree OE aaa eee ree 340 4 Harn
Hot Springs. Cou eas. ase ee 270 \|Guano! os2e2e- seca Brababie tributary to
Honey Lake. COTNe stenoses 2, 660 Catlow.
Truckee. 222. COREE Me see eye: 2,975 || Surprise........... Landlocked (max.
Lemmon Valley -.- Oss Peseeh See ee 90 Brea)
Warm Springs.....|..-.- doztiss2l ast Spas 20 || Long Valley....--- Probably tributary to
Humboldt-Carson .|..--. c Co Pr Pe me ee’ 27,575 Surprise.
Mermley,-cenee eee llsese Goseee UUN ah 8 9 2150)|(Advord s: tbeesasee) pee landlocked. .
Allen Springs..-..-/-.--. dona Rg ae 235 || White Horse...... Tributary to Alvord ..
Sand Springs......|...-- (ieee eRe OSE eae ~ 200 |} Thousand Creek. .-]..... GOLA Le ee
Buena Vista. ....-. Part of Humboldt} 4,000 |) Goose Lake........ Tributary to Pitt
drainage. River.
Buffalo Springs.-..|...-- Ca See es eerae 500 || Madeline.......... Probably landlocked. .
Gibsons 28 30. 2s ce alee 22 Go peek ne Sh eae dee 1,150 |) Klamath Lakes....| Tributary to Klamath
Clover (Snow Wa- |..-.-. COLE eee fete ser 1,075 River.
ter) Dixie Valley.......}| Landlocked...........
Wraiker. 2... Jo. -255 Part of Lahontan..... 3,850 || Fairview.-........ Partiof Dixie: see. csee
Bonneville......-.. Once tributary to | 57,960 |} Gabbs Valley.....- Landlocked.........-.
Columbia River. Acme. 22 ota. oes Probably tributary to
Steptoe....-....... Part of Bonneville....| 6,590 Walker. —
RUDY ene ac- oe = tcf cee Osea ee = os ae 1200) }| Tuning? 22 eas seee Probably epee to
Butte Valley......|..-.. Comet tense epee 740 Rh one
WIGS Veen ee oes | tee (Glee. Aen es 720 |) Mingiic see cess osodleveecOOsee cemee eee nee
White Valley......]..... olen Sea: 2S eee 920 || Rhodes (max. area) Probably landlocked.
Rush Valley.......|.. BEES (i. See, - Saati 700)| (Garileldeeee ect cel ememe dO-i. fPebaeae ont
Cedar Valley......|..... Cope ten eso se .8 300i Peels 219 ee ee Landlocked.........-..
BOVicl spars wean al een (i (aj ee A Ne 16,5375) ||| Ehuntoone ee aoc s| seco Go? is22) seereerzee
Round Valley.....|....- iO eaenee 2. Sod 170 || Monte Cristo... .-.. Doubtfults: ee ses-e.--
Christmas Lake... Probably landlocked..| 2,750 |} Columbus........- Landlocked.........--
Silver Lake........ Part of Christmas 7650/1) (Clayton2)) 22 24|eeeee oe Seg aa siete tare cter=
Lake Basin. Big Smoky - 2. .0+ 2 |.AyesdO see sce aeemen se
Chewaucan| Landlocked........... 1,500 |} Kingston.......... miipwleEy to Big
(Abert Lake). Smoky.
Summer Lake..... Part of Chewaucan 560 || Edwards Creek....} Landlocked...........
Basin. Smiths Creek...... Probably tributary to
Alkali Lake.......

Landlocked. aca pep ea

Edwards Creek.

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS.

Taste I.—Areas of the undrained basins—Continued.

Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description.
Sq. m.
Goldfield........-- proeaely, landlocked - . 330 || Soda Lake......... Part of Mojave
MD TaMMON ere ee kM Oe ses th eos 2,800 drainage.
Railroad Valley. . - qemaicewen Gnas area)| 6,340 || Rodriguez Lake ...|..... (0 Koya ees ean Sa
Kawichec sso... <5 Probably tributary to 370 || Harper Lake......-]....- (0 (ome pats cher Banh
Railroad. Coyote Lake.......|....-. GO ese cadens
PONOVEDA ete ae'is = oles = One ee todenee aes 1,000 |) Cronese Lake......]..... CO KG ates eer oe eS
Goldilat. . 22.22. - Probably landlocked. . 640 || Langford Lake..-...|..... Oj ae une
Wmiigrant...2.-.2-- Probably landlocked | 1,000 |} Ivanpah.........--. Landlocked.......-.
(max. area). Mesquite Lake...-. Tributary to Colo-
NODE A eee Probably tributary to 300 rado River.
Frenchman Flat. Dale Makes ore eee (a Ka ee a ea ar
Frenchman Flat...| Probably landlocked. 740 || Palen Lake.......-|..... Co (a ee aan ae
Indian Spring. - - -- Tributary to Colorado 650 || Bristol Lake......- Probably tributary
River. to Colorado River.
Biniwateren. 2... Cc oer Re oa 730 || Cadiz Lake.....--- Tributary either to
Lee Canyon. ......|...-.- Gopec eae stseghes 300 Danby Lake or to
Sheep Range. .--.- Doub tinleeaete see aeee 300 the Colorado River.
SpnimenviatloyjecccsieeeneQOjee.-oeae ace esjeis 1,550 || Danby Lake....... Probably tributary
Ganneth. 22222 242-- Tributary to Colorado 150 to Colorado River
River. (max. area).
Opal Mountain....| Probably landlocked. . 580 |] Salton..........-.- Complicated by ma-
MOTOS sues 2. sno. Landlocked..-......-.- 770 rine invasion.
JN TWO fi) A eee Part of Mono.......--. 95 || Laguna Maquata..-.| Connected with Rio
Omens: ss ys: Once tributary] 2,825 ney (Colorado
to Searles. er).
Searlessee 2 ora Landlocked(max.area)| 4,850 || Otero.............- Prebably landlocked
BaMamMinte see... 4/- Landlocked (areadoes } 1,950 |) Estancia...........-|....- GO ipsa ae
not include Searles FETICIN OF eR (0 KO eae ens lie, ees
or Owens). Pinos Wells...-..-- Probably tributary
Saline Valley .....- Wandlockeds2. 3422-42. 845 to Pecos River.
TDYNUife) ih el ae |e Gores eel CUB|\| SEU Geopoadcconosce Landlocked........-
Deep Springs Val- | Probably tributary to. 185 |} Cochise...-....-... Tributary to Gila
ley. Eureka. G River.
Ire aes Se eae 900 |) Lordsburg Dry |..... (6 Fe Ra ery st
Lake.
iWallanclnseee oe ss arto 250 || Playas Valley......]..... dons eee au ae
Granite Mountain . 150 |} Laguna Guzman | Tributary to Rio
ONAN Es Bae rn ep do 60 (Membres Val- Grande.
Death Valley... --- Landlocked (ine. Mo- | 23,560 ley).
jave and Amargosa). Sanihisis Valleyas-s |e eG One-sse eee eee ee
Ralston Valley Part of Amargosa | 1,750 |} Red Desert ........ ae tributary
drainage. to Colorado River.
Stonewall Flat.....}..... ove ae irene) 345 || Carriso Plains... -.. Tributary to Pacific
Sarcobatus Flat...|..... C0 oye a el ae 755 Slope drainage.
Pahrump Valley...} Tributary to Amar- | 1,400 || Plains of San Au- | Tributary to Rio
2 gosa (max. area). gustine. Grande.
Mesquite Valley...| Probably tributary 350 || Hualpai.........--- Probably landlocked
to the Amargosa.

Area.

Sq.m.

900

2, 520

TaBLeE I1.—Basins in which all known conditions are favorable to the accumulation of
potash salts, given in order of area.

Basin. Area. Basin. Area. Basin.
Sq. m. Sq. Mm.

NOAM OTb Ae ae ene a 45,730) ||) Warmer: 2.222.052.5226. 25000) ||P Salineseesaaeseeee ere
Death Valley..........- 23,560 || Panamint.............-- iL S500 Eine kappa seer eee
Railroad Valley........-} 6,340 || Hualpai................. 1, 450 || Mono.........----------
Siai Ges Ee as Ae eae 4,850 }} Columbus...........-..-- fe 350 || Frenchman Flat......--.
PAV ONG eee ce Sale er cicncrels BAO NW) CAs a .oyssouetoderces 1 280) iGoldvilateasssseeer eee ee
Diamond ayes Steet. 2,800 || Edwards Creek.....-..- ”990 Opal Mountain...-...-.-
DURPEISEE Me 22522 -=- 5555 25350)! kane asis 2) ses22 ae 900 || Clayton..........--.....
IDWS 1s) 5 Li Spe Seopa eae 2,290 || Ivanpah..-..-..-.--..-- 900

62 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE III.—Basins in which some of the known conditions are unfavorable to the accumu-
lation of potassium salts but which cannot be definitely rejected, given in order of area.

Basin Area Basin Area. Basin. Area.
Sq. m. Sq. m. Sq. m.
Salt (Basin @22 eoe-.ce rss 8,600 || Estancia... 2-4) 0. 2,100 || Chewaucan (Abert Lake)} 1,500
Owens: t2522a5oeess: 2,825 || Spring Valley..........-. 1,550

TasLe IV.—Basins the classification and promise of which is doubtful, given in
order of area.

Basin. Area. Basin. Area. Basin. Area.
Sq. ™m. Sq. m. Sq. Mm.
Saltonos-s pee n sees 8,000 || Bristol Lake.........--- 2,520 || Emigrant (Timpahute).| 1,000
Danby Wake: 2. 2.4: A150) || CROW soe oe ee ae 2,000 |) Madeline......-...-....- 900
Red Desert. 52. 2.25.22 .5 3, 600"||*Penoyers-cee los ae eee 1 000.9) "Rod ese st Peecseete sees é 670
Christmas Lake........- 2,750 |} Guano Lake.........-.- 1,000

INDEX.

Page
AS JOXEIELE Tei EL sR es re 25
PAOTT OMEN ASU see ee ya a cislele ee ciclo ie wing a ai 32
Adobe Valley......--.------ Desh ease ied viens a 40
Agua Verde, Laguna de__.......--.--------- 52
PANT OMEN Le Viateraateeisierats Se icles <<less ciapye ae 50
MUKA waKeNBasiMS <2... 6225-04556 6 26, 58, 59
JNillera: Sonne Sp siiale tae SAS a ane ee Ree aec oso 15
AlliwialiGamm ing (2525 beck snacks 6, 50, 56
BORO WMIL Visa panei ina MEE SEE 29
PNETATO OSA LUUVeL oe! soe siemens 35, 48,44, 45
NEETU 2) ee ON Cre eye 28
Antelope Valley (Chewaucan Basin, Oreg.)-- 54
Antelope Valley (Steptoe Basin, Nev.)------ 20
Antelope Valley (Walker Basin, Nev.)------ 18
PATI Vat ON VaHOyas 588 so se asa es tela soe 50,51
Arnold, Ralph, and H. R. Johnson.-.....---- 54
PARVIT OTE AGETI Na ae see Acre RAEN DP RNILRS 39
Babodmivanivialley ss sohos2 5 pee ee 50
AUS Yauco s sae se 2 ees GABA ae 3
BEUCS 1EIC) Dae Hes ee UE SHEE eE nee Cpr be sets 57
BPI OMOkysbasine se eae nt Soe e iar 33
Blacksockshasinva ee yer setae eae 12
(Blackwelder, Biot.) S224. 222-2 de s4-282- 57
TB TEENA 4 TEE ca WB Ua Seo ey A pat 46
Bolsonsion@hihwah wa sss. sss 4 eee eens 51
Byavarenal ley 1 SE Sibi ee ee eS ata ae ee 18,59
IS TISTOIMR ASIEN ts yee eh! Va CAO BE A peldiaaiy | 46
IBUen a Vista, Basie Sieehi 6s x55 t eal | fs 15,16
IBgiialojSprings Basin). 2.2265. -6. 5222252222 15,16
SUG LeMValle yee ee Yeh Goce a Ny ap NNER les 20
(CR CTRUUIS) TN pS cea a eC rs ea 43, 44
CEYGIN IL Saas ie Se ek a ar ote eae ees oe eet 46
Wanmen io} bOlSOM Of ease ses se- see se ae 52
Chirag) JOGO SAS ae re rll eee 54
ICAL SOMY Olinkeemaie ye uy ahi ce as 3 14
Wat OWAAVANLO Vis Sess deh ste ait eee Seng eee 27
WerlaraViallle vB aSimer sooo ee ee ae a 21
WHE WATICAIED asin se vane Ne Nua St oe Us eit 25, 59
Chiba a DOISONS 2/23 242i soe eee asia 51
(QUOTHGY, IDB ess Pe OU ren ae eo ot eee 40
ObrishmasyWalke Walleye eens) = ses eee sel=l= 23
lay fompe asimtie eee ree ey cure Waa 33
LOCH pes STIs yt ne MBI Uy a Se a al 15,17
(Gaye atkste) IBY Vert a PEW es 6 ae) a ee Oa ee a 51
Colorado Plateau, basins of. +--....-2------- 54
Ol OTAGOVRVeTE a aiNeiealsie eae Sa a 46
ColumbusvBasit sees ee- oe oc ee see ase eke as a 33
Coolgardie Dry Lake....-.....-.-.---------- 45
WoawinendpWalkiesss ssa c ce sihe de ete aeleiee - 28
Gowlonm, Valleys ese esas ou Uso eA ok 41
Coyote Dry Lake (Mohave Desert)-.....--..-- 45
Moyoue Waging deen Mey Yee aes 52
Crater Lake..... BE UE aE SOEs SES 57

Page.
@rescentiValleyer ease so epee er pee 15, 16,17
Cronese Dry Lake.......-. See ey see 45
Cross, Whitman. (See Schultz & Cross.)
DEY KENT aus NA eee eee Nee re ALG er ae Laas 46
Danby widkey weenie shake. Seen ue Lanes 46
ED) AGO TIMMINS UE Degen eae SNe ayn Cosa eee ane 57
Weathavalleyabasinee paces essere see ae 43
Deep Springs Valley Basin.............:.--- 41
Desert Valley Dry Lakes (Pioche, Nev.)-.-- 38
Diam ONGwB as irae ay ee yet Span eae 17,35
ID ERIeN Basin. Be ee a ees 5b Ne aA Ae 31
IDnyevalleyi@Nevada) sense eee eeee ae 17,35
AD YbTel tcl Ey by NAP Oe eee ees nae ire sie 28
Duneysands dammit yaaa seer 56
Haglouliake ne Cs wwe ae eee gn 13
Eastern Washineton, ponds and coulées of. - 55
Edwards Creek Basin..............-...--.-- 34
LOTTA NON, BE RSIG o aed tk bee eeaesnncuscnose 37
INMCINOsB ASTM ae sees see See eee eee 49
JOOlEIN GOS“ 5 3525 -costebesansocoseees 26,49, 57
HiscalantewDesertceccccest cen ote eae eee 22
IBIStANCiay Be asineeees Nett Mean Leer yo aeons ae 49,58
BuTrekarb asia wae steeper eee 41
Mairvie yw Vialleye se. o8 eee ks cn NN ee ee 3l
Bernley, Basie 2) aves e ae Se aha ee Sees 15
Hilledtlakeswevste ease at ye aritete Nene se 18, 25, 42, 54
IRAShea ke wVallleyaea cease een ta aaa 33
Fish Spring Valley (Railroad Valley, Nev.).-- 35
Wish Spring Valley (Wtah)-2.-=2----- 32-22 = 21
DD ihobawreghat AM ype ee Beam ates del 13
Blondayelain ssh essere eee ese eee 51
TH OSGUMATE AKG ee a see Ae PT UE eet ee are 24
Mirani hii aie hs eeons, Wats ae ara one ernie eae 20
Hrenchimany hla te asia ese eae 37
Funeral Mountains, geologic history.....-.-- 43
Galbins' Walley 225 O00 Tin a ee ee eed 31
GannetiiBasins Sees hee bach Sen ee eae. 38
Garfieldulbasime. 55-4055 ii ite SA Oh anh erp) ae 32
GarlicsD nyplialket seen eee eae eee eer ee 45
GibsonvB asings: 2.5 es eee ee 15,17,35
Gulbert Gio Yo sss.2 a eS ee 2 8,19, 22
GoldthlatpB asinrg a eee ae ee 37
GoldfieldsBasinu iF) Sa yentk ibe al Sat xe 34
Goose Lake.....------- a Shae se aE 30
GoshutenValleyeeeeassas- hoe eee eres 20,38
Granite Creek Desert ......---..------------- 12
Granite Mountain Basin. ...........--------- 42
Granite Spring Basin -...-....--..---------- 13
GrassiVialle yj aiesee eens aa iolaiste alate 17
Grasshopper Valley .-.-..-.----------------- 30
Great Basin, geologic history of....---.--.-- 3
Great Basin, topographic divisions of... .-.-- 9

64 INDEX.

Page. Page.
Great Plains, undrained ponds of.........-. 56 | Meinzer, 0; Bes. a ee 49
Great Malidiake Basin... .... 2:<2..522.<: 19,38, 59) |, Membres’ Valley. 233) aete saan 51
Great Sandy Desert (Oregon)......-.-...... 24 | Mesquite Lake (Mojave Desert)............- 46
Cpretitniil so) eee NS Se a es eee 27 | Mesquite Valley (Amargosa Drainage). ..... 44
Guvman.deacpnas ee. sees sos sede kone 52. Mina Basin.-<..0) 5) eee ee ene ea 32
k Modoe Lava Beds::23-- ee se a eee 30
FHamey Basin eens Lap | MORBWE Valley occoscacetenseteteceeneeee 30
Hise aerdivy Taye oe ee ee ee 45 Mojave Desert, ASIN Ofte So sS5 sane es 38, 42
High Rock Lake 12 Mojave Rivers ci2 of-2 scene ese 15, 42,45
2S BWR aT RE Ue Monitor Valley. 320 oce nantes ee 7 Oh
Honey lake Basin fe) le es 13 Moub Basin : , 39
Hatcreek Valloy= i<- 24255). 05 san Be ee 17,35 Monte Cri a ‘Bs He SEE MUN OOS aaa a Ga a!
Hot Springs Basin 5222422225 -2=5- gee 13 mppapitel Fie ACT Poe ope Tee =
: : Mud ‘Lake!Deserti: 2-35 sstipacte nase ee 12
Hunalpal Basin 32sec ee. = eee ee 55 Maree aa a
Hnmbolat takes: S265 2 S283 Se ei eo (St Per em rarer ee hr Be
Humboldt River............--.. 11,14,16,17, 35,45 | Nebraska, Sand Hills of, basins of........... 56
Humboldt Salt Marsh...................---- 31 | 'NewarkLake se 25.- 0s cases Sees S| 17
Humboldt-Carson Basin...................-. 11,14 | New ‘Year Lake: 2 uceeh ae (eee ee [i 98
Huntington, Elilsworth............-....-.- 5, 43, 48
PTTATNAOOTE ASIN eee ee cee Ge eg ee 32; | Opal‘MountainBasine oe) spear eeee 38
Independence Valley ..........-...-.-...-.-- 17 peel? Ales Faia ley else hh: NaN Paani CARAT 48 S
Indian Spring Basin er rca sar 37 Owens Basiih Least te A eae oe. 39. 59
indian Wells Valley<2.4. 3.22222... eS 49) |. owl Bacidek. wissey a ean ; 49
Tyanpal Basin .*..).ccc¢ 22. Le eee ee rier Ue Cie eae I Tp eye Gee
Jaco, Laguna Meet ie tae Ee eels hata 52 Pahrump Valley Basie eee = pes 43, 44
Johnson, H.R. See Arnold & Johnson. Palen Lake.............-.----------------+- 46
Jungo (Basis eA see cee ei Sae oe ORES 13 Palomas, Laguna BHD BPS IIS S FOr SS AS So 52
Juniper Lake (Alvord Valley, Oreg.)........- og | Panamint Basin.......................-.--- 40, 41
Juniper Lake (Warner Basin, Oreg.)........- 97 | Parowan, valley............-.---.----------- 22
“s s Parras, Laguna -2 2/45. -P eee eee 52
Kane Basin...-.--...----.---- See aaeeea sees ey | || IE ryasy Wamete Gl). | ee we Be teed. SBoe he 52
Kawach ‘Basin. 2.252. ssc ao2 8 ep eee 35,36: |/PaulineiMarsh, =. soc oes eee 24
OE WN 3322 assess 2sseg2 28255222252: 54#.\|!Pecos Valley sos =-2e25-0: 25. 5- cee 49,56
Ltt U BiG 2 323 52 552s s2ssssa5 2335 sses2- 16,18) | Penoyer Basink 052252. 504 55 Ae ee eee 36
Kanpston Basin - 2222222222 34 | Pine Nut Mountains, basinin..............- 15
Klamath Lakes. .-..-.....---.....-----.-..- 30: |) Pinos Wells Basin. 2222 422 4222 see ee ee 49
ETS ANE ete ae ee ee 17535 -| “Pintwater Basin. 2-22 ose 37
HOnM Iya Asis 53-2 ho. Soe eee ee eee 12 Playas Valley 3 ob dildo ey oS So) ee Be ay 51
sD Td gy ee Oe ats te Sail iad, ve 31 | Pool, Raymond J............... petteerereee 56
Laguna. See proper name of lake. Potash, occurrencesin desert basins......... 36,
Tahoma Gass ee eee 11 40, 47, 57, 58, 59
Lahontan period: Preuss Valley .- 2 -- 2-2-2 -2022---mana=2cemcien a= #
GWATACTOL: occ we ee OL ee ae 5 Pyramid DAK. 35 2a ee ae eee els 14
Nomenclature..---.--------------.------ 8 | .Quijotes Valley: ).5 scst0 ces see eee ee 50
fangiord Dry Wake. 222022222 scion gee anaes 45 ,
Laramie, Wyo., basins near................. 57 | Rabbit Dry Lake........--.---.-----.----- 45
Lechuguilla Desert..........---------------- 59 | Racetrack Playa....-.------------ ceeteeeeee 4l
TeotaivonBasins. se een ee 3g | Ragtown Soda Lakes......-.-...----------- 15, 57
Lemsnon Valley... 202-2 ee ae 14. | Railroad Valley<*-2°"* -¢2°-22-222---------- 17, 35
Leucite Hills, Red Desert, Wyo...........-. 53 | Ralston Valley. SB SRS 9H 32332 82525220550 35, 43, 44
Little Smoky Valley.....-...-----2-22e----- 17,35 | Red Desert Basin..............---.--------- 53, 60
iano. delos Playas.--+-.-). - sae ae 51 | Red Lake Valley ........--.---------------- 55
Llano Estacado, ponds of.........-..-...--.- 56 Reveille Valley Pa a a ea ale ee 17, 35, 36
Hob Nor Desert (Asia)... 2-0-4.) 43 | Rhodes Basin............---------+-+++-+-+- 32, 60
Long Valley (northwestern Nevada)........ 29 | Rio Grande, bolsons of...--.--------------+- . 48
Long Valley (Ruby Basin, Nev.). See Mur- Rodriguez Dry Lake..........------.------- zo
ray Basin. Rosamond Dry lakes. 2 ee) rere sce meses. 45
Lordsburg Dry Lake............222.2.02022. 51 | Round Valley..........------.-------------- we
Lanting Basin’. zoho PER tenth ot Bee 322 Ruby Basil ope eae eee ee eee 17, 20
Rush Lake Valley 2: 2.2200 :t eee eee ae 22
MacDougal, D.T..----------- 2-8 Ai’! Rush Valley Basin’: £2222) eee eee ee 21
MARCUIC BARING poe nae Meee ieee renin n = eons 20 "| Russell 1. CLs it aera ee eee 8,11, 12, 16, 29, 39
MIPAUONT UEC: <6 hs. 5. seer ne Seana moe = 27
cS CBD IBY £2 a aS Si i 8 a a 29 | Saline deposits, burial of. ..-..-.--..-....-.- 8
Msigiate, LACUNA «yo ccnp reece ss se sc taesoe ss 48 | Saline deposits, in desert basins.........-.-- 16,

MPGicCiie MAO ol cescamenpasasereers = <a. n= 30 19, 26,31, 35, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54

INDEX. 65
Page. Page.
SANMOMMEH OVI sack. onto Acc oobectmnce cine cece Att Summer Wake ss. ssn om acl cecacee eee eens 25
ft: Bye tCIita) oa ee eg 49M Summit akan es oome Meese ae eee 12
Salt Lake. See Great Salt Lake Basin. Surprise Basin so55 5530 eyo aoe eee 28
Male wVellsiValloe yes sci 5secec% ossadece foe oe AQ Sy. Can Miarsip ou esr ee 002 at ee Dae ae ee 31
DI PILOMM EAI Te ese eek aot Seve bi elseiree 46, 59
San Augustine, plains of ..........--..-..---- Dog Peels Basinio ce is cis2 2 odie eh ae ate Cee 32, 59
SanmoaquiniVvialley/.2.)00o02 eseece ceases DoE Lehacha pi Viallayey\crercac cee ees a aces aoe 42,54
(SpE TUABIS) 1B VoI aS Pen ea ee a 52h Len Centivakee esi eho te loses ee) 29
MA PEGrONValley:. (neve eee sbe ees sees se 50 | Terraces of Lahontan-period lakes........... 255
San Simon Walley 2.22 Ue tebe ote 50 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40, 47, 48, 49
Sand Hills of Nebraska, basins of......-..... Ow eR MOTNOMUAK Oi sis \ess a tec errs Slee a oa) e Seyret 24
Sandi springs basil. ios 2222-25. 2.sceete sce ee 16,19 | Thousand Creek Valley................-..-. 29
Santa Cruz Valley (Arizona)....-.....-.-.---- 50) |) Eriuckeer Basin’ J \sose ees seca sae 14
Batita Maria, Waguna deo. 2.2. s-.2--2ce-5-= SYA) ND OES 2) ] D7) SNe Ra ee eee eee AC in 54
Barcobatus Plats: 2. ..52.-42 2.04 .2e26. robe ee 43,44 | Tule Desert (Arizona)............--.-----.-- 50
Schultz, A. R., and Whitman Cross......... 53 | Tule Lake (Klamath Region, Cal.).......... 31
MP ATICSHS ASI sae ice ce sce = eiclee aniseed sel A408 |p Rum yDumMakewnc =. te sceiece ccs ee nasa ues 29
SOMEMBASIM ste /2 5-442 ce access Sede oc 19, 21, 22
Sheep) Range Basin: 2.25... 5625-.25-2-2-n- B8i WO talvake sa eoese wesincce sts = erasecintenre 19, 21, 22
Silver Lake Basin (Oregon)................- 24
Silver Lake (Mojave Desert).........-.----- 450 Viescay WMaginal i. gaol cacee eae nae sheen te 52
Silverberks Basil 522. ot ccce-sncseeces 33) ||Havarzini Creek) Valley sens o-casnees ae ene sees 29
Smith Valley (Walker Basin).-.-......-..-- 18554 AVGleani cibasinseee se seeeee sere ee eae see 57
SminnsiCreek Basin .\0)! 2-2). 2 ees cl ese eee Bay VOLCANO MUAKe 6 si. se tema se cele wise ase a ooae 47
Smoke Creek Desert......-..-.-.--------..-- 12
Smoky Valley. See Big Smoky and Little Walker Basin sas oeotteeecocen eee See eee 18,32
Smoky. Waring, GevAlle hoje ccy aes sc mcince seeeee 27, 29
SHAKO Valley ee dee soeGnelaiecmcinis cinalce ae ese 19))| Warm Springs' Basin’ < 222-2 -22---)-2-------- 14
Snow, Water Wake... 22.2222 ..53252 01h o. ce. 17, ||t Warner Basinss5 35222 3h ec se 26, 58
SOA PRU ake ceelets cine saisc pete talalsinisieiein siminite'<is\simis's 56))|) \Wihite HorselBasin=o-2 2... 2.2 s5-5-5 eee eee 29
Soda Lake (Carriso Basin, Cal.)......-.-...- SA Wihite Wake cc ose ser uceshee sceeee cesses 49
Soda Lake (Mojave Desert).......-..-.----- 45 | White Valley Basin.............-.-----..--- 21
Soda Lakes (Ragtown, Nevada)..-.-..----.-- 1535744 | MWilllard Basins cc52 25-2 Se- hac gece tease 42
Soda Springs Trough...........---------...- 32 | Winnemucca Lake...-..---- be eb cig erate Ra 14
SprnsiValley Basins 228.2 eo sees ss lece 38
Steploembasine ysis k. Seas ee seek eee 20E38in lp ouiCCa asin x0.) Tei oe eS see eee ek ae 37
Slowaluavalloyaac san seicciciseceaescle oeeees csc 44
Stonewalltblatec ics scccletcccoeceescececee B48) ZUM Sal Gh Wake seoen ccc sees onesies eee 57

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1914

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SOE yIN Or Ty HE

USDEPARTNENT OPAGRICULTURE *

No. 55

Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester.

March 25, 1914.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

BALSAM FIR.

By RapHarn Zon,
Chief of Forest Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The enormous expansion of the pulp industry in this country during
the last two decades, with its present annual demand for not less than
three and a quarter million cords of coniferous wood, has stimulated
the use of balsam fir, which but a few years ago was considered of
little value. With the increase in the price of spruce for pulpwood,
balsam fir has begun to take its place for rough lumber, laths, shingles,
and box shooks. The cutting of balsam fir to any extent for pulp or
lumber began only about 20 years ago, as the more valuable species of
the northern forests became scarce and as its suitability for many pur-
poses for which only white pine or spruce were originally used became
recognized. ,

Balsam fir, though in general inferior to white pine and red spruce,
is now a tree of considerable economic importance in the northeastern
forests. It constitutes numerically about 20 per cent of the coniferous
forests in northern New York and Maine, and is abundant in many
parts of New Hampshire, Vermont, and in the swamps of northern
Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Through prolific
seeding and rapid growth it readily reforests cut-over areas and attains
sizes suitable for pulpwood in a short time.

The uses for which balsam fir is suited and the appearance of barked

wood, especially after 1t has remained for any length of time in water,
are so much like those of spruce that it is commonly sold in mixture
with and under the name of spruce, because of a lingering prejudice
against balsam fir among pulp manufacturers and lumbermen. This
prejudice, formed at the time of still abundant supplies of spruce and

Note.—This bulletin deals with all aspects of balsam fir, its distribution, the forest types in which it
occurs, the present stand and cut, its economic importance, especially in relation to the paper-pulp in-
dustry, methods and cost of lumbering, life history of the tree, characteristics of the wood, rate of
growth and yield, and proper methods of management. Balsam fir is found in commercial quantities in
the northeastern border States from Maine to Minnesota. :

20137°—Bull. 55—14——1

2 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

white pine, is based partly on the actual inferiority of balsam fir to
those species and partly to insufficient familiarity with the wood.

To determine impartially the economic value of balsam fir, its dis-
tribution, present stand and cut in the various States where it occurs,
as well as its qualities and possibilities as a forest tree, was the purpose ~
of two summers’ study in the Adirondacks, in Maine, and throughout
the whole of the tree’s commercial range. It was believed that by
pointing out the possibility of using balsam fir in places where
originally only spruce had been used, and by learning its peculiarities
as a forest tree, the heavy drain upon our waning supplies of spruce
might be slightly decreased, and that suggestions for the proper
management of our spruce forests, in which balsam fir holds an
important place, could be formulated.

DISTRIBUTION OF BALSAM FIR.

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea Mill.) is a tree chiefly of the Northeast,
although it occurs here and there in the mountain ridges of southern
Virginia and extends westward in Canada as far as Mackenzie River.
(See map, fig. 1.) . .

Moisture and temperature are the two main factors influencing its
distribution. It requires a cold climate and a constant supply of
moisture at its roots. A mean annual temperature not exceeding
40° F., with an average summer temperature of not more than 70° F.,
and a mean annual precipitation of not less than 25 inches evenly
distributed throughout the year, are the necessary conditions for its
growth. It extends farther north than red spruce, but is left slightly
behind by black and white spruce, tamarack, aspen, and paper birch.

Though in Canada balsam fir extends almost to the Rocky Moun-
tains, in which.it is doubtless supplanted by Alpine fir (Abies lasio-
carpa),' it does not occur in continuous large forests west of the
one hundredth meridian, and in the United States its western limit is
found in Minnesota. One of the principal reasons for this is the
increasing dryness of the air which the tree encounters in its westerly
distribution. The mean annual rainfall gradually decreases from
the east toward the west. In Maine, where balsam fir reaches its best
development, the rainfall amounts to 43 inches; in Minnesota, where
balsam is of poor development, it is less than 26 inches. Farther west,
in North Dakota, the annual rainfall drops to about 18 inches, and no
balsam fir is found. While the increasing dryness of the air influences
the western distribution of balsam fit, the increasing temperature con-
trols its southern distribution, limiting it to higher and higher eleva-
tions the farther south it extends, until it gives way to Frazer fir
(Abies frazert (Pursh.) Lindl.) on the highest mountains of West Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

1 John Macoun. Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada: Catalogue of Canadian Plants,
Part I1l—Apetale, p. 473,

BALSAM. FIR, 3

The northern limit of balsam fir’s botanical range extends from
Labrador and Newfoundland southwestward, crossing James Bay
at latitude 54° north and, keeping slightly south of Hudson Bay,

_ passing between Fort Severn and Front Lake to Hayes River. From

;

70? EE NIOe

Oo.

hee |

Fig. 1.—Distribution of balsam fir.

this point it turns abruptly again southward and crosses Nelson River
at the outlet of Sipiwesk Lake; thence it takes a northwesterly direc-
tion to the Great Bear Lake region until it reaches and probably
crosses Mackenzie River. The most northern point at which balsam
fir has been observed is 62°.

+L BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Southward balsam fir is found almost all over Canada, particularly .
in its maritime provinces—Quebec and Ontario—in northern New
England, and in the northern parts of New York, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and northeastern Iowa. Along the Appalachian Moun-
tains it extends through western Massachusetts, over the Catskills of |
New York, and through western Pennsylvania to the mountains of
southwestern Virginia.

The heaviest commercial stands of balsam fir are found in Canada,
in Quebec and Ontario. On the Cape Breton Islands, according to
Dr. Fernow,! balsam fir forms a solid forest, with not over 15 per cent
of spruce and a small admixture of paper birch, covering a plateau of
1,000 square miles.. It is estimated to compose more than 50 per cent
of the forest, 150,000 square miles in extent, on the southern slope of
the Laurentian shield, south of the height of land. . In the United
States balsam fir is found in commercial quantities in most of Maine,
the northern parts of New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, and to
some extent also in the swamps of northern Wisconsin, northern
Michigan, and Minnesota, or, in all, over an area of approximately

35,000 square miles. |
FOREST TYPES.

The same factors that control the geographical distribution of
balsam fir influence to a great extent also its local occurrence. Maine,
with an average summer temperature of only 62.5° F., an average
winter temperature of 20° F., and a mean annual rainfall of 43 inches,
presents most favorable conditions for the tree’s growth, and, indeed,
here balsam fir is in general more thrifty than in any other State in
which it occurs. This is shown in every way—in the greater height,
larger diameter, greater clear length, more cylindrical shape of the
trunk, and the smoother appearance of the bark, indicatmg a more
rapid growth.

The forest types in which balsam fir occurs in Maime, as well as
throughout northern New York, New Hampshire, and Vermont,
may be classified as swamp, flat, hardwood slope, and mountain top.

SWAMP.

The swamp type occupies low, poorly drained, swampy land which
never becomes ‘entirely dry, and on which sphagnum and other
mosses form the predominating ground cover. Jn such swamps
balsam fir grows in dense stands and remains exceedingly slender, but is
remarkably free from injury by fungus, especially from ground rot and
from wind and frost cracks. It often grows nearly pure, though com-
monly it is mixed with black and red spruce, white cedar, and tamarack.

On account of its small size and slow growth, the balsam fir of the
swamps is of little commercial value. This slow growth may be attrib-

1 Forest Problems and Forest Resources of Canada, by Dr. B. E. Fernow, University of Toronto.
Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. VII, No. 2, 1912.

BALSAM FIR.

uted to two causes, excess of moisture and a short growing season.
The dense evergreen foliage of the coniferous trees, as well as the
eround cover of moss, shields the ice which forms in the ground
during winter against the rays of the sun in the sprig. Thawing,
and therefore the root activity of the trees, begins later in the swamps,
often five weeks, than on the slopes or dry flats.

The characteristic ground cover of balsam swamps is made up of
mosses, which form about 70 per cent of the herbaceous vegetation.
The character of the vegetation and the relative proportion of the . |
different species which compose the ground cover of the swamps is as |

follows:

Mosses (70 per cent):
Common—
Sphagnum.
Fern moss ( Hylocomuim proliferum).
Shaggy moss ( Hylocomuim triquitrum).
Scale moss.
Occasional—
Crane moss (Dicranwm fulowm).
Fern and fern allies (10 per cent):
Common—

Spinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa).

Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea).
Lady fern (A spleniwim felixfemina).
Long beech fern (Phegopteris phegopteris).
Oak fern (Phegopteris dryopteris).
Marsh shield fern (Dryopteris phegopteris).
Crested shield fern (Dryopteris cristata).
Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis).

Rare—
Fernata grape fern (Botrychium obliquum).
Horsetail ( Hyuisetwm sylvaticum).

Flowering plants (20 per cent):

Common—
Wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella).
Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia).
Bunchberry ( Cornus canadensis).
Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens).

5 |

Flowering plants (20 per cent)—Continued.
Common—Continued.
Sweet white violet( Viola btanda palustriformis).
Creeping snowberry ( Chiogenes hispidula).
Clintonia ( Clintonia boreasis). |
Wild sarsaparilia (Araua nudicaulis).
Twin flower (Linnaea voreatis).
Occasional—
Chickweed wintergreen ( T'rientalis americana).
Painted trillium ( Trillium undulatum).
Two-leaved Solomon’s seal ( Unifoliwm cana-
dense).
Rare— }
Creeping wintergreen (Gauttheria procumbens).
Indian pipe ( Monofropa unifiera).
Underbrush:
Common—
Green alder (Alnus alnobetséa).
Mountain ash (Pyrus americana).
Withe rod ( Viburnum cassinoides).
Occasional—
Mountain holly (Ilictoides mucronata).
Fetid currant (Ribes prostratum). _
Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia).
Pale laurel (Kalmia glauca).
Mountain maple (Acer sprcatum).
Hobble bush ( Viburnum alnifolium).

FLAT.

The flat type is intermediate between the swamp and the hard-

wood slope.

It includes the low swells adjoining wet swamps, or

the gentle lower ridges, and also the knolls in wet swamps. It is
fairly well drained, and fern moss replaces sphagnum as the principal

eround cover.

In essentials it is still the swamp, except that it is

drier. Lumbermen, in fact, call it “dry swamp.’ Here balsam
grows rapidly, becomes tall, straight, and clear-boled, attains a fair

diameter, and, as in the swamp, often grows pure.

But the trees

in the dry swamp are much more subject to ground rot than in the
wet swamp. When it occurs in mixture its associates are red spruce,
yellow birch, and red maple—the two latter small and unimportant.
It is on the flats that the heaviest stands of balsam fir are found,
and here also it grows more commonly in mixture with red spruce,

with which it is cut and marketed for the same uses.

Of the four

types, therefore, the flat is commercially the most important.

6 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The characteristic ground cover of the flat, in addition to leat
litter (15 per cent), is as follows:

Moss (60 per cent): Flowering plants (20 per cent)—Continued.
Common— Occasional—Continued.
Fern moss ( Hylocomuim proliferum). Chickweed wintergreen ( Trientalis americana).
Scale moss. Rattlesnake plaintain ( Epipactis repens).
Ferns (5 per cent): Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia).
ae srntioge ahaa d (Dryopteris spinul ate
pinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa.
Lady fern (Asplenium felizfemina). vr, oe isis (yprpisiuan ‘noMH).
Flowering plants (20 per cent).
Csmanste Common— ;
Wood sorrel (Ozalis acetosella). Hobble bush ( Viburnum lantanoides).
Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis). Withe rod ( Viburnum cassinoides).
Creeping wintergreen ( Chiogenes hispidula). Mountain ash (Pyrus americana).
Clintonia ( Clintonia borealis). Occasional—
Sarsaparilla st. (Aralia nudicaulis). Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia).
Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens). Mountain maple (Acer spicatum).
Occasional— Service berry (A melanchier canadensis).
Trillium ( Trillium erythrocarpum). Beaked hazelnut ( Corylus rostrata).
HARDWOOD SLOPE.

This is the best-drained type.. In it hardwood leaf litter, instead
of mosses, forms the chief ground cover.

On the slopes balsam fir never occurs in pure stands, but grows
scatteringly among red spruce and large-sized hardwoods. The
principal species of hardwoods are yellow birch, red maple, sugar
maple, and beech. Here balsam fir, provided it is not too heavily
shaded, grows rapidly and becomes comparatively large and tall,
reaching on the slopes, in fact, its best individual development. It
is apt to be very defective, however, and is especially liable to ground
rot unless it grows near a brook or spring which furnishes a plentiful
supply of water to its roots.

The characteristic ground cover of the hardwood slope besides
leaf litter (40 per cent) is as follows:

Mosses (5 per cent): Fowering plants (26 per cent)—Continued.
Occasional— Occasional—
Plume moss ( Hypnum crista-castrensis). Two-leaved Solomon’s seal ( Unifolium cana-
Crane moss (Dicranumfuloum). dense).
Shaggy moss ( Hylocomiwm triquitrum). Sweet white violet ( Viola blanda palustriformis).

Mountain fern moss ( Hylocomium proliferium). Twisted stalk (Streptopus amplezifolius).
Beas and fer allies (30 per cent). Indian cucumber root ( Medeola virginiana).

Common— 2 d
3 : ihe Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens).
Spinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa). Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia),

Shining club moss (Lycopodium lucidulum).

Occasional— Rare—
Hayscented fern (Dicksonia pilosiuscula). Creeping snowberry ( Chiogenes hispidula).
Lady fern (Asplenium felizfemina). Indian pipe ( Monotropa wnifiora).
Ground pine (Lycopodium complanatum). Rattlesnake plantain ( £pipactus repens).
New York fern (Aspidiwm noveboracense). Lady’s slipper ( Cypripedium acaule). °
Silvery spleen wort (Asplenium thelyteroides). Habenaria ( Habenaria).

A Underbrush:

Common polippod (Polypodium vulgare).
Long beech fern (Phegopteris polypodioides),
Flowering plants (26 per cent):

Common—
Hobble bush ( Viburnum lantanoides).
Mountain maple (Acer spicatum).

Common—
Wood sorrel (Ozalis acetosella). Striped maple (Acer Dennaylannsua)
Bunchberry ( Cornus canadensis). Occasional—
Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). Beaked hazelnut ( Corylus rostrata).
Clintonia ( Clintonia borealis). Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia).

Painted trillium ( Trilliwm erythrocarpum). Service berry (A melanchier canadensis).

BALSAM FTIR. fi
MOUNTAIN TOP.

Higher up the slopes, as the number of sugar maples gradually
increases, balsam fir becomes more and more scattering, until it is
found only as single specimens here and there, and on the middle
slope, the driest portion of the mountain, disappears entirely.
Approaching the top, however, at 2,500 or 3,000 feet above sea level,
balsam fir reappears, often forming pure stands. Together with
black spruce, it is the last to give way to the Alpine flora on moun-
tains rising above timber line.

Conditions on a mountain top, where the prevailing low tempera-
ture retards evaporation and helps the condensation of moisture in
the air, are similar to those in the swamp, and balsam fir shows much
the same development in both places. The chief difference is that
on the mountain top the trees are shorter. The principal ground
cover is the same sphagnum moss found in the swamps. Balsam fir
of the mountain top has no commercial value, because of the diffi-
culty of lumbering it, coupled with its small size and slow growth.

Approaching timber line, balsam fir becomes dwarfed, procumbent,
or spreading, with a short trunk and long, horizontal branches
spreading near the ground. On the lower surfaces of the lower
branches touching the ground, roots are often formed. When such
a branch becomes detached from the main stock it may even give
rise to an independent tree. The capacity to transform branches
into roots has also been observed in balsam fir seedlings that have
germinated in wet moss. Often in such cases, as the tree grows
larger, additional roots are formed at the lower nodes of the stem
beneath the moss, where originally branches grew.

In Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota balsam fir, when growing
in mixture with tamarack, arborvite or white cedar, spruce, aspen,
or black ash, under conditions similar to those existing in the swamps
of the northeastern States, is of poor development, with a diameter
seldom larger than 11 inches and a height of 30 or 35 feet.

PRESENT STAND AND CUT.

The total stand of balsam fir throughout its range of commercial
occurrence may be placed somewhere in the neighborhood of
5,000,000,000 board feet.

TaBLeE 1.—Present stand of balsam fir, by States, in million board feet:

WUGYTOY RNS, Se SG Ae NB a ee eg dL nee Peat See em mae 3, 000
INGE NEO ESN s Sebes See tees Cal lie eh en oA Sk aa) a ee A im og Sta A 250
INGiya Elerniaielninen tomar slap e517 ht SN ek Or Rage OS NEN Eonar, Mee 400
NViSCOMsitiee remote bp romcr cn ce MUR NL MMR aM bon len Ls ube «0 395
VERE TI ea Te ae psa at de A veer iene yng Mani uerinaes Ln ees AM bd see doe Sra 200
\Y RTE as heh Re oo aC ae me el aa Th a Pan me 110
WED MOWOVERSTO UE eh tk ee Ges ec) Set Re hs i ar ba Ue 1, 000

8 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This estimate is undoubtedly very crude, but even a crude estimate
seems better than none.

Only within the last four or five years have any records been kept
of the cut of balsam fir for various purposes. Growing with spruce,
and being used for the same purposes, it always went under the name >
of spruce.

According to the census reports for 1909, the total lumber cut of bal-
sam fir for the United States for 19091 amounted to 108,702,000feet, and
according to the census report for 1910, 132,362 cords, or 66,181,000
board feet, for pulp. The total annual cut of balsam fir in the
United States at present is about 175,000,000 board feet. At this
rate, the present stand, not counting the increment, will last for
about 30 years.

MAINE.

’ In Maine, balsam fir is most common in the eastern part of the
State, especially in the big flat country at the head of the St. John and
Penobscot Rivers and their tributaries, and along the coast for about
10 miles inland, where it constitutes nearly one-fifth of the coniferous
forests. In the western part of the State, along the Androscoggin
and Kennebec Rivers, its proportion in the forest is comparatively
small. . : oy? .

From actual measurements by the Forest Service, extended over
many hundred acres and upon estimates obtained from persons most
familiar with the Maine forests, it is safe to assume that balsam fir
constitutes in volume for the whole State not less than 15 per cent
of the spruce stand. Based upon an estimate by the Maine forest
commissioner in his annual report for 1902, which gives the present
stand of spruce as 21,239,000,000 feet, the present stand of balsam fir
in Maine approximates 3,000,000,000 board feet.

Replies to circular letters sent out in 1903 by the Forest Service
to all saw and pulp mills in Maine, regarding the use of balsam fir,
justify the conclusion that about 70,000,000 board feet of this species
is being cut annually for pulp and lumber. ‘This estimate is con-
firmed by the statistics of the Bureau of the Census, which show that
in 1910, 32,861 cords, or approximately 16,500,000 board feet,? of
balsam fir was cut for pulp in Maine, and that in 1909 nearly
50,500,000 board feet was cut for lumber. This would make the
total annual cut of balsam fir in Maine about 67,000,000 board feet.
The amount of balsam fir used by the sawmills appears to be pro-
portionately larger than the amount used by the pulp mills. This is
undoubtedly due to the great amount of spruce used for pulp. Pulp

1 The total cut of balsam fir for lumber in 1910 was 74,580,000 board feet, but this figure does not include
the cut in the State of New York, and therefore is incomplete For this reason the figures for 1909 were
used.

2In converting cords into board feet, 2 cords are taken to be equal to 1,000 board feet.

BALSAM FIR. 9

manufacturers can afford to pay stumpage prices for spruce which
places it almost beyond the reach of the lumbermen. The latter,
therefore, must turn more and more to other species, such as hemlock
and balsam fir, at least for those purposes for which they will serve
as well as spruce.

The amount of balsam fir used by the sawmills has increased within
the last 10 years more than 50 per cent, and in some places even 75 or
100 percent. Ten or 15 years ago, in fact, hardly any balsam fir not
large enough for saw logs was cut; now it is taken almost as readily as
spruce.

NEW YORK.

In northern New York, balsam fir is abundant in Franklin, Warren,
Oneida, Lewis, and Clinton Counties, though it is not lacking in any
township throughout the whole Adirondack region. It constitutes.
at present about 7 per cent of the “spruce’’ product and about 10
per cent of all the ‘“‘spruce’”’ pulpwood cut in the Adirondacks. Since
balsam fir is now cut for pulp as readily as spruce, and practically no
discrimination is made between the two, its proportion in the total
output of pulpwood serves to indicate its proportion in the standing
coniferous timber. Actual measurements over many acres in differ-
ent parts of the mountains confirm this representation of balsam fir
in the Adirondack forest. A distinction must be made, however,
between the numerical and the volume representation of balsam fir.
Numerically balsam fir constitutes from 20 to 50 per cent of the total
stand, yet, since it never reaches the same sizes as spruce, its propor-
tion by volume must necessarily be less. Based upon figures of the
United States Census for 1900 on the stand of coniferous timber in
the Adirondacks, the present stand of balsam fir in the Adirondack
forests must be between 250,000,000 and 300,000,000 board feet.

The cut of balsam fir in the Adirondacks in 1910 amounted to
33,504,500 board feet, of which 9,248,000! board feet were cut for
lumber and 24,256,500 board feet (48,513 cords) for pulp. The
greater use of balsam fir by the pulp manufacturers than by the saw-
mills m the Adirondacks is explained by the leading place which
New York State occupies in the pulp industry and by the decreased
supplies of spruce, necessitating the use of all coniferous timber avail-
able for pulpwood.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

on New Hampshire balsam fir is found mainly 1 in the northern part
of the State—in the White Mountains-and in upper Coos County.
In the southern part of the State it is found in any quantity only in
the large Swamper around the sources of the Contoocook and Millers

1 This figure is for 1909; as no figures are available regarding the balsam fir cut for lumber in 1910, it is
used as the nearest figure available.

20137°—Bull. 55—14-—2

10 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rivers. Altogether it constitutes about 10 per cent of the total so-
called spruce cut for pulpwood in northern New Hampshire and from
1 to 5 per cent in the rest of the State. Since 97.4 per cent of the
total cut of pulpwood in New Hampshire comes from the northern
portion, 9 per cent may be considered a fair average proportion of
balsam fir in the total output of pulpwood in the State.

The percentage of balsam fir used in mixture with spruce in the
sawmills varies, according to the location of the mill, from 1 to 20,
being largest in Coos County; but for the whole State it probably
does not exceed 5 per cent. Thus, about 5,700,000 board feet of
balsam fir were cut for pulpwood (1910) and about 12,200,000 board
feet for lumber (1909), making a total of 17,900,000 board feet.

Accepting the present stand of softwoods in the four main drain-
age systems of northern New Hampshire as in the neighborhood of
4,764,000,000 board feet, the present stand of balsam fir in New
Hampshire may be estimated in round figures to be 400,000,000 board
feet.? .

VERMONT.

In Vermont balsam fir is most common in the northern counties,
Caledonia, Essex, and Orange containing nearly 20 per cent of the
coniferous forests. -In the southern half of the State balsam fir is
found in any quantity only in the mountain townships. In 1910
balsam fir made up about 84 per cent of the total cut for pulpwood
and lumber in the State. Assuming that it forms only 7 per cent of
the spruce forest, the present stand of balsam fir, based on the census
figures for the spruce stand in 1900, must be about 110,000,000 board
feet. The annual cut of balsam fir, according to the census report
for 1910, is about 12,000,000 board feet, of which about 4,000,000
board feet is for pulpwood and 8,000,000 for lumber.

WISCONSIN.

The only estimate of balsam fir in Wisconsin is that of Filibert
Roth,? who placed the total stand in 1897 at 395,000,000 board feet
(790,000 cords). In this estimate was included everything from 4
inches up. The yield per acre in all forests where balsam fir occurred
was placed at from 50 to 100 board feet, or 4 to 8 cords, per 40 acres,
an estimate which agreed with one made by the Chicago & North
Western Railway Co. in Forest and adjoining counties. Balsam fir
is thinly scattered in most forests of Wisconsin on the more humid
loam and clay lands. It is generally less than 12 inches in diameter
and below 60 feetin height. Table 2 gives estimates of the stand of
balsam fir in the different counties in which it grows.

! Forest Service Bulletin 55, Forest Conditions in Northern New Hampshire.

2 Forestry Conditions and Interests of Wisconsin, by Filibert Roth. Bulletin 16, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, 1898.

BALSAM FIR. 11

TABLE 2.—Stand of balsam fir in Wisconsin, by counties, in million feet board measure.

SIM ANG eG ete s ol ose eae oe a 5 20 | Oconto 15
emi epee ar Drm Oneida ose os ote oe See ee 10
Pie pe Wass. 22-24. 22.-0 4 3-525 <1 20k RORLASE Jihee Ads 02 LS REN et). eae 5
OISHZ- 2c ocean eee Beer Diilipeti Ce jah ea sys oe aa UY 0 Mag 15
Dugan SOUSA iVelss sca". Stns We a 2 ke Ie 25mm
PI CHBINESs Aus ea ee ee ene Wo Sa Wal Oey ssecce oe eee © oe ees a ee BOO
DaPe8t. choceca ee pa ee ees 40M eMalors. 28h 6 eee on eee ee 30
rere eee eee ceils eee TO Wialageo. hone ll Bee Se 10
Langlade. -. SO! RAV Od I SEES STOMP ERE 09 5
Ibrrnyeol lin. Oe ee ee ee 25 tee
Marathon 25 TO ball asa eR AS eed oso es eae 395
Marinette 10

increasing. In 1910, 4,196,000 board feet were cut for lumber and
8,502,000 board feet for pulp, a total of 12,698,000 board feet.

MINNESOTA.

In Minnesota balsam fir is confined largely to the northeastern
half of the State, extending south as far as Isanti and Chisago Coun-
ties. On moist, retentive soils it reaches a fair development. In the
northern counties it attains an average diameter breast high of 10
to 11 inches and an average volume of 51 board feet. Prof. Roth
roughly estimated its stand in 1897 as 1,000,000,000 feet. While no
cut is indicated for pulp, 10,147,000 board feet were cut in 1910 for
lumber.

MICHIGAN.

Balsam fir occurs in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in mixture
with spruce, but there is little prospect of future supply from either
species, since they occur scatteringly. Prof. Roth estimated the
stand of balsam fir in 1897 at 400,000 cords, or 200,000,000 board
feet. The estimates given by Prof. Roth 15 years ago of the stand of
balsam fir in the States of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan were
considered by him at that time too low, so their applicability to the
present stand in Wisconsin, Minnesota, or Michigan may therefore
be justified.

The cut in Michigan is close to that in Wisconsin and Minnesota,
amounting to 10,712,000 board feet in 1910; of this, 5,925,000 board
feet were cut for pulp and 4,787,000 board feet for lumber.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

BALSAM FIR PULPWOOD.

Balsam fir finds its greatest economic importance as a pulpwood.
There is a close connection between the extent of the available sup-
plies of spruce in a State and the amount of balsam fir used in the
manufacture of pulp and paper. As long as there is a plentiful
supply of the former, the use of balsam fir is naturally restricted.

12 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

But where the demand for pulpwood is greater than the available
supply of spruce, balsam is the accepted substitute. Out of about
2,220,000 cords of domestic coniferous wood used in the United
States by the pulp industry in 1910, 6 per cent, or 132,362 cords.
(about 66,000,000 board feet), was balsam fir.

The Forest Service, in 1903, sent a circular letter inclosing a series
of questions to the pulp and paper manufacturers, lumbermen, town
supervisors, and surveyors in States in which balsam fir occurs.
Nearly 100 answers were received from pulp and paper mills, which
throw much light upon the place of balsam fir in the economy of
paper making. About 70 per cent of all the mills that reported use
balsam fir in quantities varying from 2 to over 30 per cent of all the
pulpwood consumed. The reasons given by those who do not use
it are either that they can not get it, or that they do not like to use it
‘af they can detect it,” or that they use some other species exclu-
sively. The amount of balsam fir used by each mill varies from year
to year, nor can it always be accurately ascertained at the mill.
Spruce and balsam are invariably kept together, and the latter, after
it has been barked and kept in water for any length of time, can not
be readily distinguished. In general, it can be said that a greater
percentage of balsam fir is used by the mills of New York (48,513
cords) than by those of Maine (32,861 cords). This is due partly
to the ranking position occupied by the State of New York in the
pulp industry and its relatively large number of sulphite mills
capable of using an unlimited amount of balsam fir and partly also
to the comparatively large supplies of spruce in Maine.

OBJECTIONS TO THE USE OF BALSAM-FIR FIBER.

The principal objection to the use of large amounts of balsam fir in
the ground-pulp process is said to be on account of the pitch that
covers the felts and cylinder faces. It is admitted by nearly all pulp
and paper men that from 10 to 25 per cent of balsam can be used in
ground pulp without lowering the grade of the paper produced. A
few go even so far as to claim that a larger admixture of balsam fir—
from 20 to 25 per cent—is of advantage, in that it makes the pulp
“‘free’’; that is, separates the spruce fibers during the manufacturing
process and in this way allows the water to be easily drawn from
the sheet. Still others claim that a satisfactory ground wood pulp
can be made almost entirely of balsam. In chemical pulp, because
of the acids dissolving the pitch, any amount of balsam can be used,
though some claim that paper made of pulp containing a large
admixture of balsam lacks strength, snap, and character. The pitch
gives most trouble in freshly cut balsam, while in wood soaked in
water over a season the amount is so small that it need not be taken
into account. Some of the larger mills claim that after balsam fir
has remained in the pond for one year any amount of it can be used.

BALSAM FIR. 13

RESIN CONTENTS.

The complaints against the larger amount of pitch in balsam fir
are somewhat strange in view of the fact that the actual resin content
of balsam fir is less than that of spruce. Resin in coniferous wood
occurs normally in cells, of which the wood is built up as a house is
built of bricks, and in the spaces between the cells, known as resin
ducts, running vertically and horizontally through the wood. These
resin ducts may be seen on cross sections of freshly cut wood as
whiter or darker spots marked by exuded droplets of resin. On
radial and tangential sections the ducts appear as fine lines or dots
of different color. The difference in resin content of the different
genera and species of the conifers depends mainly upon the number
and size of their resin ducts. Balsam fir is one of the few conifers
that lack resin ducts entirely, a thing which serves readily to dis-
tinguish it from the spruces and pines. Resin is found in the wood
of balsam fir only in the interior of the cells, where it occurs in the
form of small droplets. The bark of balsam fir is very rich in resin,
but after the former is rossed off the wood should be freer of resin than
spruce, which contains resin ducts and resin cells. Therefore the
pitch, which according to all reports is the greatest drawback to
balsam pulpwood, must either come from the resin in bark left on the
surface of the block or else is formed in the process of grinding, in
which case it is not of aresinous nature. In either event, the presence
of pitch is apparently not due to any property of the wood itself.

A chemical determination of the resin contents of six spruce and of
four balsam-fir sections made by the Bureau of Chemistry, United
States Department of Agriculture, in 1904, gave the following

results:
Taste 3.—RKesin contents of spruce and balsam fir.

SPRUCE.
Total
Non- 3
Moisture.| volatile | Volatile | amount
Tests ()\ linens uw

resins.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
ERG ee ere cl ea TO Si aty AE SUE Muna We aa ae 5. 60 0.88 0.23 1.11
IMC CIGSEC GION alee eau es (ibe UPN a) Sal ea ait 5.66 92 .67 1.59
TEU E STSLOUG COVOV LE Ss yl ONT Da AN aA A a RL HN Ds 6.39 -76 49 1.25
FRG JO rcs Se LO el RONSON WON Maa a Uae ene DO OAR Moras 5.85 1.36 27 1.63
INIT CLL GTSEC TIO Tp noe OPM Per els RE Tea ek ETN PR ANE T ae Pee OR MPL eae 5.57 2.33 50 2.83
PESTLE SOC CIOMNm Seth Urn ian Memos ea ited MN tJ ah a 5. 62 1.48 34 1.82
PAROS a MON AI MUN OR PBI NSA VE IAI BN eH LA ne De te | DN ea YU 10. 23
AVE CTEA 8 MOE ERIM are yt crane SONIA PLD ey Do) ADRS ds PU aN AE de ar A acy dra il NC a 1.70

BALSAM FIR.

TBA BUG SOON nas het OF I A ak a a Le a ae epee ak 5.31 1.23 0.19 1.42
MTC GISISEC LION Ue mainte Lia ben hE te eek ia lia ae ee 5.06 - 58 -15 23
BULGE SCChION! su ate. Tae) eigen het ADA I I Se tat ede eS 5.01 citi 19 96
WWEre yale Serer ral SE A Ce AR Te anal apn ay eater UE cae anil anata Ye 4.80 67 48 1.15
ANETTA Nye AI anne At SD ene EGU ES IES LORE fe Oye UNE ORAMAN UUM Sera La LS ease ELI PLAS Yel YN 4.26
EANAV CUCL Camere tN Aah Satay abana trey Shera) M Aya RNQ I UNL SIUUUE SIEM LT SUR CAO Sa MOY A NL A SASS ee ee 1.06

14 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Though the inferior quality of wood pulp containing a large amount
of balsam fir can not be denied, it is probably not altogether due to
the inferiority of the balsam wood, but to deficient knowledge of how
to properly manufacture it into paper.

WORKING UP BALSAM FIBER.

There is no doubt that the fiber of balsam fir is weaker, shorter,
and softer than spruce fiber; therefore the prevailing practice of
working up balsam fir with spruce in both mechanical and chemical
processes ordinarily results in an inferior grade of pulp, if the admix-
ture of balsam is considerable. This is not so perceptible in the
sulphite process as in the ground pulp. The wood of balsam fir,
being softer, cuts more easily than spruce wood; therefore a stone of a
sharpness and at a given pressure to produce good strong pulp from
spruce makes poor pulp from balsam fir. With dull stones and
light pressure a better quality of pulp could probably be made from
balsam. Similarly, in the case of chemical pulp better results could -
most likely be obtained if weaker acids more suitable to the softer
nature of balsam-fir fibers were used. The different properties of
wood of spruce and that of balsam fir naturally suggest a different
treatment of their fibers, which could best be accomplished by han-
dling them separately. Experiments in this direction would probably
open a much larger field for the use of balsam pulpwood than it now

has.
SMALL YIELD OF WOOD FIBER.

Another drawback to balsam as compared with spruce is its smaller
yield in pulp and paper per cord of wood. Being lighter than spruce
when seasoned, it contains less wood substance per cord and so yields
a smaller amount of pulp. The following figures regarding the yield
of chemical and mechanical pulp per cord of spruce and balsam are
based on actual experience and may be considered as average: |

Guard ate
pulp. | (ulphite).

Pounds Pounds
per cord. per cord.
[3] 3) 10 (1 ee Oe oe ee S- ae een nM Ee Mee tees tint so 55.5 eo - 1, 800 ils
Balsam fir. ......-.. «PO OMEDS< > JAIEOd 5c OSHS a ORmnE | Pose dseet s+. doe eee 1, 500 1,000

This drawback, however, would not exist if the stumpage price of
balsam pulpwood were proportionately lower than instead of being
nearly the same as that of spruce. Some mill men even claim that the
only objection they have against balsam fir is its smaller yield in pulp,
which, at the same stumpage price as spruce, makes its use unprofit-
able and discourages any attempts to improve methods of utilizing
or manufacturing it.

BALSAM FIR. 15

UNSOUNDNESS.

In comparison with spruce, balsam is a short-lived tree, and is apt
to become defective by the time it reaches large size. A log from a
large tree which may seem apparently sound will, when cut up into
blocks, often show heart rot in some portion of its length, or, still
more frequently, the fibers at the center will be of soft texture,
making its use uneconomical. Decayed heart is not so common in
young, small-size trees, and since small logs contain more sap and
produce better fiber than large ones, balsam of small diameters is not
only suitable for pulpwood, but is to be preferred to the large sticks.

Knots, though more numerous in small sticks than large ones, are
not a serious objection. They can be cheaply removed by passing
the chipped wood through a tank of water, in which the knots sink and
the wood is carried off from the surface.

Balsam fir cut m winter produces firmer and harder paper than
when cut in summer.

The general tenor of nearly all the answers to the circular letter
was that balsam fir is undoubtedly inferior to spruce in every respect,
but that it has come into the pulp industry to stay. Ti fills a place
in the economy of paper making, and its drawbacks are of such a
nature that they may be to a great extent, if not entirely, overcome by
intelligent effort.

BALSAM FIR LUMBER.

The increased demand for spruce by pulp men, who were able to
pay higher prices for it than the lumbermen, compelled the latter to
turn their attention to hemlock and balsam. Hemlock enters now
more and more into building operations, supplanting spruce; while
balsam fir, not being as strong as spruce, is relegated to uses for
which strength is not a prime requirement. The total cut of balsam
fir for lumber in 1909 was reported as 108,702,000 board feet.

Balsam fir is softer and more brittle than spruce; it decays rapidly
in the ground, and when green does not hold nails well; but being light
and tasteless it makes a very desirable box material, especially for
foodstuffs. It is extensively used for cheese-box headings, staves for
fish and sugar barrels, sardine cases, butter boxes, and the like. It is
easily worked, and is well adapted for molding, novelty, bevel, and
drop siding. It is of straighter grain than spruce, and in seasoning is
less subject to warping and twisting, which makes it the better of the
two woods for fence boards, small joists, planing, scantling, laths, and
shingles. Its white color often makes it desirable for house finishing,
and some consider it superior to spruce for violins. It saws easier,
dries quicker, and is claimed to hold paint better than spruce. It has
also been found to be suitable for rough lumber, flooring, ceiling,
studding, crating, furniture, sheathing, children’s carriages, toys,
small frames, matches, square timber, excelsior, etc. In the form of

16 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

box boards it yields about 10 per cent of material more to the cord
than does spruce.

In 59 out of 141 sawmills which answered the circular letter, the use
of balsam fir in the past few years has not perceptibly increased.
Thirty-four mills now use from 10 to 40 per cent more than formerly,
30 mills from 40 to 75 per cent more, 13 mills from 75 to 100 per cent,
while 2 mills use four times as much as they used three or four years
ago. Only three mills report that the amount of balsam used by
them has decreased.

LUMBERING BALSAM FIR.

In the Adirondacks, as well as in Maine, New Hampshire, and Ver-
mont, the methods of cutting balsam and spruce for pulpwood differ
somewhat from those used in getting out saw logs. Pulpwood is cut
largely in summer and autumn, and is usually limited to a diameter
of 8 inches on the stump and to 4 inches in the top. The trees are
sawed close to the ground, the stump height seldom being over. 1 foot.
The logs are usually cut in lengths of 4 feet.

ADVANTAGES OF CUTTING INTO 4-FOOT LENGTHS.

Cutting into 4-foot lengths, when the drive is short and the stream
shallow, has decided advantages over cutting long logs. The short
sticks dry better, and for this reason few are lost through sinkage
during the drive—a loss more common with balsam than with spruce.
Green balsam logs do not float readily, and on a long drive may
become water-logged and sink. Balsam logs, apparently sound at
both ends, often contain rot in the center, and by having them cut into
short lengths the buyer of pulpwood guards himself against defects.
The owner of the forest, too, gains by cutting into short lengths, since
it allows a fuller utilization of each individual tree. Thus, if the mer-
chantable length of a tree that can be used for pulp is 22 feet, and the
logs are cut into 12, 14, and 16 foot lengths, the most that could be
used in such a case is a 16-foot log, leaving the remaining 6 feet to
waste. On the other hand, by cutting into 4-foot lengths, two-thirds
of the 6 feet would be turned into useful material. On a large cut
this sort of waste may be considerable. It is true the short logs in
the water will not support a man’s weight, and so in many places are
harder to drive, but since they seldom form jams and a smaller volume
of water is needed to float them, the cost of driving 4-foot sticks for
short distances is less than the cost of driving long logs. In one
particular case, by changing the log lengths from 12 feet to 4 feet, the
cost of driving over the same distance has been reduced from 44 cents
to 10 cents per cord, besides lessening the loss through sinkage and
undetected defects.

BALSAM FIR. 17
DIFFICULTIES IN LOGGING.

- Compared with spruce, balsam fir is difficult and expensive to log.
It is small, and therefore a gang working in a pure stand of balsam
can not cut in a day as much as when working in spruce. When
green it is heavier than spruce and therefore harder to snake out and
handle, especially in summer in the swamps. It yields a greater per
cent of cull, and in many cases the presence of rot can not be detected
until the tree has been felled and cut into. It floats heavily, and
many logs become water-soaked and sink, making the driving very
difficult. To offset these disadvantages, and to make the use of
balsam more profitable, its stumpage price should always be lower
than that of spruce.

STUMPAGE PRICE AND LOGGING COSTS.

NEW YORK.

The ruling price in the Adirondacks for cutting and skidding pulp-
wood (long logs) is about $1.50 per cord. In this price the cutting of
roads is included. The extra cost of resawing the long logs into
4-foot lengths and piling them along the log road is ordinarily 40 cents
per cord, and requires, in addition to the regular crew of six men, two a
sawyers on the skidway. The logs, which in such cases are cut into
lengths that are multiples of 4—as 12, 16, and 20—are snaked to the
skidway, where they are sawed into 4-foot sticks and piled. A gang
of eight men will cut, resaw, and pile from 9 to 12 cords per day. In
cutting 14-foot lengths a gang of six men will cut and skid from 14 to
16 cords a day. The price of hauling varies with the distance. For |
two or three trip hauls per day, with 2 to 3 cords per sled, the charge 4
is ordinarily $1.60 per cord. If the distance is short and several trips
are possible the price is less. The stumpage price is a very variable
quantity, ranging all the way from $2 to $3.50 per cord. Such pulp-
wood is supposed to contain, besides spruce, 10 per cent of balsam
and 10 per cent of hemlock. As a rule, however, the percentage of |
balsam runs much higher. Since balsam pulpwood is hardly ever |
bought by itself, the price could not be determined, but it is probable :
that pure balsam pulpwood would command from 50 cents to $1
per cord less than the ordinary pulpwood now offered on the market.

The average cost of driving -can hardly be ascertained, being de-
pendent upon the kind of stream, distance, number of logs, etc.

MAINE. 1

In Maine balsam fir is taken for pulp along with spruce, the only
requirements being sufficient size and soundness. The scaler culls |
balsam closer than spruce. While a good deal of pulpwood is cut in |

20137°—Bull. 55—14——3

18 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

winter and sawed into 4-foot sticks, which are piled and later hauled
to water or rail on sleds, there is generally no difference in the methods
of logging for pulp or lumber, except, perhaps, that the former is_
marked by closer utilization. The trees are usually cut down and
topped off with the ax. Stumps run from 1.5 to 2 feet in height;
most are cut pretty close to the root swelling. Logs may be even
lengths up to 40 or 50 feet. In a pulp cut, however, the lengths are
not carefully measured. :

The stumpage price of balsam when not cut with spruce is in the
neighborhood of $3.50 per 1,000 board feet, while spruce stumpage
ranges from $4 to $7, a conservative average being about $5. Timber
more than one-half mile from a landing is yarded; that is, put in piles
of 20,000 to 50,000 board feet, and is hauled in February and March,
when the snow is good. Hauling costs 50 cents per 1,000 board feet >
permile. In addition, it takes four men at the yard to shovel snow off
the piles and help load. Three men are required at the landing to
mark and roll the logs. Each logger within one-half mile of a landing
hauls as many logs as possible direct to the landing without yarding:
this saves the cost of handling the logs twice. Thus, while the cost
of hauling direct to the landing may not be over $4 per 1,000 board feet,
yarding and then hauling increases the cost of getting out the logs
to the landing to about $7 per 1,000 board feet. This cost, however,
varies with the number and size of the logs, the distance to drag or
haul, and the ease with which the timber can be reached. Dense
undergrowth, necessitating the addition of one or more swampers to
the crew, will, for instance, increase the cost of getting logs to the
landing.

From $6.50 to $7 ought to cover, on an average, the cost of getting
logs to the landing. Long drives, interrupted by large stretches of
dead water, make driving an important item in Maine. ‘There are
two kinds of log drives, brook and river. In a brook drive the logs
are driven by the individual lumberman; river driving is done by a
corporation composed of the lumbermen who have logs in the river.

Balsam is driven along with spruce and, except for its greater
sinkage on long drives, behaves in almost the same way. it seldom
causes a jam, for if a balsam log gets crosswise in a bad place it
usually breaks. Spruce, on the other hand, would hang and perhaps
start a jam.

NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT.

In New Hampshire and Vermont methods of logging essentially
resemble those of Maine, but in places acquire some of the New York
features of pulpwood cutting. Occasionally both are modified to
meet local conditions.

BALSAM FIR. 19
WEIGHT PER CORD OF BALSAM FIR AND SPRUCE.

In order to ascertain roughly the weight of a cord of green and dry
balsam and spruce pulpwood, five balsam firs and five spruces were
felled, and three sections, each equal to a quarter of a cubic foot,
were taken from the bottom, base of the crown, and top of each tree,
and their weights determined at the time of cutting, and again two
weeks and three weeks later. From these weights the ‘average weight
of 1 cubic foot of green and half-seasoned spruce and balsam wood
was obtained. At the same time balsam and spruce were piled sepa-
rately, and the actual cubic contents of solid wood in a cord deter-
mined. By multiplying the average weight of 1 cubic foot of green
and half-seasoned balsam and spruce by the number of cubic feet of
solid wood in a cord the weight of 1 cord of green and half-seasoned
balsam and spruce pulpwood was obtained. From figures for weight
per cubic foot given by Prof. C. S. Sargent, the weight of 1 cord of
air-dry balsam and spruce was determined, respectively, as 2,252 and
2,662 pounds. The results of the different weighings are presented
in Table 4.

Tasie 4.—Weight per cubic foot of spruce and balsam fir.

Green Half seasoned
(Sept. 5). (Sept. 26).
No. of tree.

Spruce. | Balsam. | Spruce. | Balsam.

Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
Wend odin abro eG MSGS SS SEES SEE Ne Ee eee i ea PI Ses 49. 00 52. 00 35. 25 37. 06
JU cide ba pec Sao Oe Ee ae IIe Cee a owe eee ee ere 50. 75 52. 25 380. 75 36. 25
WU sgesbe be do Ba ARS ES a eo Seatac SP aee el ea Sep SRA Seca 44.75 55. 00 30. 50 37. 75
b cic Genera GS Cicte Ceara Ee LS Peo ee ear are Ce aon APS e es 51.00 51. 25 35 34. 00
We abe so SO OC Hci ts ey CISTI Ate II Eels name setetet ay ent ae Unie ane eae 44.25 46. 00 32.00 32. 00
Average weight per cubic foot............--..--..--.----- 48.15 51. 30 32. 70 35. 41
Average welght per COnd. lie fess S5-- ei -a-cinie es cena =< 4,543.00 | 4,858.00 | 3,094.00 | 3,354.00

Thus, balsam weighs about 7 per cent more than spruce when green
and 18 per cent less when dry. The sections taken from the butts
of the trees weighed the least; the sections from the tops were the
heaviest, due undoubtedly to the proportionately greater amount of
sap and larger number of knots in the tops. Pulpwood never becomes
entirely dry in the woods, and though by the time balsam is drawn
to the river it loses about 30 per cent of its weight, it is still probably
from 5 to 6 per cent heavier than spruce.

MEASURING PULPWOOD.

In the Adirondacks pulpwood is now measured almost exclusively
by the cord. A cord contains 128 cubic feet of stacked wood, repre-
sented by a stack 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 8 feet long. In order

20 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to find the number of cords in a stack of other dimensions the length
of the stack is multiplied by its width and height, and the result
divided by 128. Thus, a stack 4 feet high and 8 feet long made of
12-foot logs contains 3 cords, the same as a stack 4 feet high and 24
feet long made of 4-foot sticks.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE SOLID CONTENTS OF WOOD IN A CORD.

LENGTH.

Though the number of cubic feet in both stacks is the same, the
actual contents of solid wood is not. Logs are never entirely straight
and smooth, and between them in the pile are cracks which increase
in size with the length of the sticks. Thus, if 3 cords of 12-foot logs
were resawed into 6-foot lengths there would not be enough wood to
measure 3 cords, or a stack 4 feet high and 16 feet long. The stack
would be smaller and the shrinkage even greater were the 12-foot
logs resawed into 4-foot lengths. Thus, the shorter the stick the
more wood is required to make a given number of cords. Careful
investigation abroad showed that the difference in the solid contents
of a cord made of 12-foot logs and one of 4-foot sticks amounts to
at least 6 per cent. -Pulpwood in the Adirondacks is cut mostly
into 4, 12, and 14 foot lengths. It ought, therefore, to be of great
practical interest to the owner of a forest tract, as well as to the
buyer of pulpwood, whether the wood is cut and stacked into 4 or
12 foot lengths. Twenty thousand cords are frequently cut from
a single tract during one year, and the choice of 4 or 12 foot lengths
means a difference of 1,200 cords, or, in money (at stumpage price of
$2.50 per cord), of $3,000. |

DIAMETER.

The diameter of the logs also has a decided influence upon the
volume of solid wood in the stack. The smaller the logs the less the
amount of wood, for the more sticks in the cord the greater is the
number of cracks. The difference in solid volume of two stacks, one
composed of sticks twice as large as those in the other, may amount
to 13 per cent, and if of sticks four times as large to even 25 per cent.
From 6.26 cords of pure balsam fir pulpwood, cut into 4-foot lengths,
all sticks 7 inches and below in diameter at the upper end were
selected and piled separately from the sticks with a diameter of more
than 7 inches. To find the volume of solid wood in the two stacks
the volume of each 4-foot stick was determined. The stack made
of logs 7 inches and less in diameter averaged 116 sticks and 91.4
cubic feet of solid wood per cord. The stack made of logs above 7
inches in diameter averaged 56 sticks and 95.75 cubic feet, or 5 per
cent, more of solid wood per cord. In another case 8.68 cords of
balsam, piled and measured in the same way, gave relatively similar
results,

BALSAM FIR. 21

FORM.

The smoother and straighter the logs the fewer the air spaces
between them, and consequently the greater the solid contents of
the stack. For this reason the clear trunks of trees yale more solid
wood per given space than the tops.

SEASONING OF WOOD.

As freshly cut wood dries in the air the stack shrinks, resulting in
an increase of solid wood per given space. In drying, it is true, the
wood cracks, and the bark becomes detached, which tends to coun-
teract the shrinkage of the stack, but not enough to neutralize it
entirely. It therefore makes a difference how soon after felling the
stack is measured. Softwood in thorough air-drying shrinks from
9 to 10 per cent, consequently stacks of dry softwood have from 9 to
10 per cent more of solid volume than similar stacks of green wood.

MANNER OF PILING.

The volume of solid wood in the stack is also affected by the way
it is piled and fixed. The higher the stack, the less closely it can
be piled and the less wood it will contain per given space. Stacks
higher than 4 or 4.5 feet can not be piled conveniently. The heavier
the log the less close is the piling and the less solid wood there is in
the cord. In order to hold the pile together one or two stakes are
used at each end. The volume of solid wood per cord is higher when
one stake is used at each end of the stack than when two stakes are
used, since in the latter case the ends of the sticks can not reach much
outside the stakes. There always remains some space between the
stakes and the wood, so that the fewer the stakes used for the total
amount of wood corded (i. e., the longer the stacks), the higher is
the solid volume per cord. Efficiency of labor, moreover, has its effect.
If the branches are not trimmed close to the body of the log, if the
logs are chopped instead of sawed, if the laborer is careless in piling,
there is less solid wood per given space.

HOW THE STACK SHOULD BE MEASURED.

The length of a stack should be measured half way up from the
ground, since the top is usually longer than the bottom, due to the
_ spreading of the end stakes. The top length would give more and the
bottom length less than the actual solid volume. The height of
the stack, which is seldom uniform, should be measured at several
places on both sides, and the average taken.

ACTUAL SOLID CONTENTS OF CORDS OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS.

No correct comparison can be made, then, between stacks contain-
ing the same number of cords, but composed of logs of different
lengths, diameters, or shape, unless the actual solid volume of the

2 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

two stacks is known. Only by knowing this can one avoid paying
the same amount of money for different amounts of solid wood.
Table 5 gives the solid volume of wood -in a cord according to size
and length of the sticks. Other factors which influence the solid -
contents are variable, and are therefore not considered. Sticks
with a diameter of more than 7 inches at the upper end are usually
derived from the lower part of the trunk, are free from branches,
and cylindrical in shape. Sticks less than 7 inches in diameter come
usually from the upper parts of the trees. The mixture of these
two classes is typical of most of the pulpwood offered on the market.

TABLE 5.— Volume of solid wood per cord.

|
Small aoe First and
diameter iameter second
Length. over7 |from7to4| classes
inches. inches. mixed.

Feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet.
4 96.7 92.4 94.9

8 91.6 87.2 89.7
12 86. 2 81.6 84.3
16 80.2 75.5 78.3

Table 5 is presented as a basis for specifications in contracts for
pulpwood. Designating the money value of 1 cord of 4-foot logs
of the third class as 100, the value of 1 cord of logs of the lengths
and diameters given in table 6 will be as follows:

TABLE 6.—Relative money value of cords composed of logs of different lengths and

diameters.

Smal pm First and

iameter iameter second

Length. over 7 from 7 to 4 classes

inches. | inches. mixed.

Feet. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
- 101.8 97.4 100.0

8 96.6 91.9 94.6

12 90.9 86.0 88.9

16 84.6 79.6 82.6

LIFE HISTORY OF BALSAM FIR.

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea (Linn.) Mill.) is a small evergreen tree,
seldom reaching, in the State of New York, a height of 85 feet and a
diameter of 18 inches breast high. (Plate I.) In Maine occasional
trees attain a height of 95 or 100 feet and a diameter of 25 or 30 inches.
As arule, however, mature trees are from 12 to 16 inches in diameter
and from 70 to 80feethigh. Of all the northern softwoads, balsam fir
is probably one of the most symmetrical trees. The bole has a very
uniform and gradual taper closely resembling a cylinder in form.

BALSAM FIR. 248

The crown of a normal tree is always conical, since the lower branches
are longer than the upper ones. The main branches are arranged in
whorls of 4 to 6, with here and there scattered solitary branches
between. The lower branches of a mature tree are long, slightly
pendulous, those near the middle of the crown horizontal, and the
upper short branches ascending. As with white pine, the branches
readily die off, but remain on the trunk for a long time. The crown,
therefore, may begin very high up the tree, but the clear length in
the lumberman’s sense is comparatively short. This explains to a
large extent why balsam-fir lumber has, as a rule, more knots than

spruce lumber.
: FOLIAGE.

The needles differ in shape and arrangement, depending upon their
position on the tree. They are sessile, narrow, linear, notched at
the apex, and from half an inch in length on the upper branches to
an inch and a half on the lower ones. On the lower branches, while
actually spirally arranged, they are twisted so as to form but two
rows, horizontally spread on each side of the branch. On the upper
branches they retain their ascending spiral arrangement. They are
dark green above and silvery white beneath on account of the many
stomata which are arranged in lines and appear as minute, shiny
dots, and are especially conspicuous in newly formed leaves. This
arrangement of both branches and foliage is simply a response of
the tree to light conditions. The top of a tree normally receives
light from all sides, and needles and branches, therefore, stand out in
all directions. At the bottom of a tree in the forest light comes
mainly from above, hence the branches and needles there are ar- .
ranged in a horizontal plane with their functional surface upward.
Trees that are suppressed have feathery and spray-lke foliage, also
due to light conditions.

The foliage of balsam fir persists for from 8 to 13 years, depending
upon the amount of shade and the thriftiness of the tree. Dense
shade and rapid growth cause the needles to drop earlier; abundance
of light and slow growth allow them to remain on the tree for a longer

time.
LEAF STRUCTURE.

The leaf structure of balsam fir, as of the entire genus Abies, is
very similar to that of the pines. It consists of three parts—the
outer or cortical part, the chlorophyll-bearing or mesophyll part, and
the fibro-vascular part. The outer part is composed of an epidermis
and strengthening cells lying directly beneath. The chlorophyll
part is composed of parenchyma cells, among which are distributed
the resin ducts. These ducts either lie directly beneath the epider-
mis close to the periphery of the leaf surface or else are surrounded

24 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by the parenchyma nearest to the center of the leaf. In the former
case the ducts are termed peripheral; in the latter, medial. The
fibro-vascular bundles lie in the center of the leaf and are surrounded
by an imperfect bundle sheath.

The leaf structure affords a reliable means for distinguishing one
species of fir from another. Only Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and
Fraser fir (Abies frasert) are likely to be confused with balsam. The
range of balsam touches that of Alpine fir in the West and that of
Fraser fir in the South. These three species are readily distinguished

Fic. 2.—Leaf structure of Abies grandis: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; M, meso-
phyll; £, epidermis; S, strengthening cells.

from the rest of the firs, such as Abies grandis (fig. 2) and Abies con-
color, by the position of the resin ducts. In balsam fir (fig. 3), Alpine
fir (fig. 4), and Fraser fir they lie nearer the center, while in the other
species they lie close to the periphery of the leaf, as observed by cut-
ting through a fir needle and observing the exudation of the resin.
Balsam is distinguished from Alpine and Fraser fir by the presence
of only a few or the entire absence of strengthening cells, which, in
the two other species, occur in considerable number.’

1 The Resin Ducts and Strengthening Cells of Abies and Picea, by Herman B. Dorner. Proceedings of
Indiana Academy of Science, 1897, p. 116.

Bul. 55, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

BALSAM Fir, ADIRONDACKS, NEW YORK.

BALSAM FIR. 25

BARK.

The bark on the stump of a mature balsam fir is seldom thicker than
0.7 of an inch and.-in the top, at a diameter of 4 inches, seldom more
than 0.3 of aninch. In volume the bark amounts to about 10.5 per
cent of the whole tree. On thrifty trees it is very smooth, except for
swellings or “blisters,” which contain a clear liquid from which the
so-called Canada balsam is obtained by distillation in water. In
abundant seed years balsam blisters are very small, probably due to
the tree’s use of most of the foodstuffs for the production of seed.
Abnormally thick, rough, or scaly bark of an ashy color, accompanied

Fic. 3.—Leaf structure of Abies balsamea: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; UM,
mesophyll; £, epidermis; S$, strengthening cells.

by swelling of the bole, is an almost infallible sign that the tree is
rotten at those parts. The natural color of the bark in young trees
is a dull, faded green, mottled with patches of gray. With age the
bark becomes entirely gray and slightly scaled, but not the dull ashy
gray of a defective tree or the shaggy moss and lichen-covered scale
of a slow-growing balsam in the swamp.

- ROOT SYSTEM.

Whether grown in deep or shallow soils, balsam fir produces a very
superficial root system, penetrating to a depth of about 2 or 2.5 feet.
Taproots, if developed at all, soon die and rot away, especially in

20137°—Bull. 55—14—4

26 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

soils lacking an abundance of moisture, and often become points of
entrance for destructive ground rot. The strongly developed lateral
roots extend horizontally in all directions for a distance of 4 or 5 feet,
and even more. The bark of the roots is bright red and comes off in
thin scales.

FLOWERS.

The female and male flowers (cones) occur on the same tree in the
top at the outermost ramifications of the branches. The female
flowers occupy the extreme top near the ends of the upper branches
and are borne perpendicularly in the leaf axils on the upper sides of

Fic. 4.—Leaf structure of Abies lasiocarpa: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; M
mesophyll; £, epidermis; S, strengthening cells.

the previous year’s branches, while the male flowers are borne mostly
on the under or lower sides. The cones, which are violet in color,
cylindrical shaped, and from 2 to 4 inches long, do not turn downward
after fertilization, like the cones of spruce, but remain erect. They
ripen in one year, about the end of September. The mere opening
of the erect cones does not liberate the seeds, but the flat, smooth
scales of the cone and the scale bracts themselves drop off, carrying
the seed with them, and leaving the axils of the cone on the tree for
years. The deciduous scales of the cone are broad, round at the top,
and narrow to a wedge at the bottom. Within each scale are two

BALSAM FIR. ite

winged seeds. Outside of each scale, at the bottom, is a bract +
resembling a transformed, winged fir leaf, the end of which, on a
mature cone, seldom protrudes enough to be noticed. These bracts
furnish a means of distinguishing balsam, Fraser, and Alpine fir. In
general, the relative lengths of the cone scale and this bract are means
to distinguish between the different native firs, but in the case of
balsam the value of this distinction is lessened because of the occur-
rence of forms with slightly exserted or protruding bracts.

The classification of Fraser fir as a distinct species rests not on the
protrusion of the bract, but on its spatulate and reflexed form. The
forms of balsam fir with slightly exserted
bracts need not, therefore, cause any confu-
sion, for though these do protrude a little,
they are not different in shape from the
included form, and are neither spatulate nor
reflexed. (Hig. 5.)

Since the bracts of Alpine fir never pro-
trude, this variant character in balsam is of
value in distinguishing it from Alpine fir.
Furthermore, the cone scale of Alpine fir is

larger than that of balsam, as shown in Fig. fie. 5—cone scale and bract,

+ OEE aa (i) ML; Abies fraser
This distinction, however, can not always = (Pursh.) Lindl; c, Abies lasio-

be relied upon, because the size and form of —©2"Pa (Hook.) Nutt.

the cone scales of Alpine fir vary. It is safer, therefore, to distinguish

Alpine from balsam fir by the form of the bract, which in the former

is conspicuously long pointed.

REPRODUCTION.

Under favorable conditions balsam fir bears fruit when about 20
years old and 15 feet high. Regular production of seeds, however,
does not begin before the age of 30 or 35 years. On high mountains,
above timber line, scrubby balsam begins to bear seeds in large
quantities when from 23 to 25 years old. The amount of seeds borne
by individual trees depends, of course, on the size of the crown. Asa
rule trees in a dense stand bear less seed than trees in the open. Ina
mixed, forest the dominant trees are prolific seeders, the intermediate
trees moderately so, while the suppressed trees produce no seed at all.
Although balsam fir produces some seed every year, plentiful seed
years occur only at intervals of two, three, and even four years.

1 Discussion and Drawings of Cone Scales and Bracts, by William H. Lamb, Forest Service.

28 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FREQUENCY OF SEED YEARS.

An investigation of the ages of seedlings on several reproduction
plots in the Adirondacks revealed the fact that of the total number
counted the per cent of ages from 1 to 11 years was as follows:

Per cent.
IP year Ol (A902). See: oe ee 46.1

2 yearsloldteu..7hi: SEW SO ee eee oO,
5 years olfleewus.2u2slendotugs ta. Fee Ve ea eR eee w2
A years Olds. os .soe kn hoe. As pl ee ee es 1.2
5 years old.\(1898) 2 =o. o0 02 ced 2 og 6 ogee ee 51.1
G years.old. oe. coe) ee aes See sly
Zyears Old oo. - enc i O oe e nal!
Sryears Midetees. he. OR ee 5
Sryears Oldk wo Sos Ae. Se eee. GS ee ee 2

Wyears old~ ete eee a ES et ae
Bi syears old. 6822. 2025 oon ee ay a ee .2

The large representation of seedlings 1 and 5 years old serves to
indicate an occurrence of plentiful seed years in the Adirondacks at
intervals of four years.

Other seed years can not be readily determined by this study,
since the seedlings after reaching an age of 6 years do not stand the
dense shade very well, and few survive. In. Maine a similar study
has shown the occurrence of good seed years every other year. In
one instance the seed years were traced back to 1882, all of them
occurring in the even years. In New Hampshire good seed years
were found to occur every third year.

QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF SEED.

As determined by the Forest Service, the number of seed per pound
averages about 36,000; the weight of a thousand seeds, 0.39 ounce
(12.4 grams); and the germination per cent, from 20 to 30.

* GERMINATION.

Since the seeds are scattered late in the fall, when frosts have
already occurred, they lie dormant through the winter and come up
the next spring. Hardwood leaf litter, duff, moss, mineral soil,
rotten logs—all present an equally good germinating bed, if moist.
Balsam differs from spruce in this respect, requiring more moisture,
as may be inferred from the fact that spruce seedlings are found im
drier situations, both on logs and on the ground. A rather dry and
high log will have plenty of spruce seedlings and very few balsam,
while a well-rotted moist log will have a great number of balsam
seedlings. The same is true of stumps.

The number of seedlings that come up on the acre varies with the
type of forest. Thus on the hardwood slopes in the Adirondacks,

BALSAM FIR. 29

where balsam fir occurs scatteringly, the number of seedlings per
acre is small, often only 700 to 1,000, though occasionally, if there
are a number of large balsams, the number may reach 50,000. The
number of seedlings is, of course, largest in pure stands of balsam,
where they may be 300,000 and more to the acre. In mixture with
spruce in the swamps and flats the number of balsam seedlings will
vary from several thousand to 200,000 and more, according to the
number of large seed-bearing helenae 4 in the ad

TOLERANCE.

Balsam fir requires less light than tamarack, white pine, and white
cedar, but more light than either red spruce or hemlock. It will,
however, endure more shade on deep, moist soils than on poor, shallow
ones. In mixture with spruce, mature healthy balsam invariably
towers above the former. Similarly, in a mixed hardwood forest,
balsam fir, when fully developed, is the dominant tree. For the
first five or six years of its life, balsam will grow in dense shade, but
as it develops it demands more and more light. On moist soils, how-
ever, it may thrive without being in the top story of the forest, and
beneath white birch and poplar, also, it often remains apparently
healthy and vigorous. But where it comes in under a hardwood
forest already established, its leader is usually stunted or killed
when it enters the hardwood foliage. A broken limb or leader often
affords the means of entrance for rot, and though balsam, especially
on deep, moist soil, is capable of recovery after a long period of
suppression, it is apt in such cases to be unsound. Many trees
were found to be rotten in the middle at the point of suppression,
with no visible point of entrance for the rot. Others were found
100 years old, with a height of 18 feet and a diameter of 3 inches,
which, after 66 years of suppression, retained sufficient vitality to
grow rapidly after again receiving the light.

SOIL AND MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS.

Though their demands upon soil are very similar, balsam fir
requires for its best development a richer and moister soil than
does spruce. With its more northern distribution it seeks the cool
and moist north and east slopes in preference to other exposures.
In the Adirondacks it is hardly ever found on the abrupt, rocky,
southwest slopes, with thin soil, on which spruce often forms a pure
stand and reaches a good development. Balsam fir attains its
best growth and largest sizes on the flats, the soil of which is usually
a moderately moist, deep, sand loam. In the wet swamps with
acid soils, as well as on pure sand, it thrives but poorly.

30 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DISEASE AND INJURY.

FUNGI.

Balsam fir must be classed as one of the most defective of our
northeastern conifers. Its chief enemies are fungi, and the weakest -
point of attack is the heartwood.

According to its place of origin, the rot is known as top or ground
rot, and is caused by two different species of fungi, Trametes pina and
Polyporus schweimtzvi.1 The latter affects the merchantable portion
of the tree, and therefore does the most injury. Even when the rot
does not extend far up the trunk, the tree is nevertheless lost in
lumbering, since the choppers, finding the butt rotten, will in many
cases leave it partly cut through, to be broken down by the first wind.
Thus is the whole tree wasted, although at a short distance from the
ground it might be perfectly sound. The roots are the chief points
of entrance for ground rot. Ground rot is especially common in
balsam on slopes in mixture with hardwoods. Its relative infre-
quency in the swamps is most likely due to the excess of water and
poor aeration in the soil, as well as the antiseptic effect of bog water.
Ground rot may also find entrance through wounds on the lateral
roots. Being near the surface and extending for several feet from
the base of the tree, these are readily injured in logging by falling
trees or by logs dragged over them. Roots may also be wounded by
sharp rocks, or they may be broken by a strong wind, or insects
may puncture them. In many cases ground rot was found to be
associated with deep frost cracks and holes made by ants.

Top rot, affecting the upper and less merchantable part of the tree,
is less common than ground rot. It was especially noted in sup-
pressed trees, the tops of which are often injured by rubbing against
other trees, though any kind of a wound in the top may afford an en-
trance to the fungus. Balsam fir beneath hardwoods is often sup-
pressed for many years, and is therefore likely to be affected by rot
in the top. The same is true of dense, pure stands, in which sup-
pressed trees eventually die from the top.

Not many opportunties were afforded to study the rate at which
the rot spreads, because it was impossible to tell when a frost crack
or an insect wound was made. Only wounds made by falling trees,
the axe, etc., could be used. The heartwood on the stump was, as
a rule, completely rotten if the wound had been made low down
upon the tree from five to seven years before. During that time the
rot had extended upward for from 5 to 10 feet. The rate of spreading
at the top was less rapid.

1 Hedgecock, George G. Notes on Some Diseases of Trees in our National Forests, II. Phytopathol-
ogy 2: 77-78, April, 1912.

BALSAM FIR. Bal

Since the fruiting bodies of the fungi, or, as the lumbermen call
them, “punks” or ‘“conks,’”’ appear on the fir after the tree is con-
siderably rotten, it is exceedingly hard to tell merely by the appear-
ance of the tree whether it is sound or not. Being short-lived,
balsam fir at the age of 80 to 100 years is already old, and especially
susceptible to rot of any kind. Therefore one seldom finds an old
balsam that is perfectly sound.

“GLASSY ’’ FIR.

During the winter months balsam fir logs often have on cross
section a “glassy” or “‘icy” appearance, which some lumbermen
consider an indication of defect. When cut by the crosscut saw,
the wood shows irregular areas which are perfectly smooth and shiny
as if planed. A microscopical examination of the wood,' however,
did not reveal any signs of decay in the smooth areas, and the struc-
ture could not be distinguished from that of the ordinary rough areas.
During winter the water present in the wood of balsam fir is
mostly frozen, and the shiny, smooth spots are therefore not due to
any disease, but to the frozen condition of the wood. That this is so
is further shown by the fact that the same section of wood when cut
in an unfrozen condition appears rough over its entire area. The ice
formed in the wood acts as reenforcing material and prevents the
usual tearing of the wood fiber.

FIRE.

Balsam, fir is very sensitive to fire. Its superficial roots are easily
affected by surface fires, and the flames reach its cambium through
the thin, tender bark, killing the tree. In a balsam injured by fire
the lower foliage first turns brown, and finally the top. The dying in
some cases is very slow, but is none the less certain.

WIND.

Balsam fir does not suffer from windshake, but it is easily uprooted
and broken by wind because of its shallow root system and slender,

brittle bole.
i THE WOOD.

GENERAL STRUCTURE.

The wood of the balsam fir in external appearance is strikingly
like that of eastern spruce, and it is often necessary to go to the
gross and minute characters of its anatomical structure in order
to distinguish it. Balsam fir is ordinarily close-grained and, like

1 Glassy Fir, by Hermann von Schrenk. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Missouri Sotanical Garden,
pp. 117-120. St. Louis, Mo., 1905.

82 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

spruce, has no distinct heartwood and sapwood. Its narrow pith
rays of a pale or whitish color are scarcely visible. Air-dry wood of
balsam fir is ight, weighing 24 pounds per cubic foot, as compared
with 28 pounds for spruce. When completely dry, it has an average
density of 0.38, and loses about 4 per cent of its volume in seasoning.

COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF eee FIBERS OF BALSAM FIR AND SPRUCES.

Table 7 gives the average, maximum, and minimum lengths of
the wood fibers of balsam fir and the northeastern spruces.

TABLE 7.—Average, maximum, and minimum lengths of fibers of balsam fir and the
northeastern spruces.

| Length of wood fiber (millimeters).

Species.
Average. |Maximum.} Minimum.
Balsam fir (Abies balsqmea) ee... ee eee 2.518 3.750 1. 680
White spruce icea canudensts 2 = as eae 3.556 4.704 2.520
iRed' spruce (Picea Tubes) ks eee Se EN eee 3. 233 4.158 1. 890

IBlackispruce (Freee Marne). 2% 5s> Ae Ss a ee 2. 599 3.738 2.142

GROWTH.

Balsam fir is a fairly rapid growing tree, fhough not as rapid as
tamarack and white pine.

HEIGHT GROWTH.

Balsam fir has a period of comparatively slow growth, which, under
favorable light conditions, lasts only for the first five years of its life;
a period of rapid growth then sets in and continues until the tree is
60 years old. From then on the growth in height begins to decline,
and at 80 years the growth is practically at a standstill. At 150
years it stops altogether. The most rapid growth in height takes
place between the twentieth and fortieth years.

The slow growth of balsam fir for the first five or six years is an
inherent characteristic of the species, and occurs even under the best
light conditions. Beneath the shade of other trees, however, the
period of slow growth is often extended to 25 years or more because
of the retarding effect of the shade.

BALSAM FIR.

TapiE 8.—Comparative growth of balsam fir seedlings, in Franklin County, N. Y., in
2 i the shade} and in full light.?

Height of

1 f G é
shes tae pelea average trees Hole
Age (years). peas under full Age (years). ee eee under full
tions of shade. light. tions of shade. Bere
Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
1h peas a Se ieee 0.1 CORALS I OS Pea ie as SU aka 1.6 3.6
GPA ORB AD ULL pa ane aiace SO SIS COS OT 1.9 4.3
a8 API DISD ere ers yar Aneel ahs an, 2.1. 5.1
mo) Hd (MFRS af Sad keg ney ate) 2.4 5.8
.6 USO ay ee Baa eel ae Pie 2.6 6.6
7 IPI abe han sey Uses eee 2.8 7.4
9 AAG HIN OT Gebks eure eis NS at ee 3.1 8.2
steal PAGAN Lugs hss econ oui Scotian a ee eat On) 8.9
1.3 Pei 0) | ia lish tise cea eM aap meee ees Bn) 9.7

1 Based on 324 trees. 2 Based on 104 trees.

Thus, with conditions of growth obtaining under forest manage-
ment, the growth in height of balsam fir would be increased more
than two and one-half times during the first 18 years of its life (9.7
feet as compared with 3.5 feet).

Tables 9 and 10 give the average growth in height on flat, swamp,
and hardwood slope in the State of New York, based on age.

TasLE 9.—Height growth of balsam fir in New York, on the basis

of age, on flat, swamp,.
and hardwood slope.

Flat.

Swamp
(Based on 248 trees.)

b Hardwood slope.
(Based on 158 trees.)

(Based on 277 trees.)

Age (years).

Maxi- | Mini- Maxi- | Mini- Maxi- | Mini-
mum, | mum. |“VYe?@8e-| mum. | mum, |“Vel@8*-| mum. | mum, | 4Verage-
Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. Feet.

5 10 3 4 8 3 5

7 9 15 6 7 15 6 9
11 14 19 8 ii 22 9 14
15 19 24 10 15 28 13 19
19 23 28 12 19 34 17 24
22 27 32 14 23 40 21 30
25 31 36 16 27 45 25 35
27 35 39 18 30 50 29 39
29 38 42 20 32 54 32 43
30 41 45 PAL 34 58 35 47
32 43 48 23 36 61 38 49
33 45 51 24 38 64 40 52
34 47 53 25 40 66 42 54
35 49 55 26 Al 68 43 56
36 51 57 27 43 69 45 57
37 52 59 28 44 70 45 58
38 53 60 29 46 71 46 59
39 54 62 30 47 72 47 60
39 55 63 30 48 73 47 61
40 56 64 31 49 73 48 61
4) 57 65 32 50 74 48 62
42 58 66 32 51 74 49 62
42 59 67 33 52 75 49 63
43 59 68 34 52 75 49 63
44 60 69 34 53 75 50 63
45 60 70 35 53 76 50 63
46 61 70 35 54 76 50 63
46 62 71 36 54 76 51 64
47 62 72 37 55 76 51 64

20137°—Bull.

34 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE 10.—Average growth of balsam jir in New York, on the basis of age, on flat, swamp,
and hardwood slope.

Flat. Swamp. Hardwood slope.
(Based on 248 trees.) (Based on 158 trees.) (Based on 277 trees.)
Age Annual Annual Annual
(years). Growl owt Gnome eo rowel growth
. in height C) - in height | m hei in height | in height

Height. every 5 witha Height every 5 | within hi Height. every 5 within

years. 5-year years. eee years. 5-year

period. period. period.
———<—————— fs SF eee eee ee eee

Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.

NOD aces. e Dijl hersictes Serna saereeeeee BI) to aisnla dl ctell Sree site bee ats Oi] bee errata is le Srsjctac a
Ibias sarc 9 4 0.8 7 3 0.6 9 4 0.8
20 ce wtecaks 14 5 1.0 11 4 -8 14 5 1.0
7 ate 19 5 1.0 15 4 8 19 5 1.0
31 ees 23 4 -8 19 4 8 24 5 1.0
Son bie esce= 27 4 8 23 4 8 30 6 1.2
40 ise sae 31 4 8 27 4 8 35 5 1.0
2 Ue ee 35 4 8 30 3 6 39 4 -8
D0 eats 38 3 6 32 2 4 43 4 -8
bes Se aoee 41 3 6 34 2 4 47 4 .8
(i areas 2 43 2 4 36 2 4 49 2 4
Ooeiceenaas 45 2 4 38 2 4 52 3 -6
WO eke HE 47 Z 4 40 P 4 54 2 4
(ELE u esa 49 2 4 41 1 2 56 2 4
adie Gates 51 74 4 43 2 4 57 1 a4
Boer sec 52 1 2 44 1 2 58 1 2
O0 Fe ocane 53 1 2 46 2 4 59 1 2
1 es aaa 54 1 “2 47 1 2 60 1 «2
LOOSE Se 55 1 +2 48 1 2 61 1 2
LOD Ae aise 56 1 2 49 1 2 61 0 -0
AIO tees 57 1 2 50 1 2 62 1 473
iii ceeeas 58 1 574 51 1 2 62 0 -0
120 {Seer es 59 1} Bp Goll a Nae 1 2 63 1 574
1 DYE eee 59 0 0 52 0 0 63 0 -0
dO eae 60 1 2 53 1 2 63 0 -0
Bue ae 60 0 0 53 0 0 63 0 -0
iV eee 61 iJ a7 54 1 2 63 0 0
45S Pere. 62 1 oY} 54 0 0 64 1 ar
150 52254202 62 0 0 55 1 2 64 0 20

In New York balsam fir grows in height at an average rate for all

types of 0.4 of a foot a year.

On flats the growth between the ages of 20 and 45 is nearly 1 foot
a year. At 60 years the current annual growth equals the average
annual growth, namely 0.4 foot, which indicates that at this age the
annual growth begins to decline. At the age of 85 the current an-
nual growth is only 0.2 of a foot, and at 125 years has practically
stopped.

In the swamp the growth in general is slower and on the hardwood
slope faster than on the flat, but on the whole it culminates and begins
to decline at about the same age im all three types.

In Maine (Table 11) the average tree grows faster than in New
York; namely, at the rate of 0.7 of a foot a year. The period of most
rapid growth is longer from the twentieth to the fiftieth year and the
total height is greater.

BALSAM FIR. 35

TaBLeE 11.—Height growth of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age, based on 456 trees.

Height of tree (feet). | Annual Height of tree (feet). | Annual
sow Brows
within withi

Age (years). Ss Age (years). f

Salk a lytic | Mui.) Ayer, 2 ples axi-| Mini- | Aver- | > 235
mum. | mum. | age. {teet). mum. | mum.| age. (feet).

NG) eels 8 0.5 69 21 52 0.7

22 6 14 1.2 72 24 56 oof

33 7 20 2.2 74 27 59 -6

42 8 25 1.0 76 31 61 a)

49 10 30 1.0 78 35 64 a)

55 12 36 1.0 79 38 66 4

60 14 | 40 1.0 81 41 68 4

63 16 45 1.0 82 45 70 4

67 18 49 8 83 48 71 2

Table 12 shows the relation between the height and diameter

growth for all types together in New York, Maine, New Hampshire,
and Minnesota.

TaBLE 12.—Comparative height growth of balsam fir in different States, on the basis of
diameter breast high.

Height of tree (feet).
Diameter breast high (inches).
New York.! Maine? | Mantes Minnesoita.!

9 12 15 8
17 20 24 16
26 27 31 23
33 35 37 31
40 42 42 37
46 48 46 43
51 54 50 48
54 60 53 53
58 64 56 58
60 68 59 62
63 72 61 67
65 75 (Billsoeeo so bwenace
67 78 65
70 81° GiNeooe
72 84 69S ee
74 86 ((i)l Bececeoe
1G) eee teee OSs Hat (ZN leseaeseeeeee ne

1 All types, based on 1,138 trees. 3 All types, based on 326 trees.
2 All types, based on 456 trees. 4 All types, based on 165 trees.

These figures indicate again that the tree reaches its best develop-
ment in Maine and its next best in New York. Growthin Minnesota,
though apparently more rapid than in New Hampshire or New York,
on the whole is poorer than in any other State. The actual number
of trees on which the figures for Minnesota are based is not large, while
the figures for height growth in New Hampshire are based not on
actual measurements of felled trees but on those of standing trees by
means of a height measurer. If the measurements in the two States
had been taken in the same way and on the same number of trees,
the difference in favor of Minnesota would have been eliminated.

36 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIAMETER GROWTH.

Balsam fir makes its most rapid growth in diameter between the
ages of 25 and 70 years, during which time the average rate is about
0.11 of an inch a year, or 1 inch in 9 years. On less favorable situa-
tions it grows at the rate of about 1 inchin 10 years. After the sev- —
entieth year the diameter growth begins to decline, and at 75 years
the current annual growth falls below the mean annual growth.

Tables 13 and 14 give the growth of balsam fir in diameter on differ-
ent stations in the Adirondacks.

TaBLeE 13.—Diameter growth, in inches, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of age.

Hardwood slope. Flat. Swamp.

(Based on 277 trees.) (Based on 246 trees.) (Based on 158 trees.)
Annual Annual Annual

Age (years). Diam - Grog ora he Diam- Growin prow Diam- Growin gr oun

eter : - | eter 2 "| eter i | in di-
nest ameter | ameter breast ameter | ameter breast ameter | ameter
Taneie every | within hich every |within hich. | ©Very within
85+ | 5 years.| 5-year | “U8"- |5 years.) 5-year | “87 |5 years.| 5-year
period. period. period.
OF eo ae |bm aeeinee i | eg eel ae (Wh Se ee
.8 0.4 0.08 8 0.4 0. 08 .6 0.3 0. 06
1.3 5 -10 1.2 4 .08 1.0 .4 - 08
pei) 6 ai i 5 .10 1.4 .4 . 08
2.6 7 .14 2.3 6 aD, 1.8 .4 . 08
3.3 7 .14 2.9 6 .12 2.3 «5 .10
4.0 7 .14 3.6 7 .14 2.8 -5 .10
4.7 7 .14 4.3 7 .14 3.3 Bi) .10
5.4 7 .14 4.9 6 .12 3.8 -5 -10
6.0 6 si? BE 6 12 4.4 -6 .12
6.5 5 .10 6.0 5 . 10 4.9 -5 -10
7.0 5 . 10 6.5 .5 240 5.4 -5 -10
7.4 4 . 08 6.9 4 -08 5.8 .4 - 08
7.8 4 . 08 7.2 -3 -06 6.1 aS) . 06
852 4 .08 7.5 -3 . 06 6.5 4 . 08
8.5 3 . 06 7.8 .3 . 06 6.8 -3 . 06
8.9 4 . 08 8.1 .3 . 06 oe .3 . 06
9.2 3 . 06 8.3 2 - 04 7.4 3 . 06
9.5 3 . 06 8.6 .3 - 06 7.6 2 .04
9.8 3 . 06 8.9 .3 . 06 7.9 .3 - 06
10.1 3 . 06 9.1 2 . 04 8.1 22 . 04
10.4 3 . 06 9.4 .3 . 06 8.4 3 - 06
10.7 3 - 06 9.6 2 . 04 8.6 2 .04
11.0 3 . 06 9.9 3 -06 8.8 2 . 04
ils" 3 .06 10.1 2 . 04 9.1 3 - 06
11.6 3 . 06 10.3 2 04 9.3 2 . 04
11.9 3 . 06 10.5 2 . 04 9.5 2 . 04
122 3 06 10.8 3 . 06 9.8 3 . 06
IDA 3 . 06 11.0 2 - 04 10.0 2 . 04

Tapie 14.—Number of years required by balsam fir in New York to grow 1 inch.

Hardwood slope. Flat Swamp.
(Based on 277 trees.) | (Based on 246 trees. ) | (Based on 158 trees.)

Diameter breast high (inches). Years Years Years
Age required Age required Age required
(years). to grow (years). to grow (years). to grow
1 inch. 1 inch. 1

inch.
1 ee eee ee ey ae ee 17 17 18 18 20 20
Dia ae ales doe dies able dat ow Genie’ © 26 9 28 10 32 12
O55 2 ea ee eho Seat See ee 33 ff 36 8 42 10
1 PEE ARE EN 2 SE ey TOL. ee 40 i 43 rd 52 10
ee Be APL Ee ee ee ea oar 47 7 51 8 61 9
(Soe SS cee ad Es 55 8 60 9 73 12
ee Ti ceade iss et tries. 4 65 10 72 12 89 16
(SOR igh SRN SE ERI RO Ad eR ALR 78 13 89 17 108 19
Soe Sees eee eew ich. reed ee 93 15 108 19 129 21
De eet tia mat a ro dale e Butane Mok Bowes 108 15 128 20 150 21
1 1 WA oh PRN Be Oye eae ee ie a 125 17 150 QD Neiswwiods whe aleeete eee aya ois

Bul. 55, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE STEM OF A YOUNG BALSAM FIR TREE, SHOWING
ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH, @. 7. NATURAL SIZE.

BALSAM FIR.

As shown by the tables, the best growth is made on hardwood

slope; the poorest in swamps.

Table 15 shows the diameter growth of balsam fir in Maine for all
types. The average growth here equals the best growth in the
Adirondacks. On the whole, however, the periods of most rapid and

slowest growth coincide.

TABLE 15.—Diameter growth of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age.

(All types,

based on 456 trees.)

Annual Annual
Growth | growth Growth | growth
Diameter | in diam- | in diam- Diameter] in diam-| in diam-
Age (years). breast eter eter Age (years). breast eter eter
high. every within high. every within
5 years. 5-year 5 years. | 5-year
period. period.
Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
1 SS ORE eee - OZ a eee eee neenee Boe eeisOusiianeise ee 9.4 0.5 0.10
PS ste AAS aaneaee = 1.2 0.8 0.16 GOR aoe eee eeeecet ee 9.9 .o .10
2 See a oe 2.0 .8 .16 (SSS en Teeter 4 10. 4 At) -10
DOSS cee Rican occa 2.7 Si EAR LOO Ee eo eid i tee 10. 7 53) . 06
31 Sates CS ea ee 3.4 Sui BAT eal O ait) Se ees toy eee 11.0 .3 - 06
OD ES ee ee Wee eas 8 4.1 ml Peek 17 eae anes 2 Oe ea 11.3 53 . 06
NGA ae eae ee ER 4.8 Sa BA LNG iss pa As 11.6 a3 . 06
(US er a ee 3 5.5 sz WALL ZO 9 Se 11.9 5) . 06
SEG BERS eee o 6.1 6 1A Sap ays eee te eae ee 2 12.1 a . 04
BOS aes ees oie ck 6.7 .6 a 2h PSO eine RR ene 12.3 o2 . 04
(i) Jaa eee 8 7.3 .6 ps 1A ah 2 US aya meer Sale area 12.5 2 . 04
7A) Se fas er ts 8 7.9 .6 U2 wl 40 aes eee eee eee 12.6 ail . 02
an es Pil es 2! 8.4 ol Site ele eaeeaTecBeSEae ae 12.8 574 .04
BO ee eee ok a 8.9 -5 eelOg lOO eerie cece 12.9 gil . 02
SUMMARY.
Ny yeas i eats.
A . . ge require : “oh (i ge require
Diameter breast high (inches). (years). | to grow Diameter breast high (inches). (years). | to grow
1 inch. 1 inch.
lies is Sa el ee ame te ea ee 19 TE) PNB SSH NaS ie eS pe er nee UE 71 9
Ci) OCG. 3G GRAF NEOSE Se Tees 25 CG) HH ee es eg crete eae oa eg a a 81 10
S565 SOS ae een ee mien 32 CE ATID ae Se ae I areal ape oa 91 10
(i SG be ade Gee Se Sees 39 A AW SAU US SY ety A Saas Ue 105 14
ene ee See ie ela oe eaicinida pe ene 47 (2) Hl] Nal Pores Se, Ne Salers ieiea ace eae Picts 123 18
G5 38 Suc o ss Se Gane Re ee eee 54 CA i AS i ee a ee 152 29
Vasineclcas so SS eee ee eee eee 62 8

EFFECT OF OPENING UP FOREST UPON DIAMETER GROWTH.

That the diameter growth of balsam fir is stimulated by opening
up the forest is indicated by measurements of trees growing on
uncut and on culled land (Table 16).

TaBLE 16.—Diameter growth of balsam fir,

Diameter, in inches,
breast high after

Present diameter breast high| 10 years.
(inches).
Uneut Culled
land. land.
sso OE ESOC EA aOPereR ae ® 6. 54 6.80
Us 2 SEE SOROS EBS CESS 2 SE ema (SNe aaa 7. 80
Biers ieee es Monies oalsee Late 9. 26 9. 56
er Sa ae abel a ershnicintolaresc ts o's 10. 20 10. 60

Galen County, N. H., on uncut and culled
na.

Diameter, in inches,
breast high after

Present diameter breast high 10 years.
(inches).
Uneut Culled
land. land.
11.18 11; 40
11. 88 12. 34
12. 88 13. 34
BRS HS Pa spr acl NN = aie [nr festa Rea 14. 34

38 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR.

Since spruce and balsam fir nearly always grow together, and any
plan of management for one species must necessarily imclude the
other, a comparison of the growth of the two species is essential.

In Table 17 is contrasted the average growth in height and diame-
ter of balsam fir and spruce in the State of Maine.

TaBLE 17.—Comparative growth, in height and diameter, of balsam fir and red spruce in
Maine.

GROWTH IN HEIGHT.

l
Height (feet). Height (feet).
Diameter breast high R Diameter breast high
2 ed Balsam ; Red Balsam
(inches). spruce. fir. (inches). spruce. fir.
(Based on) (Based on (Based on|(Based on
aa trees.) 456 trees.) 485 trees.) |456 trees.)
7 12 52 68
14 | 20 55 72
21 27 58 75
28 35 60 78
33 42 63 81
37 48 65 84
41 54 67 86
44 60 BB ion rase
48 64 OY tetera
GROWTH IN DIAMETER.
Diameter breast Diameter breast
high (inches). high (inches).
Age (years). Red Balsam Age (years): Red Balsam
spruce. fir. spruce. fir.
'(Based on| (Based on (Based on|(Based on
274 trees.)| 456 trees.) 274 trees.)|456 trees.)
| 0.1 2 90: no Rgaoe eae eee PT 9.9
-6 Ze Flt LOO Sia is alos iaeaeis ae eee eee 3. 2 10.7
8 4510 |, 110223 nde pee Soe meee Sern) 11.3
1.1 © AI 120. ..os: eee ae ee 4.3 | 11.9
1.5 65:71 130-5 -cagens cee oe eee ee eee 4.9 | 12.3
1.8 16921) 140 oie tee eae eee 5.5 12.6
2.2 8.9) 150 ee oak co coe ea 6.2 12.9

Red spruce grows in height much slower than balsam fir for the
first 70 years. At a diameter of about 8 inches its rate of growth in
height is approximately the same as that of balsam fir. At a diame-
ter of 12 inches balsam fir reaches almost its full height, while spruce
is still far below its fullest development. From that time on spruce
continues to grow at a uniform rate for a long period, while the
growth of balsam fir is rapidly declining until at a diameter of about
16 inches it practically ceases.

The same is true of the growth in diameter. At the age of 100
years spruce is only 3.2 inches in diameter breast high, while balsam
fir has made nearly two-thirds of its entire diameter growth. After

BALSAM FIR. 39

the age of 70 years the annual growth of balsam fir declines, while that

of spruce shows a gradual increase. After the age of 150 years spruce -

catches up with balsam fir, and finally surpasses it both in height and
diameter. On the whole the rate of growth of balsam fir is more
rapid during its entire life than that of spruce. The growth of
spruce is, however, more persistent, and does not exhaust itself as
early. It is this persistent growth and its long life which enable
spruce to reach larger dimensions.

This difference in growth is also apparent on cut-over land. Meas-
urements in New Hampshire during 10 years following cutting gave
the results shown in Table 18.

TABLE 18.—Comparative growth in diameter of spruce and balsam on culled land in
Grafton County, N. H. :

Diameter breast Diameter breast
high after 10 | high after 10
Diameter breast high at time | Years (inches). Diameter breast high at time | years (inches).
of cutting (inches). of cutting (inches).

Spruce. | Balsam. Spruce. | Balsam.

Soe ry een, 5 ORNS EE Sy 2), ae 8. 82 Oe Sw le Laeger pe 7 Ce Mee | okes WUC eco cence

OSes eet eee Sue ae eres 10. 00 MOG Oe || eae eee eB ns sg see eam i049 see

OSE aE Re eee eee 11.00 TAO RU Giese Sucre aM tel Sen mt ieee O64 ese eae

Wea ES ee eee ere aeons 12.00 ONO AR lie et eitlare eee ha ee eee UO ess eee

UB 5 Sea ee a eae eee le 13.00 TB eoZeE HT Re se ate Sse Re VSG645 2 ees
eee eee eon oak feN ek 14. 00 14. 34

Balsam fir up to 13 inches in diameter responded to increased light
and space more vigorously than spruce, but did not go beyond the
limit of 14 inches, while spruce continued to show a slower but a uni-
form increase in growth of 1 inch for each 1 inch in diameter up to 18
inches.

VOLUME GROWTH.

Tables 19 to 23 give the increment of balsam fir in cubic feet and
board measure for the three different types in New York and in cubic
feet for all typesin Maine. The tables of volume growth, more than
the tables of height and diameter growth, bring out the better devel-
opment of balsam fir in Maine than in New York and other States.
The annual increment in Maine is practically twice that in New York.
Similarly, the volume-growth tables bring out more clearly the differ-
ences in the increment of balsam fir in different situations. Thus, in
the swamp the increment is less than in the flat or on the hardwood
slope but is more persistent, illustrated by the fact that at the age of
150 years it still continues at an increasing rate. In the swamp the
growth of balsam fir resembles more nearly that of spruce. On the
hardwood slope the volume growth of balsam fir shows the same tend-
ency as that in height and diameter. It reaches its climax compara-
tively early and is greatest between the ages of 80 and 95 years. After

40 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that it begins to decline. On the flat the maximum rate of volume
growth is reached at an age between 50 and 85 years, after which it
slightly declines and remains stationary until a very old age.

The increment in cubic feet becomes noticeable much later than
the growth in height or diameter; namely, when the tree is 40 or 50
years old. This is still more marked in the case of the increment in
board feet. Thus, up to 70 years, even on the hardwood slope, where
the growth is fastest, no increment in board feet is noticeable. It
reaches its highest rate at the age of 125 years, and continues at a
fairly steady rate practically to the limit of the physical life of the
tree. On the flat the increment in board feet starts at about 80 and
in the swamp at from 90 to 95 years.

TaBLe 19.— Total volume, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of diameter
and height. -

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 20 30 = 40 50 60: =) 47a 80
| | |
Total volume (cubic feet).

_ Aaa HAT Been te Me Ve IME ASUS » | pose] 30.81 bses. CRORE eases erect. yh =
7 eee: © Yt shanee ke Sapa set 5 ere ry ae ne, ee A064] 11.43) ||) A914 2522s bo crepenatatats ezeemselbee ice o
Ae EPA RE e ey emai y Sie Sk aes 6s CR! PEG5 5 | AB RGOY | Soest le oes Nd Sa 5 nah
a eh ke eerie: ene kn mee ee <15)} 4.195. SiR | Tee eh Bee
Be eee Slept oats oe EE a a 4.24 5.63 COL || > Boer: 9.72 11.07
ee en a ie NPs Shes cn ae a hy | La en aS | 7.25 | 9.01 | 10.76 | 12.51 14.24
Bee g Sa ceweckt Bane Jc 2 vs a SPE ae es reke i icaeones peas § 11.19 | 13.38 | ©15.55 17.71
es Seat ty eee ee rele Seen [Bape aa a5 * 13.59 93| 18.86 | 21.47
TOS Sie re 8c uk. See. See ates, bas ee © el ae eee 16.10 | 19.25 | 22.36 50
See ee en ae a oa Se a] ree ce a ee | 22.38] 26.06] 29.72
See ne. Ved ec tek e ak - epee see: becca ee Se ee er ee eae | 25.71 | 29.94 | 34.14
ae eal ge celine Sie nl Rpegape eine BNE cae tual | Ee ele we 29.12 | 33.98] 38.74
Bh crid ce be eee Leen ds & $e 5od eee te PEELE: ao Se. SRS ann: ye eee 32.77 | 38.14 43.59
|| Papi ae nia gli epi meine pe ay pe iter Ty ed ed te a oe ot 36.53 | 42.52] 48.59

| |

TABLE 20.—Total volume, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of diameter

and height.
Height of tree (feet).
Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Total volume (cubic feet).
9. sess). 22 Se pS bo» cts Mee 5.68 7.20 8.76 TUE
Fe ara Tee a a NE a EE wd Se oe 7.22 9.17 11.12 13.22 15.33
Gi cisdesdye4 - cod eo ate 08 Me eee BR 8.87 11. 26 13.75 16.33 18.98
Benois obese ater cee dash ee eo 6 each Saas eee ae 13. 20 16. 49 19.66 22.91
A ie. Hice! = pee BAD bebe ee eee eee 15.77 19. 40 23.15 27.03
EVES — pn gti RTS fis ang eM cea. . Seen ema eR ee spel = 2) [Ss Ae 22.38 26. 83 31.42
jE rept ee eee ae | eee eS Se eke, Soe ee oe 25.44 30. 58 35.91
Be Pe aca 8 on dins e's ocak ne eae ic mee So > on on'c'e'es se eo Oe SSE OEE Piao eee 28. 48 34.35 40.45
BB ah Bo 3s en en eens 2 htc pss ils eS eee 31.52 38.14 45.06
16 | 34.52 42.03 49.71

>»

BALSAM. FIR.

TABLE 21.— Volume growth, in board feet, of balsam fir in New. York, onthe basis of age.

Hardwood slope.

Annual
Growth| growth
in vol- | in vol-

ume ume
every | within

Age (years).

5 years.| 5-year
period.

Or
CUR O1O1 Or Ore BP Pe COR OO 0
SOOO OC 0 00 00 00 0000 DOOM

Lbebelath-& ino

Flat. Swamp.

Annual : Annual

Grow th exowih Grow ty cromtty

in vol- | in vol- in vol- | in vol-

aol: ume ume ok ume ume

* | every | within * | every | within

5 years.| 5-year 5 years.| 5-year
period. period.

DAU RESO SE SG Mperated HOSE sae cSeaese bepErooS
23 3 (UGS ORE Sere eee Paces
26 3 BU Beebeeee bemomcod Gaconote
29 3 .6 16) pases sect S seersests
32 3 -6 18 2 0. 4
34 2 4 20 2 4
37 3 6 22 2 .4
40 3 .6 24 2 4
43 3 6 26 2 4
46 3 -6 28 2 4
50 4 8 31 3 6
53 3 -6 33 2 .4
56 3 6 36 3 -6
60 4 .8 38 PAL .4
63 3 6 41 3 -6
66 3 -6 43 2 4

TaBLeE 22.— Volume growth, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of age.

Hardwood slope.

Annual
Growth] growth
in vol- | in vol-

ume | ume
every | within
5 years.| 5-year

Age (years).

Flat. Swamp.

Annual Annual

te ume ume | ume ume ume

* | every | within * | every | within

5 years.| 5-year 5 years.| 5-year
period. period. period.

1.09 | 0.218 int jal epee aenceeced Gaawesas Eoscoaesl ensoses
1. 09 . 218 1.92 0.83 | 0.166 O98 |e oe eee Sees
1. 09 . 218 2. 80 . 88 . 176 1.47 0. 49 0. 098
1. 09 . 218 3. 67 . 87 . 174 2. 01 . 54 . 108
1.10 220 4. 57 - 90 . 180 2. 60 . 59 118
1.10 220 5. 47 - 90 . 180 3. 21 - 61 122
1.10 . 220 6. 36 . 89 - 178 3. 88 . 67 134
1.10 220 Te P33 . 87 - 174 4. 56 . 68 136
1.10 220 8. 09 - 86 2172 5. 24 . 68 136
1.13 226 8.91 - 82 . 164 5. 92 . 68 . 136
1.11 222 9. 74 . 83 . 166 6. 59 . 67 134
1.11 222 | 10.56: . 82 . 164 7. 26 . 67 134
1.08 216 | 11.40 . 84 . 168 7. 94 . 68 136
1.07 214 | 12.23 . 83 - 166 8. 62 - 68 136
1.05 210 | 13.09 . 86 ee 9. 30 - 68 136
1.05 .210 | 13.94 - 85 -170 9. 98 . 68 136
1. 05 .210} 14.80 - 86 172} 10.66 . 68 136
1. 04 -208 | 15. 64 . 84 -168 | 11.34 . 68 136
1. 04 . 208 | 16.50 . 86 LT2 2s 02 . 68 136
1. 06 212 | 17.34 . 84 - 168 | 12.70 . 68 136
1.05 . 210 | 18.20 . 86 -172) 13:38 . 68 136
1. 03 . 206 19. 04 . 84 - 168 14. 09 6 Cal 142
1. 06 212 19. 90 . 86 _ Ue 14. 80 Stil 142

42 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 23.— Volume growth, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age.
| Growth in | fyi in
Age (years). | Volume. volume volume
every 5 within 5
years. oe
year period.
Goxeises See chize soe een: SOM. Fake ae ees a eee BOL. ceeceeseralper eee cdas<-
1 EER errs Foe ey ee ao te ae a Be a 10. 64 1.83 0. 366
MO ie SRE en ee EOE osc) Secon se ieee eee ene ee 12.55 1.91 - 382
OE Sasa BER ISOGo SOS O ee A SEB aE aT eS CHE EOS eOe es a a4ase Seems ceos 25 14. 50 1.95 - 390
Sse ee eee ee Eine a nee ee ete oe nn ee oe eee em Rela nam cian eae 16. 51 2.01 - 402
UNS 65 Sat Bee en sao MSS ISOe OSE Seais Joc OS pont sOBO Sa SseEeEenaco tao 18. 60 2.09 - 418
IL «RES AR pm ECT os Ea SE MY Be AC ROD. UNE Ce ch 20. 73 2.13 | - 426
HONE ioe ee ea a ek tk eee ee oe 22.90 2.17 | . 434

TAPER.

Tables 24 to 29 show the taper of balsam fir in different situations
in New York and Maine, expressed in inches and in per cent of the
diameter breast high. The diameter breast high inside bark is taken
as 100, and the diameters inside bark at 10, 20, 30, ete., feet from
the ground expressed as fractions.

These taper tables furnish a basis for the construction of volume
tables im any log scale or in cubic measure, and serve in general to
indicate the development of the bole under various conditions of
growth. Thus, they show the more spindling development of balsam
fir in the swamp than on either the flat or hardwood slope, and the
better development, on the whole, in Maine than in New York.

TasBLe 24.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on swamp.

[Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.]

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches).

4.5 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60

20-foot trees.
eee cin bene oan ceee Mcp eae 100 0 ee dy Seeesosin0) Saotic soos | lnesich wet RR Rorhs oes cre
Dees bc ob oe bin's wasn eee ee 100 V4.1 WASsc 2 8 E | K 3 ee ena eee nt ee
TES Sens Se Sa Ca 2 100 70.3: ete. .5. 88S: Lee eee | Sas Bald aa

30-foot trees.
tae clo nice coe eae samt aeES 100 84.2 52. 6 |. - pdcescahecee bere el eee ee ee eee are
Dee ede cee cok Geaghomern sabe © 100 85. 7 £5 ap a eae are Sie ne IC ee hae he ee
Be occa cee nee e Sapeceae Ck esegets 100 86.5 56S ilcie'e 2 ai oe ae be he eel ence en ee ee oes
Spee toe ees = tea ens ae es 100 89.1 5B. Zihere co oc Saad bls dic cis Sal ae nec Ie es ane ee
Gee Sek re ee Sasa a cents o 100 87.5 5S. Ol ise ond ade bales Sel oe eed ee eee
To Copan Rae moh: Se Tae hie | nets ate ond Nt eee 100 89.2 60.0) [cs occ Sale dao cd. SB, eee es

40-foot trees.
ok Fa seco d cue coe wow sauce 100 89.5 68.4 42.0 || :.s2.5.cceo eee et eee nee ee ee
Dees ed cee acwenie sce wa veee cna 100 89.3 71.4 42.9. |. 0s dsiewen Ube eme ee taeeer ae fe
7 a i a eee een 100 91.9 73.0 A302 1. cn a wosceh | teen Beene ee eerie
SUPE ais cinleis tcibidie cing Ueie o:ele are 100 91.5 72.8 A i BBE se) Sono see joss
Ree eee un sob os ousce oan 100 91.1 73.2 46.4 [22 .0c.ceen| ceceneEee oleae ees
1 fg OREO, 100 92.3 75.4 46.2 |. 2.0. dec cel bene eee ee eee
en eto miace Sik sisiaje owes 100 92.0 74.7 46.7 |. 0. ccce neni eee tee eee er
Dre eee ie diver stesacevese'd 100 91.8 72.9 ATL |. 02k ee cen eee eee eel eee eee

BALSAM FIR. 43

Taste 24.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on swamp—Continued.

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches).
4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 50 60

50-foot trees.

4. So cman ie Cale ee GE eee 100 92.1 78.9 63.2

os He ee Ee eee eae 100 93.6 80.9 61.7

Oo sone Ree SEE Deas eeaee 100 93.0 17.2 59.6

Hocac cocoa peo OC e Boe Cree 100 93.9 78.8 59.1

Be ow ice ne Cee NE Eee 100 93.3 78.7 58.7

@) a at alels S sic CEE eae eae cree 100 91.8 77.6 57.6

1D sc eime ok SROC RAR Oe eee aee 100 91.5 Wet 57.4

1 so cte. PES SUC SCE SSE eee aera 100 92.2 Fale 57.3

WW che. note eine CBE CEE Eee 100 91.2 77.0 56.6

1B) AG ae neo See eS mee ese Ch ieee 100 91.0 76.2 56.6

60-foot trees.

Bop ne oe CU LGU R ESSE CHASE STeSse 100 94.7 82.5 66.7 47.4 DBGN eee seca
We oats c0e TOCE EOE Cee 100 93.9 81.8 66.7 47.0 QASIM SE cai vers
foie as epee eae seas SU atlas 100 93.4 81.6 65.8 46.1 Del ee eoeese
rs ry ates, Toya aS reins ay Sie 100 92.9 81.2 65.9 45.9 PB lays |e reyes sone
WO) Ue Ns Geet, epee eerste 100 93.6 80.9 66.0 45.7 DOWa || Be Silene ye
TW) Seeds GoM OR eEee eae ees 100 92.3 80.8 65.4 46.2 Dalia Val laos ate se
Whe 6 Gee See SE ereco ee Ts a eee ees 100 92.0 80.5 65.5 46.0 2309 Nhe Aenea
1G} s SiS GOse s SOCEM RUE ene ee ears 100 91.1 79.7 65.9 46.3 Payal esemece ce

70-foot trees.

Ont bocme antes Coe eRep epee eESoO 100 94.8 82.8 67.2 50.0 31.0 13.8
Woe bcecs sonal eeceae caceeueesce 100 94.0 83.6 68.7 52.2 32.8 16.4
Deeper secccpeceeseassmscecoes 100 94.7 82.9 69.7 52.6 35.5 igor
Descent cesoeeceveossceesuecesee 100 94.1 83.5 70.6 55.3 36.5 17.6
WO ec ooescete se cdepucepderecensac 100 93.7 83.2 70.5 54.7 37.9 18.9
Uo et acoceessccseceeensecosorcan 100 93.3 82.7 71.2 55.8 38.5 20.2
essa coneveh Coe aor ReneEeaceEaer 100 93.0 82.5 (flail 56.1 38.6 20.2
IS swe coesdesseuooeee cu AuesESoneE 100 ile) 82.3 71.0 56.5 39.5 21.0

TasBLE 25.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on swamp,
at different heights above the ground.

{Based on 341 trees. ]

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 10 20

-[alels

Diameter inside bark (inches).

20-foot trees.
DEP Re ee ree Let 8 a etl 1.8- GDS) | eee es rh a |e ces ean | ye el RT > ra Ae ieee
NE nen tise cl ae Le See PA DAO ig | pars eee aye Whe eas [pea ey ae (Ec ener
4, set de ce ee 3.7 PG ees Se Pee ake emene eae OPER ete Name aon’

| 30-foot trees.

> |

De odie SOO a aN | 1.9 1.6 ARON | eer eames 2 i 8 a ae
SO ee ae ere aie | 2.8 2.4 MEG RAS eee tesccerete shoe cee ae [Bere eee
dhe P Crate Re gerne One eae eae enn gS 3.7 3.2 Ore |i siete nes CLE US ooh ee heme ee
Bc ed eS SE Pe en ed 4.6 4.1 QUA ESB ee Se |Pters aoe Se | Nace eae ee loosecter Bae
OMe e eo. feces cans 5.6 4.9 poy 1 CAR are cd aS Urea ea IR ei uel ee ea
CP earns Gian eae eee | 6.5 5.8 BED Peralta ae] Sees ecto ts arte Stee eae

44 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 25.—Diameter inside bark, wn inches, of balsam. fir in. New York. on swamp,
at different heights above the ground—Continued.

Height above ground (feet).
Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60
Diameter inside bark (inches).
40-foot trees.
"ipl SE RNS SORE WR 8 Bye Bee ia 1.9 Hey 13 0.8
Saf ae ale RE Set pls am 2.8 2.5 2.0 AD
ve eee Seema ree Nis Spent | Senven 2 3.7 3.4 O24 1.6
RR REM STE CED age Ne ie 4.7 4.3 3.4 25
(Tih Sidon Tee cs Reh Sees the Sie eagriee 5.6 5.1 4.1 2.6
ip he terete 5. beteetees x3 Lely Besar Ta. 6.5 6.0 4.9 3.0
Ae Shia et ES Ae) 0a Ew op a | 7.5 6.9 5.6 3.5
LI aN Soe I Sy = Nhs ty) 8.5 7.8 6.2 4.0
50-foot. trees.
MDs a aidte Sing aia Das Dede eee 3.8 3.5 3.0 2.4 ER rae cate | rotcccister wie
ee ne Ne a ie Ban yen wed 4.7 4.4 3.8 2.9 LeDh [emma loses oie ws
Ee etal 0,8 cas pas ine, pt Se a ay rf 5533 4.4 3.4 U Depp jal faa ea al banc iol alte
(ae Serie S = Sapa ee a8 Rae ge 6.6 6.2 apy) 3.9 ENS eee eral eee ae ers
De nae ieee re ae eee Tat 7.0 5.9 4.4 DEO Ret ac eiser tee eis xc ok
tS EE aie pe iy wR Bete “Bate b 8.5 7.8 6.6 4.9 PASto | |Meat [ners a ea
1) = so gant tet aceiig ers Mee: mete nie. 9.4 8.6 758 5.4 J By |p ha a be ie aes
cit Ey See Oe 2 SSN Se oe eee 10.3 9.5 8.0 5.9, Bs Sell i ee A ees closes
14575 Se the Ss ORNS fone ee i 53 as} 10.3 8.7 6.4 Seed eae || es ai
[Ris en RRR eas eae Des ae PO Ce eerie 9.3 6.9 35 Ol apes GS IE Pha. |s
60-foot trees.
GES Pde Seach te A |e Sn te 5.7 5.4 4.7 3.8 PRY 1) ye rep ae as
cans Sees aed + a ee No wat 6.6 6.2 5.4 4.4 3.1 Listy eens gh aes
oS ee ance be Spt AMS a ee ont CSTD SR, 7.6 Gal 6.2 5.0 3.5 Weta Leeper ete
A es ag BS ap a a Ll on 8.5 7.9 6.9 5.6 3.9 7B cl ese ey sees
MU ee cee gt at Went eee 9.4 8.8 7.6 6.2 4.3 Deodleeaniecce 2.
ME es SS sce Meee 10.4 9.6 8.4 6.8 4.8 yO
eae SE ode ene ee 11.3 10. 4 9.1 7.4 5.2 DV ple aa Goeae
SSE econ vay Rte DT as 12.3 Thy 9.8 8.1 5.7 OARS ae meee
70-foot trees.
5.8 5.5 4.8 3.9 2.9 1.8 0.8
6.7 6.3 5.6 4.6 3.5 2a2 1.1
7.6 Ge2 6.3 5.3 4.0 207 1.3
8.5 8.0 (eat 6.0 4.7 3.1 1.5
9.5 8.9 7.9 6.7 5. 2 3.6 1.8
10.4 9.7 8.6 7.4 5.8 4.0 2.1
11.4 10.6 9.4 8.1 6.4 4.4 2.3
12. 4 11.4 10. 2 8.8 7.0 4.9 2.6

TaBLe 26.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat.
[Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.]

| Height above ground (feet).
Diameter breast high
(inches).
4.5 10 | 20 | 30 40 50 60 70

20-foot trees.

|
eee See oeialaets haan" 100 77. 8 | ese cae Doe pica oie, old | eo letatelelartew aio aise ais sie one eerie der
1 EE Ne op eS 100 2 BR) Bee na Rae ner moore oo mocion ingress
7 hg ee prs Tees ae er 100 Te oi ane Pm peemnnnn | eo imnameny Smee Sa te ae
See eee eee 100 78. 3 Lee en | Leeeeeceed| sactee vocal disntten onee DeReEReEee Meee eete ee

BALSAM FIR.

TABLE 26.— Taper of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat--Continued.

Diameter breast high
(inches).

Height above ground (feet).

4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30

40 | 50

30-foot trees.

100 84. 2 Allis GAR OSS 56 Oe MASE OM OE Bete cers Mel at ester anaes | PPOs Oe
100 89.3 ESHGP IES Seca cial Eee e eee eRe ro ce ie Cee see |esececsene
100 89. 5 (OG). wensceanel acesete tee Cesee Sees Heaeeete eS lneoasaacs
100 91.5 (TS SRS) es Me SE ae |e ea ee Eee eee pene LAE pte: a 2
100 91. 2 GPR) 2 SR a 9 A A ge a ge Iie aes ica Wee tal ee
100 92. 4 (SHO SOE see AALS een | Se Oe Ol eae eee faba
|

40-foot trees.
100 94.7 73.7
100 92. 9 75. 0
100 92.1 73. 7
100 91.7 75. 0
100 93. 0 75. 4
100 91.0 74. 6
100 92.1 76.3
100 91.9 75. 6
100 91.6 76. 8

50-foot trees.
100 93.9 81.6 65. 3 Pa tsi ial farses ee Stan PEN Sie areca FE nara
100 93. 1 81.0 63. 8 Bl Oil ees ass ea ee senate
100 94.0 80. 6 64. 2 CY PRGA espana esc eect aetis eres Banc Nhe Ee
100 93. 4 81. 6 64.5 SGRSA aches syste | as een nine eRe nna
100 91.9 80. 2 62. 8 BOS OR ees y eee te eee oe Re eee
100 92. 6 80. 0 63. 2 SOSH ese Pa ee ee A | eee
100 92. 3 79. 8 63. 5 BESO Sere Sone ee SOEE Cel Meenas Sa
100 92.1 78.9 63. 2 BAYS Pal eae bi Bie dl Ieee tech Soiege oy Wen eae ia,
100 91.9 79. 7 62. 6 BOSOM eS: Ce Ree silos See Ee Se

60-foot trees.
100 94.8 86. 2 72. 4 53. 4 PAT SCSG| Pee eae term cats | Perla see
100 95. 5 86. 6 71. 6 53. 7 DASSNC 3] [esc ies eae acel eens (are eee
100 93. 5 83. 1 70. 1 51.9 ORS ye esas apna 3 ak
100 94.2 83. 7 69. 8 51. 2 Da Si (s'| eee i in oid ely
100° 93. 7 83. 2 69. 5 50. 5 2630 a see a sell eee eee
100 93. 3 81.9 69. 5 50. 5 QO Tees eco | tea elo
100 93. 0 81. 6 69. 3 50. 0 ZG ES il eerste | Croany aa
100 92.7 82. 1 69. 1 49. 6 QB Ouse areas Pet wee
100 91.7 81. 2 68. 4 48.9 DDG ES So he Lite eee
100 91.5 81. 7 68. 3 48.6 Oe Mh Us cane eden | |S
100 91. 4 81.5 68. 2 49. 0 Ds | te Oe 8 er ALES

70-foot trees.
100 94.8 87.0 75.3 61. 0 42.9 2324 ieee ees
100 95. 3 86. 0 75. 6 60. 5 43. 0 DDE aes od he
100 94.7 85. 3 74. 7 60. 0 42.1 22 1G aaesare eS
100 93. 3 83. 8 74. 3 59. 0 41.0 QO eee sees
100 93. 9 84. 2 73 7/ 58. 8 40. 4 Plea bel eee eae
100 92. 7 83. 1 73. 4 58. 9 40. 3 DAIS VES herein es
100 92.5 82.7 72.9 58. 6 39.8 7) EE ees 82
100 92.3 82.5 2 7 58. 0 39.9 QOE S| Gees eee
100 92.1 82.9 73. 0 57.9 40.1 7 URC meio

80-foot trees.
100 95. 3 88. 4 80. 2 67. 4 Ph ai 34.9 16.3
100 94.7 87. 4 78.9 66. 3 51. 6 34.7 16. 8
100 94, 2 86. 5 _ 77.9 66. 3 51. 0 34. 6 WES
100 93. 9 85. 1 76. 3 64.9 50. 9 34. 2 7
100 93. 5 84.7 75. 8 64. 5 50. 0 34.7 17.7
100 93. 3 83. 6 75.4 63. 4 50. 0 34. 3 17.9
100 93. 0 83. 9 74.8 63. 6 50. 3 35. 0 18. 2
100 92.8 83. 0 74.5 63. 4 49.7 35. 3 18. 3

BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 27.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope
and flat, at different heights above the ground.

[Based on 1,109 trees.]

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter inside bark (inches).

20-foot trees.

Diameter breast high
(inches)

a Taichi ecm cen eA
a A :

A hate 21 ty eee |i een concn
(OPTS Der al}, SL cat ar eae a)
h Tite al ||| eco ncy eames
n et eel le, Beene beret otter Claes
Pine ee ‘ nepal
i a t :
erat Seaewetiae
aD 7
Ce '
etait ail ta a eee Cae Caen)
at treavenetsy We Wibeae oatlh | ae anctal gah Sntehes vs
Seas all) Ree bel te atene- on Ge cas
et Mae etn | mie ot ete Serer Tate weet Se
Gece k AP = be Decent nec ative
eta st Past Re eet so
ee etal |S Raat Me taene ecetcaeG 1
ie Gr Se ells eet ce ge RH roe
Tae? ee eel eCard US OG
rete Tee Le ewO EE Rta eer OM re
ohO Sor Titeal Lee eae at MAE -aie a er er i -C
CeCe OPR Teal PNM He tceo ey, cee
eae | ee lle creceiey Come
[Ate ko ee ole camea area ae o
ete eI cae te espace igiern
Tee tack tee oe | rae cat Yee tsar
Cota ih hye ila |t She Set any “tee te, ae
faite i ‘ 1
a cnen , 7
Se esc Tes | A ealicaed [tock rig aaa aieais ge Nee
Prien |Pe roan Pontews eke
lag Oo
Gettnt oe Scere gs hea
Cone Ae) oe ranarsigamaomen
F ccrtam het el hace shh (ike Mth eh cake
atta 2 na
boval a> ue? ea hed grb sete si ge
fet NG = ifent aiean he
a 5

14 Od ian ttm meal lara

as Eien hae eran ian

ioe We a be oo

Petar il Heernl adl Ree Stes Cyiaa Ce le 0

neg rel ieee ee om ed

eee ee ok sueecll(ee e'sfecremiear ee ty

eerie eS ily ee ered Cente

ta ee lene aad ald pees tue cite

abe Cse| |, b geaet| ae Bee neous o

noo 6 Pinedo min

Pei it il r rel Rs 72 Gato ath a

On Srna at

Aen

aan

Oo
HA DO in tones

mANNSD mt NOD “Hid 6

CO OOo lorie oe o} eye)

rN oD st mA oD Hid
’ ‘
Crain ois ce omy oe EG: iOcatesnaieraa)™ ge
ras a8 el ae RD ee as ape binvet an
ee ee a eT etic NOC Ome O
atl Gee a ge pet ile woe awNel te
AAS Cala Mae ee me Fee i be Oe ari ete ve
EANe NO ge ae ee Sug ers la, Ci ee
Te Pe on kee aslen neat oe
TLE i ee ee pis tie aha
Ce ee Fn! p Se erie et
MI loan kD eee SOR ALN heel
On Shc sp em eerie a aT y wae fe
isi} 1a ESE Retain tient
ie pricey. ee fe ein era ae
ie eee ON Terie ates
ae '

Deh i, re were are
‘ . .

No9 tap

40-foot trees.

CORY se rere rere t= Fie
Mo afi ce a ete Tem
Detect sce ten rh reo
Cech et lietrcumer rt ce to
Ch oP ie oth ce
Cafe Otel ttre OS OO

One mae Sh en
Ont ecKu ceo yum 0
WMiny Wy te tent, weet ay:
POG an) Ish Caen

Va ae Gaal SaLmeCe aT
ot 61) esha ohy amon ad mata
Ot eh ae Ao
Ueis ei cose Te ot 6

To Woy oo Oo C
OG O90 Ooi a 6

Othe te ae ft
gauss
ee aU ated) athe oC
CT) RES eR COP eC
CN eA sheet oth

Sn TANN OO HH

Hr DO © 0019 OD

MAN OD H19 19 Ok

“Moi tndontt

TAN OD HID SOL I~ OO

‘2? 00 00 CO I- OO1D

(puis a) OO BG
Ct Gee Coe
(oth TO i DG
CHUL air tho Kener he ot Tue Dasel Hee
Oo harsh G0 te

ote O Get ty 3
0-0 D2 YP Boo fe a 6
OT) tee) te or Os cr
(ete Hope Os

othe both oO or oS
Of Fr tithe te Oe
O° tetera 6
ey Coen ao O ag
O tad oo ap ke GG
O° 026 Tee Oa 8

On UO Pere 4

50-foot trees.

mA NI 6D OD oD SH SH

AM~MDAHOONE

OD CF SH SHAD CO COE

Sh HANDOMOO

tan OOM DAD

SO HOD 4 S200 19 OD

1d Ole ke ORDO
nae

DH CO © cig HH oD

see

60-foot trees.

MANNA N OD OD 09 09 OD

AOCOMMOMI FINO

00 OD SH SH Hid 1d OO COE

ADAMOOMAIOAE

Ht OOP ODAODS
=

SHHNAOMHOOOD
IDIBSHNABSSHA
Se I oon Boe ef

INWATADDHNS CO
IDS ADASANS ODS
Se BE oe De oe |

OrroinintenAd
IGSMOASHA SS Hus
SASS Set

Chak as Toa EM Ce a 1D

be 6 so Sen See
Wark Vane Fee! Ciel To” lines Vi) Dues fen te
y os te oC Ne eh,
1 Ds ot Ua oe) aN
2 RaW ee) US Nas On
Pie bee we hy mel Yoms eWay 1
Be we eis ee OL RS SR

BALSAM FIR. 47

TaBLy 27.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope
and flat, at different heights above the ground—Continued.

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter breast high
(inches). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70

70-foot trees.

Wall 1.3 6.7 5.8 4.7 3.3 D8 geste
8.6 8.2 7.4 6.5 5.2 3.7 UA a een ete ca
9.5 9.0 8.1 Coal, 5.7 4.0 2.1
10.5 9.8 8.8 7.8 6.2 4.3 2.2
11.4 10.7 9.6 8.4 6.7 4.6 2.4}.
12.4 11.5 10.3 9.1 7.3 5.0 2.6 |.
13.3 12.3 11.0 9.7 7.8 5.3 2.8
14.3 13.2 11.8 10. 4 8.3 5.7 2 ae age see
15.2 14.0 12.6 11.1 8.8 6.1 Gy eS aaaaricas
80-foot trees.
8.6 8.2 7.6 6.9 5.8 4.5 3.0 1.4
9.5 9.0 8.3 7.5 6.3 4.9 3.3 1.6
10.4 9.8 9.0 8.1 6.9 5.3 3.6 1.8
11.4 10.7 9.7 8.7 74 5.8 3.9 2.0
12.4 11.6 10.5 9.4 8.0 6. 2 4.3 2.2
13.4 12.5 11.2 10.1 8.5 6.7 4.6 2.4
14.3 13.3 12.0 10.7 9.1 7.2 5.0 2.6
15.3 14.2 12.7 11.4 57 7.6 5.4 2.8
TaBLE 28.—Taper of balsam fir in Maine.
[Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.]
Height above ground (feet).
Diameter breast high
(inches).
4.5 10 20 | 30 40 50 60 70 80
40-foot trees.
OHiosSsonanseneae Resi a yee 100 94. 7 80. 7 DOE ese cella, 2.5) sheletall iseevacesis rail eteteai sera eee
CotiGOCR OEE SCC OCT Ee 100 91.0 77.6 EO CAN ele al pS SE [apts Seat ee egal aya
Berle ery events loin csi elatim\or sjake 100 90.8 76.3 COS Val RO eaeaoe lacaeaeer eaemeaal earner ncate see
0) 50 Soda den caeeAsee ee E seas 100 90. 6 76.5 MOT Aylin cae eel eects ulster scine! eam aa le eterna
MO eins iseicleie suninveie aicre inns eae 100 89. 5 74.7 CGY eee naioa ere cette Rae moma ane apaloepaeties
50-foot trees.
Gerataycistnicver sieicineisieilercisisieya) siete 100 94.7 82.5 64.9 SONS eee See eee eae te Sees
USS Sa CaSO RCO Oe Ee eer tree 100 92.5 80.6 64. 2 BT ertedl ae Sic Renee Reece SEaeacer
Sere tereerre eeasatsiarctaleiticis, isratsveisre 100 92.1 80.3 64.5 Cet eew esol loosen une Geareeaa Meacenose
Opp de cecuob tase SoBe Baee eae 100 91.8 81. 2 63.5 Ria OU aes teed emer ere bh reeled a eal lery
NOM ee oeneo see eee se 100 91.6 80. 0 64. 2 Chest estes ers (en at i epee ses! tia eto
Ue ek isc hee eee Gee 100 91.3 79.8 63. 5 BL eG dl Bempenael anecreel GEaraoeel sceaceee
La eee ieactae ee Seciie aisle, hos 100 92.0 80. 5 63.7 Foto Fats) | (RES S| Eee aae [eis eH net at
60-foot trees.
O. o Dade DOURORA AOOSOOnS EAC 100 94.8 86. 2 75.9 56. 9 S208) lvcthewa ce [AG2 Bee mnilleis Somers
Upper sete oie josie raratsie aie 100 94.0 85. 1 74.6 56. 7 BY-Atsit Go paeeen seesoder lanoceBe
Bera ester sisicloe ane sieiisitele ce 100 94.7 85. 5 73.7 55.3 GEG Papadera|bascoaccllaabcace «
On. adde Sone een ene 100 93.0 83.7 72.1 54.7 Bie ol Secor beaaeenalacactoss
WCE SSSA decent saan Sens oer 100 92.6 83. 2 71.6 54.7 SOUS Aas we ets eter ey ae es
Re eae ass Sein erie sito eiecee seme 100 93.3 82.7 71.2 53.8 Gl bran menace Peamacon lseemorta
4 CBRE CARE ee eee a eee 100 92.1 81.6 69.3 52.6 PRS BEE Bas Ee eBpEce ISaaasacre
Serer craete ste srcrate Ra ieehe ile ore oa ais 100 91.9 80.5 68.3 52.0 7A el ated Mace ine amare
Ua ee ere Rey Rete eieicie eee bate he 100 91.7 79.5} | 67.4 52.3 PAS ae Iheatazes tel leeieceaRe al ene ya

48 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 28.—Taper of balsam fir in Maine—Continued.

Height above ground (feet).

sage mo high
~ (inches).
| 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40

so | o | wo | m

70-foot trees.
100 96.1 89.5 80.3 68. 4 48.7 PAROS trent &| ae
100 94.2 87.2 77.9 65.1 47.7 1 Aa Ee ann ay eee
100 94.7 86.3 76.8 64.2 47.4 2. CH, elope] Bs See
100 93.3 84.8 73.2 62.9 46.7 7) ES | le eal |
100 93.0 84.2 74.6 62.3 45.6 DAV GMS 3 sole ec cle
100 92.7 83.7 74.0 61.8 44.7 2a An ee ee ae
100 92.5 82.7 72.9 60.9 43:6 78a SE eS) eee SLES
100 92.3 81.7 71.8 59.9 43.0 OP Bilis race atone ek
100 92.1 80.8 70.9 59.6 42.4 PLES ee eee aan eene eee Se
80-foot trees.
100 97.4 92.1 84.2 72.4 57.9 40.8
100 95.3 89.5 82.6 70.9 57.0 39.5
100 94.7 88. 4 81.1 69.5 56.8 38.9
100 94.3 | 86.7 79.0 68.6 Done 38.1
100 93.0 | 86.1 78.3 67.8 54.8 37.4
100 93.5 85.5 77.4 67.7 54.8 sy eu
100 93. 2 85.7 77.4 68.4 54.1 36.8
100 93.0 84.6 76.9 67.8 53.8 37.1
100 | 92.8; 84.2 77.0 67.8 53.9 36.8
ay
2 90-foot trees.
ADS re Sie oe ret eee ees cee 100 94.8 88.5 80. 2 69.8 58.3 42.7 26.0 11.5
LU bs Ree eae er Pee 100 95.2 88. 6 81.0 71.4 59.0 43.8 27.6 12.4
1 eR ee es ais 100 94.7 88.6 80.7 72.8 60.5 45.6 28.9 1322
5 BE Oo See eee eee 100 94.4 87.9 80.6 72.6 61.3 46.0 29.8 13.7
8 hn ate Se oo a OEE SS 100 94.0 87.3 80.6 73.1 61.9 47.0 29.9 14.9
Bes ee se ee 2. oe 100 93.8 86.8 80.6 73.6 62.5 47.9 30. 6 14.6
AGS ae Seoeas 2S oe: ee ee 100 93.4 | 86.9 81.0 74.5 63. 4 49.0 32.0 ibys
|

Tasie 29.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in Maine, at different heights
above the ground.

[Based on 885 trees.]
Height above ground (feet).
Dee breast high 45 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Diameter inside bark (inches).
40-foot trees. r
ete EB SR I ie coe Se | 5.7 5.4 4.6 2.9.4e.... cee OS eee eeee eel amemeeoli ets ace
o AS ip yee See eee EE ONS Bete 6.7 6.1 5.2 Boks. 24 See Poe ease Aamo cies = oes
Bt Se Seti Jn ASN ENS 7.6 6.9 5.8 S284) 5.5 achat mes ence ee a eleTe ee eeaibeee eer.
De he ae ee Seah 8.5 bh 6.5 yA teenies | ee ee Ae oe o> ene ee
eae. eee ae set oe 9.5 8.5 pel 7 fe Weegee | Ce rat pu = | 2 Seve? | eee | Creare
|
) 50-foot trees.
oe Ae a eT ee eee By 5.4 4.7 3.7 Qo... Aes cele epee eel eiaeiete ered Senereeene
oD Leal foe Rakin ee aimee te 6.7 6.2 5.4 4.3 23M) Ils wn cw cod lee rm pee Saeed ere estar
ae eee sae ie Union ae Sia 7.6 7.0 6.1 4.9 268: o. a awenl pee eet nl CeeaEEEe Jnveeeeee
ee er Ss re eta 8.5 7.8 6.9 5.4 ey Te en Re eee) RE I et
Wires See ga 9.5 8.7 7.6 6.1 rt ee ee a a leaitacdH
Re ese Ie ae caee as ae 10.4 9.5 8.3 6.6 | Yh Ot es, ie EE eet
Me ee eo m3) od} 81) 72) 45 Poe posse fies | bec

BALSAM FIR.

TABLE 29.—Duiameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir, in Maine, at different heights
above the ground—Continued.

Height above ground (feet).

Diameter inside bark (inches).

60-foot trees.

Diameter breast high
(inches)

Ow wv wr o 0 yO
Dt 0 Ta an
Oop ob 0 On eu
Of 0 O Ho bea oO
i G0 Df @-0-0 829
mo SO oo a G
G eo Oo wor glo d
O00 0 Oo vi 600
ee Ce ne ee CT
Ooh oo oO 2 Wo
nf oO U GO nN OF Oo D
nm o 0 0 o op Aon
GN Oo wo a oD
TO Oa ty Ge ttro
yO Go Mote 0
moO 0. tee oa
rey 0 0 % DG bsp
oo 0 0 0 Oboe Oo
Non. OVER eth Sous
Oo 0 0.0 0 0 (a a
Cif paaeAD puis) petceetie Cac
(hese te Oe. Oo Uiett 20

HANAN I 09 69 0 OD

MONr-ANOCOSHD

OD oD SH SH A 19 6 OO

HOONOMAH HH

HD 19 SO b= E00 00

SOM1IDN DOO O10

POEL I Coenen)

1D OO © OO P10 OO 4
IDSrOHDASHA
an

Or Ooint to

Soe Eh oo Eo |

70-foot trees.

G9 0- Do hi) “8-0 Deo
ooo 0 GO & O uO
Yo G70 Ho 0 GU
uo Oo An 0 OF fo
o- 7% 0 0 WN O° A apo
(PE A=aGe sO: Uae cree ot
WR Ce RO ay eat CUAL
fu. oo Oo Oe Os
600 0 00 0 u a

( O-0 OG 2 0 Ou
o ved Osho nooo
ooo OO GO tf O od
A 0 oe
MMINOOMOAN OD

ANNAN AN 0 OD OD

R419 DOI CO i oH

OD SH OSH SH ad 19 19 6 SO

NOM OAOn10 ©

1D 19 CO CO b= + 00 CO OD

AMOI AL

OO ORMDOO
nae

DWANUDOMOON

Or~-WORSnnN
monn

MAOWOHODH
KAAASHAMOD
mniner

bs oO oe Bn ea

80-foot trees.

the Ose Mos =U a0? SD Ta) vO
bo WY om Oo ng
S08 Che AP se trenDe Oy 8
0 2 oe 0 U0 1 00
Ci yUh nserCh athe eth ier ath fit
oo 6 vb ay Oa 8
pte DUS Ge oe poids 6

MARR NNNNN

mtr OMOM MO
oT GG Littl ap elas

OD OD OD SH SH SH Hig ad

Ho HOOMD CONS AN

HSH 19 10 6 COE E00

IN HCO NOOO Hr OD

MED}EO RCO) E-s Es 00 191 C3)

HH MOOMoOr
SHrosascin
Se hon heal

On HHO H oO
ReOBSSHAN
be Fh noon Eh on

HANCMORONMH
MOBASHAG
Be Ih on OO oe On aE

O19 19 19 HOD OD OT

Se ae

hu UD Ul neo o
ooo oO 0 & Poo a
Hog 0 wo oh fe Oo) o
Yoo oOo Ff Oo hoo a
G0) So fe a oe
Gi Peo tte oo oe. o
Oo a ot 0 8s oe iG
otha Th ee hh 5
ou oo fn ff Ww wed
V0. Co erin: 85
bo 6 0B eno
0 Gs 0 0 W fet 6
bof 0 00) Dr te oD

(mC Ga Lae Tene)
boo Oo 0 OO u Oo °8
Woo oo OG Om
acd. Meh 40h Othe nO
ro woo of oo 8 GO
ro oo Oo Deo 1
(eetntm O> eOh tah sethes Chaat
G00 p Oo 8 ) O-O
G-0 0 0 0 -@ oy 6 co
Goo we 0 F&O

Coo o ob ooo DO -o oO

Oto? ae a. WO i ea wt)
ote ett Oa ces Dearth

90-foot trees.

MH SH 1 6 SO

WONDOMOMr

ID CO Ob COD

19 09 © 00 OH

OIr~OWRWROR
no

MinNonoost
KOSaSSoHA
Sh oe on

1D OD rH OD B= 19 OD

Se oes Oh oe Bo Bo

Gola oon Abad O
A oo0 0. th Ou
con OF tf a0
OO 0 Nt a 6
Co 0 0 oO ea
0.0 0 Wo oO
0 0 0/0 oOo 0
roo 0 0 oo DD
oo ua 0 OG 0
gogo nf oo 9

no tf ou fu
fon 0 a Sooo
Chua) COC st Le oct

OO Mh na a
WO G4 aud
Ho Go
oo OG oO we do
Ga) Go (Oo
Oo & Gu ot oO
OO 0 Dead Te 9G

CUBIC FOOT VOLUME.

Tables 30 to 32 give the merchantable volume of trees of different

diameters and heights

to a top-

ing

de the bark in cubic feet, cutt

diameter limit of 4 inches in Maine and New York and to 6 inches in

New Hampshire.

insi

50 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE 30.— Merchantable volume of balsam fir in New York, in cubic feet inside the bark,
on basis of diameter and height.

[Average top diameter, 4 inches; based on 947 trees.]

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 1 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Merchantable volume (cubic feet).-
GR eee Be ota Be ee net Sine oe crete 3.5 BON Oss sc ae eee Pee eee oniscish
Mis Gio aces See es cists cts Bede oa eee ee Se eee anes tore 4.5 bal DA0U | Reseriee ol peecn ck se
REM ea)! adda LACE oe wees geet ays Oe ey rae en | 5.9 6.8 8.0 C1 [same ane
ta Siege ete aaa anes ar en Sk oR ay ea Se NA a Ce 7.6 8.9 10. 4 On eee ee
NORE tee eee he oar eaten atk copreicc- aoe ots oe gee ers a A 11.2 13.0 14.8 16.6
De eo re etetera aye aictos Wise oks Sie ie eis SI Se SI Se ee tos Se ae 13.6 15.6 17.6 19.8
1 DS Se Se nee Sn nO Se eee ESS SAE E NL oy doo So 256 18.3 20.9 23.6
DS yarns Ste cociarn ole Ses Sie ees Se Rpts wets ae aie ec che ie an EL a ee ey ae | ee ee 21.1 24.5 27.7
A ee ee ee ee er en Sa eer hy (Arenas A sere Soc] cima cicia 7S 28.4 32.2
Leas Seen IaEenO nr See Soneaaa So Seem aL eacoeeEmea lS cee seca bemos acc sakicdacosoce 32.9 37.5
WG see aes. ose c.caiete soe sce ee seine wie oe eat emcee albeeese cel tee ener | Seer meee 37.8 43.2

TaBLE 31.— Merchantable- volume of balsam fir in. Maine, in cubic feet inside the bark,
on basis of diameter and height.

[Average top diameter, 4 inches; based on 330 trees. ]
Height of tree (feet).
Diameter breast high’ (inches). 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90
Merchantable volume (cubic feet).
ea a: Rey me MRR a, FAR een Wenn Oat Asey Re ae ole Weal 9.3 10.7 aED4 acer tee
gi tatens = tlie ate ieee FS. ad seace a Se seas 9.4 11.3 13.1 OO) ae ae
Ue ee epi eer res See Degas eS Is Bet eS ea 11.3 13.7 15.9 TS lt ee eee
To oe ene eee Poe ae saan ics ioe noms Se ere ey 18}555 16.4 19.1 21.6 6
De ee ee ane oat pete bose apa eg/ Sheena yes Dee ee tne | Galen eee 19.4 22.4 25.4 PHT
Se ey oe a ENS Set ED Vc ee ae J 22.9 26.1 29.4 32.4
4 ee snow eas Lis Sei cncid CSR ee ee estas 5 ate | ee oe ae | Oe eee ae See oe 34.0 37.8
1 ae eee ee Pl er een meen he mee ye Pet. Lalo desbosos 39.0 44,1

TasLeE 32.—Merchantable volume of balsam fir in Grafton County, N. H., in cubic fect
inside the bark, on basis of diameter and height.

[Top diameter, 6 inches.]

Height of tree (feet).
Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60

Merchantable volume
(cubic feet).

UME SPM PESO Bn 25g Ee DOOBOC AAG: + SPROEHRC Ce ebOl ste Sab. Schabos sce Iooe sc 1.9 Qed Peres.
le eee ee Eee BOO OAC A SOUS pa: - ABR SAE RAS OpeR ee a5. ce ctacasoras 3.9 4.4 5.0
LE Eo Ghana EO OE 0 UTEIIC 37 Ae SUPE JOEEUO BE SIC ACO C SAIS EIS 16 vccIIt 5 6.0 6.8 7.8
UC SEE SEO: SEP ER ee ACU ORE En: - SERRE eeertncne Nahe SE OME Shab. 8.3 9.5 10.9
OEE eben! Ae Oe en ENG... GRRE Ea ae eer ei ticm net ann Lisobmmcsoace 10.8 12.3 14.2
i le oe EOE Be Spee OOP OLE SUdIO eS eOE ae ASB Ione tossoc ls occceeaecacacee 13.5 15.3 17.6.
eee octane ieee Pralels Paid siecle wine welais,tis «n\niaa sn th oplbslclets tenis =, eer aee eels See ere ee ee 18.5 21.2
1 Cele Aeon ane Dy Rane) ae See aren eh ommer ie aMerecnnwosSdc| JA. scoot S 23.7 25.0
ES UR AD eet tae De EOE See CIES] ope AMear 4 eee a aeon Speen ICS EeBE Acsaercerso:ccs sellecrc acc tee 28.8
MD Me tatioss cite laisiora aie cgintwinso oforwiv'ai@ Giara/Sjereloatele = «isto Ber = sist wale) «1 cate See’ oat eee steerer | er rr 32.9

BALSAM FIR. 51
CORD VOLUMES.

Tables 33 to 35 give the merchantable volume of trees of different
diameters and heights, in cords, for New York, Maine, and New
Hampshire. Table 36 gives the number of trees of different heights
and diameters per cord for Maine and New York.

In New Hampshire the top diameter is 6 inches and in New York
and Maine 4 inches.

Taste 33.—Total volume of balsam fir in Maine and New York, in cords, of trees of
different diameters and heights.

[Based on 2,171 trees.]

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Cords per tree.
By eee ae es ee ee 0. 005 OS008), | ek ses Soo S| Be Rees ie eee, Paes eee | iy is BO gu £9
ile co Des SRO parent See eae 009 . 016 ORO 22 is cacecan Seem omcies| Aa setae eyecile eee ee
Bosc oie See ee ee 016 024 033 OX042" | inch eg eal! ely! evens. kee
ee ap ne yall] Seren miwis OS 034 045 - 057 QROGS!:| sees ooeoere |see eee
eckson oe dec RE EO ee Dee 045 060 - 075 - 089 O81053 | eae
Seeeeeeier yt Mi aie FL kde Wo. oldawaaee <x 078 . 096 -114 137 0. 168
OB). el SESS SE LS ACT eee ae a ee (aa | (Eee ee 099 119 . 142 171 203
Wie es be weenie BeOS EOE ae a Ee PSA ern as) estates em 121 146 aie 204 240
Mee poeede pent SSE SR Ce Ree REO bee ee Ie eee aera 146 178 - 206 . 241 278
oe tee oe ae a sal ence Sacral boeee Seales oaeees 213 . 244 - 281 320
ee eee a aie as heen paces Aisa cee ees aeeltene sale 284 - 324 368
ee eee ese ete tn amore ieee araleme cic oar teense oomalcee none see . 366 419

TasiE 34.— Merchantable volume of bulsam fir in Grafton County, N. H., in cords, of
trees of different diameters and heights.

Top diameter, 6 inches. ]

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60

Cords per tree.

OMe ree a Seen eka Sod soe seme etioccmlswses tone Pa asepece cers. 0.019 05022)|s2eoaee ee
Tl somes don sdeegee OS BOC ae eee ee Ce ed TE Pe eo es 040 - 045 0.052
ee ee Sore em ehh fab ioiehs Sapo a Mote eidiata Ge smeeeemee neice Mes 062 -071 081
ene ys a Seis sein Sa ease [ebay e dose aweiosaca~ Mot oeygasienscs 086 -099 - 113
ee ey: Sat eceya ast: ery ANS Preeti Aye BARRE NY) 2 Seas ee 112 . 128 . 148
WL ave, Geyer eS SRS RSIS Ses aS Se ae SA rN a 140 - 159 - 184
DOME ree ert Ne et A aes Sc) eye lye cutee cae nn eee Bam a oe Pee ee ole Se a lad ce aate . 192 - 221
1S). pa coed des CORDS RSE IEE Oe ee OEE POE Ne eee ne Ree ry Ge eae ere a Reena ete 247 - 260
NR es resent eee ere a aos cain Se A ee eee erase ste Sis a esreatal oe seaistersrere - 300
ET as eo re 2) he are octane ee Slee Se slow aie oy mec ME SOUS mists’ opiates | Sie wie we Sarl bee sind Sates 342

52 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE...

TABLE 35.—Number of trees per cord of balsam fir in Maine and New York.

[Based on 2,171 trees.]
Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 20 | 30 | 40 50

60 | 70 | 80

Trees per cord.

iad

erSnanss
COW COAT ND WO
PAs sah

Table 36, based on actual measurements of over 73 cords, gives the
relation Ea number of trees, number of sticks, ie the solid
contents of a stacked cord.

TABLE 36.—Relation between number of trees, number of sticks, and solid contents of a
stacked cord.

[Based on 56.6 cords.]

Average Average Average Average
Average number of | number of number of Average number of | number of number of
trees per cord. 4foot sticks cubic feet trees per cord. 4foot sticks | cubic feet
per cord. per cord. per cord. per cord.
9.0 85.3 89.72 7.0 65.7 94.56
8.6 74.8 95.79 7.9 72.8 92.22
8.2 74.9 96.06 7.3 71.6 94.64
oft 63.6 85.62 9.6 87.5 95. 84
9.9 83.7 95.84

If the middle diameter of the average 4-foot sticks in a stacked
cord of wood is known, the solid contents of the cord can be readily
ascertained, as it varies with the middle diameter of the average
stick in the following manner:

TaBLe 37.—Relation between solid contents of a stacked cord and middle diameter of
average slick.

areas
iameter

= Cubic feet
of pe rita per cord.

(inches).

00 00 ~I~I1D
anonon
ve}
=

BALSAM FIR. 53

CONVERTING FACTORS OF STACKED MEASURE INTO CUBIC FEET.

The following factors can be used for converting stacked measure
into cubic measure:

For cords made up of billets 4 feet long and from 4 to 7 inches in
diameter, 0.72.

For cords made up of billets 4 feet long and from 8 to 12 inches in
diameter, 0.76.

In order to convert a cord of ordinary pulpwood into cubic measure,
128 feet should be multiplied by 0.74, the average converting factor
for pulpwood.

FORM FACTORS.

Tables 38 and 39 give breast-high form factors for Maine and for

New York.

TaBLeE 38.—Form factors (breast high) for New York.

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 20 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Form factor.
@ hewess eons GENE SOeeE aos Eee 0. 552 CO Yaa | Dt el eR a SD IS a A oe oss
Ae ep itaeereelaieyeveie ne ais neinelcicic e's 547 - 046 ODA Gil eets ah lets wal Samy a cae atc ko LU op
DCSE A Be Gnaob eS C eee eee Ce eee 542 541 541 COB 2) ere et escort | eres eres) [ev ene agra
Sete va eter (are oct jel oke resaterays Sparcrel| ewrwrerateiarerss 535 534 533 0.530 (VERE Wesbbaesess
Usosdac does Sod CCE Se DEE AER) (Hea aie 529 527 525 - 022 - 520 0.518
Se ee eee Mr ao LMR SUE ls a Sisaieesiee 519 516 .514 -Ol2 510
see Bis chs ERS RE EN CRS CREEL ER | (05 IES Can | nel ene | oon 507 - 505 - 503 501
Wu ceee Soa S OU UE SOs Ue es es peer] (eene ae (one 498 496 - 494 492
TU SB MEHR Oe Bierce laine See pair. [2 et eau | eee (Eee eS Eg 488 486 - 484 ' 483
TA aim pda SO HCCI EDIT TE CHEER a1 ear ee eae ees) ge | Ree Ce a 475 -474 473
US eho SL SOS Cres Ces are ai a eT i Rae et (ks Sgr (eget Jere aa 465 - 464 463
TS ro SNe eee Chet eS RUINS CIe cy CUTE aEnEG egal DOR Sane ee RTs an AR 454 - 454 453
TE sey Gs coche el Oe NE ale CHS BTS EIS) EN LITE a ag a TE 0 aes Le ace Sn oY 445 444 444
Me soc doen COCO CIGE ti eICTE Cen ERIS e eee) [ae ae ale (eee iat Pe ete te 436 - 435 435

TaBLE 39.—Form factors (breast high) for Maine.

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80

Form factor.

Tecdte 25 6 APS CROCE ROBE CE ORE TIS TEE ene ea ys ae 0.531 0.539 0. 546 (Ob GHB) Ilecctosccas

Sena ees erainisisicissicta sirisiusis letersi tee e/ecie oetste Shine S -517 «525 dol 541 0.549

es 5 te hs yl tI i ee Cen 502 510 -519 528 537
TO Sis here Ges SVAN es ee EU ye aU PE rg Pe I A 484 504 515 525
Foe eo SAG DHE OEE Ie Giese Iie Seta A Renn ea area Pate] TRE Sey EES 478 - 490 - 501 512
I es ctecid so G GMO AOC ESTs SPE Cie ete Ua aie aes ese Marian rege goer (ee eRe +475 - 488 500
1B) jai iSO OCIS RSE TERE Te eR ara a are Ua he eo (RS ees 460 474 487
Ib Saba dGaedae COREE CE OP eRe se ets rete Sam ROHR, tas ni reab Na INS mee) gre ae OR aD 444 - 459 473
Ie CSB AAR S HEE Ue CASIO ISIE HITE TEE IHS eis sees uElia asl ie ire ey [Se sa 428 - 444 459
TO ecdanl dak dle SOU Ses ME gece HEI EPEC Hae IEICS eanaran gel | oe a (RD ace 412 - 430 445

BARK VOLUMES.

Table 40 gives the volume of bark of trees of different diameters
and heights. On the whole, bark makes mp about 10.6 per cent of
the total volume of the tree.

54 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 40.— Volume of bark for trees of different diameters and heights in Maine.

Height of tree (feet).
Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80
Volume of bark (cubic feet).
ee eee yee regs Sivek 2 2s ees ath Nn a eee AES pg dean) 0.6 0.7 0.9 HEC) SER ee
Tey Re RS Or DE An Cn ee SS ee en silt 9 eal 1.3 1EY3)
ee Oe eR PENA Se OF OR RAE ELS POA ee en ed 9 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9
Le eet, SS We Ae aed ep ae SENT Rae Fee tetas Sen SB |S GB 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3
Me See a SS Se AL Se eS = aed Rae a RN Se eg Rg 1.6 1.9 7463 Dat
OR Res SIE en a ee ae Gn Ee ee Rae Oro See AG EUR AIS Alo a 22 2.7 ahi
(RY = ae ee eee SA eae RE Ar oe wate ell A eS ee oe 205 al 3.6
PAS Se We EEE ee Bree OE Ee Us Oe SIL Ree em me ae | Se | 2.8 3.4 4.0
Deere tee Oe ee Pi aE NB ONG SO ha AS SR oe fol A e r 3.2 3.8 4.5
LTR Set ae A Ree Se SEES HA, Se Red SEA ae Pee ela LE ress SEI eh ate Sa 3.5 4.2 5.0

BOARD-FOOT VOLUMES.

Tables 41 and 42 give the merchantable volume in board feet
(Scribner, Dimick, Maine, and Bangor rules) for trees of different
diameters and heights.

TaBLeE 41.— Volume of trees of different diameters and heights—Scribner Decimal C and
Dimick rules.

[ Based on taper curves, scaled: as § and 16 foot logs. Stump height assumed, 1 foot.]

SCRIBNER DECIMAL C.

Swamp. Hardwood slope and flat.
: e ; Height of tree (feet). Wisk Height of tree (feet). are
Diameter breast high Sine ae
(inches). | sate | eves

. : s inside } E S inside

40 50 60 70 inal 40 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Teale

Seen RIN MARTA Gi. aa peretes
inc ; c 5

Volume (board feet). ( és) Volume (board feet). ates)

|
5.8 13 19 Pe rae ee | Se 5.8
5.9 21 26 33 fC) [ee 5.9
6.1 29 34 41 48 56 6.0
6.2 38 45 52 60 70 6.1
O:4hle eae 56 65 7. 86 6.2
6260 Gene 69 80 92 107 6.3
6.8) Ss2eee 82 95} ill 130 6.4
i111 132 155 6.4
127 153 182 6.5
144 | 174 209 6.6
DIMICK.
Volume standards. Volume standards.

(LSA ME ORL RRS ih a 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.15 5. 8.| OVlL MOs18s 04155) Saeed beeeenee 5.8
ly ee ee fee 3 eee ROD Sip ae 13 15 18 aAl 5.9 .15 -18 2) | O24 Seeeence 5.9
EE 6 ee ey 17 201) 24s le 528 609 23)\|, 028)! «aioe 0.39 6.0
LTD Sees Oy pane one a ae Seema Mais, SA 26 -ol . 36 6.2 . 24 29 35 41 - 48 6.1
LN IS i Ev een Sea [esniae s02)| 200.) «Ad 6545 he eore 36 43 | .50 .58 6.2
Ao ee ee ee renters Al ease 38 . 46 .59 B56Al soos 44 51 .59 . 68 6.3
Re Ne as tater aia ell ee ae ie .44 .54 rid G28: [Poser 52 . 60 70 . 81 6.4
| .94 6.4
1.09 6.5
1.25 6.6

BALSAM FIR.

TABLE 42.— Volume of trees of different diameters and heights—Bangor and Maine rules.

BANGOR RULE.!

Height of tree (feet).

Diameter

inside

Diameter breast high (inches). 40 50 60 70 | 80 | 90 Rane of

0
(inches).
Volume (board feet).
SBC RCRS He oe ere nee aces 5.9
50 G4; aes 6.2
62 They Me eet ea 6.4
76 93 109 6.6
94 110 129 6.8
113 132 154 7.0
135 160 185 tell
159 191 223 1.2
186 226 268 ite
215 262 317 | 7.4
MAINE RULE.2

eee eae Sujata a eisik 15 21 Dt aac ees ag sys cel eign ea 5.9
Cee eee ee nse looses lee. 24 32 40 50 GONE eeeeersee 6.0
Q). eee eee Cae ee ee 34 44 54 65 | (A ye Oe 6.1
LO. ces ctace a ae eee 46 57 69 81 94 106 | 6.2
Nip ene Ssh Sel bh Su Seiee cite 71 85 99 114 129 6.2
eee SN PNM ee s|eciececece 86 102 120 138 157 6.2
Le ee oe ae ese ie tec elk | uke es ocied te eeeeeees 121 143 167 193 6.3
ida ae tn co den uESE SS Co ee oe [oes Oana een ae a 140 166 200 236 6.3
Woe ese seca stees Coe Oe See Sete eee eer (er Eee ee mee pee 191 236 283 | 6.3
Ue cotien Sec eee Boe BEES E Cee] EERE SCE Sri MRepiarie ts = rsr] [5 emanates 215 271 333 6.4

1 Based on taper curves, scaled as 16-foot logs.

2 Based on taper curves, scaled as 8 and 16 foot logs.

Stump height assumed, 1 foot.

RATIO BETWEEN BOARD AND CUBIC MEASURE.

Table 48 gives the ratio between board measure (Maine rule) and

cubic feet.

TaBLeE 43.—Ratio between board measure (Maine rule) and cubic feet (merchantable
contents).

[Based on 330 trees.]

: Diameter | Board feet || Diameter | Board feet
breast high | per cubic || breasthigh| per cubic |
(inches). foot. (inches). foot. |
7 3.0 12 Saat
8 3.2 13 3.4
9 3.3 14 3.5
10 3.3 15 3.5
11 3.4 16 3.5

56 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CLEAR LENGTH AND USED LENGTH.

Tables 44 and 45 give the clear length and the used length of trees
of different diameters in Maine and New York.

TaBLe 44.—Clear length and used length oft balsam fir of different heights and diameters in

5 Based on 344 trees.
6 Based on 202 trees.

3 Based on 386 trees.
4 Based on 333 trees.

1 Based on 440 trees.
2 Based on 560 trees. |

TABLE 45.—Clear ee and used lenaa oy balsam fir of ae heights ae diameters in
- Maine.

[Clear length based on 407 trees; used length based on 379 trees.]

Diameter breast Total Clear Used Diameter breast Total Clear Used
high (inches). height. | length. | length. || high (inches). height. | length. | length.
!

| Feet. Feet | Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
iD ee ae ete Gy eR en ae eRe er eee Ie Seater, See. 73 40 29
Deran SESS aE eee eee 57 38 2) Taz hs ae ee ee 75 40 30
Sy ene aan Lk 62 39 | 7A | jet a Bee 77 40 31
Gee oe A seeese 65 39 28 Woo a eee eee ee eee 79 40 32
TO EOE AEE Pee | 68 40 | 26.) T6siioc 2 < Sea ae 80 40 33
Tif eS ae gs 71 40 | 27 | (MONE BESTS Se 82 40 34

PER CENT OF CULL AND WASTE.

The average cull within merchantable dimensions, that is, for the
portion of the trees from stump to 4-inch top, constitutes on the aver-
age about 11.2 per cent of the merchantable yield. The top and
stump form about 8.4 per cent of the total volume; the bark, 10.6 per
cent. In other words, about 19 per cent of the total volume of the
tree at present remains unutilized. Of the remaining merchantable
part of the tree, 11.2 per cent must be allowed for cull.

BALSAM FIR. 57

YIELD.
ON SMALL SAMPLE AREAS.

The yield of balsam fir fluctuates within wide limits. Since it
grows with spruce and other species, its yield naturally depends upon
the degree of admixture. An idea of what can be expected from
balsam fir may best be formed from pure stands in the swamps or
flats. For New York a good average for large flats, cutting for pulp
to 7 inches diameter breast high, is 15 cords to the acre. Exceptional
areas have cut as high as 40 cords. In swamps, while the stands are
usually dense, the individual trees are of small size, and the yield per
acre on the whole is smaller than on the flats. Ten cords to the acre
may be considered a good average. On the hardwood slope the yield
varies more than for any other type; on an average it runs about 7—
cords to the acre.

In Maine the yield runs much higher than in New York. Pure
stands of balsam fir on flats will yield, as a general rule, about 25
cords to the acre and occasionally as high as 30 cords for stands from
70 to 100 years old. On the hardwood slope the yield is only half
of that on the flat, about 12.5 cords to the acre.

Tables 46 and 47 give the results of actual measurements of yield
im the Adirondacks and in Maine.

TaBLE 46.— Yield of balsam fir in New rae based on 10 sample plots, covering an area
of 9 acres.

SWAMP.

Average
number of Mean annual

Total yield per merchant- | increment per

Average age of merchantable stand (years). Bone

able trees acre.
per acre.
Cubic feet.| Cords. Cubic feet.| Cords.
De once An HR ARE SCN MIST TE Ap MERA A SE EE San 922 10. 2 88 11.5 4
FLAT.
Bs Sc Cee es TL RI USAC RIE ADO gS RU Ry 1,270 13.2 102 ASG ea
COs ox ASAE OB CE ET oe ee ere a thee aie Aa ea 1,312 15.3 110 14.6 PS
CD ie Se SCE CET RT tea a eae cys 30 ee Re Md cet 1, 443 15.0 140 16.0 4
ERSTE) UU EEA A IN TNE SL eee aed 1,342 14, 4 117 14.9 4
HARDWOOD SLOPE
FAD esi, ech che CEI ae oy 2 en ET LB EE Es oS a Oe 444 4.6 36 CHO EES ok ose,
TD ser bo dest test ee Se SIE TNE rE pe otc SUN age 685 ea 60 Co eta [Ae
Ades cin coe seen aN wg NS SEOs aL Ee ON 760 8.0 49 1OK9 4 Se See
BOS SOG EEA EEN Eee aU AS IRR aetna Pea 713 WoW 55 SEO eas Pee
Tein bee te eRe Sasa ly IR STS Se ae Soe ect 607 6.4 46 SHi7i\ eee
7D cicrrercech ee a aan Ge ORES ESAT Ag Ne nO LN ane eU 928 9.7 86 Reese eee oe

58 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 47.— Yield of balsam fir in Maine, based on 22 sample plots, covering an area

Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. Cords. Cubic pe
22. 26.

UR UR eae 90 152 2,395 2,156 2,149 2.6
2 AGERE Sa ae ee 90 144 2,763 2,501 2, 460 25.9 30.7
Saeinecgcecer eases 7 160 2,543 2, 268 2,330 24.5 36.3
BERN Aa 22 70 100 1,357 1,212 1, 239 13.0 19. 4
aoe see eee 80 168 2,937 2,614 2,704 28.4 36.7
OS. 5. s23ee Se 90 200 3,739 3,364 3,504 36.8 41.5
Ta aes Nas 7, 690 160 3,010 2, 674 3,010 31.6 33.4
gee eaar a set 90 132 2,936 2,627 2,675 28.1 32.6
Dee ae emcee see 90 136 2,789 2,473 2,512 26. 4 31.0
AD PES. ost at 90 86 1, 408 1, 261 1, 259 13.2 15.6
LE a eee 70 144 2,811 2,435 2,590 28.3 40.1
‘VSS eee 43 90 120 2,115 1,896 1,910 20.0 23.5
RSheen aes eee 90 168 2, 689 2,388 2,497 26. 2 29.8
Averages Net ee 144 DESY (3) |S aere eye | o Sts h N 25.0 130.5

HARDWOOD SLOPE.
1 Seen ass See 90 80 1, 666 1,490 1,547 16.2 18.5
a8 SU Sas are 80] - 83 1,342 1, 214 1, 240 13.0 16.8
NG Soe eae esses 80 60 1,034 930 957 10.0 12.9
| aoe 80 68 963 868 881 9.2 12.0
1 eS eee ae 90 96} . 1,861 1, 668 1, 683 LAT 20.6
ie eee 90 122 2,165 1,945 1, 933 20.3 24.0
2 ee ee ei 80 48 534 485 480 5.0 6.6
else tenses bse 100 62 1,170 1,040 1,050 11.0 te 7,
Ps SI eet 90 52 1, 226 1,085 1,112 11.7 13.6
INV CTAPC nl. eee S 75 Wl B20 See cece eee al aoe ee eee 12.6 215.2
1 Equals one-third cord. 2 Equals one-sixth cord.

OVER LARGE AREAS.

The figures in Tables 46 and 47 represent the yield of carefully
selected small areas of balsam-fir stands. Over large areas, including
all types of land, the yield is much smaller. The results of measure-
ments of nearly 60,000 acres in three townships of Hamilton County,
N. Y., gave an average yield per acre for all types of coniferous lands
of 4.4 standards, or 1.5 cords (Table 48).

BALSAM FIR. — 59

TABLE 48.—Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Hamilton County, N. Y.

[Cutting to a limit of 10 inches and over in diameter breast high.]

Total yield |_,Verage

Type. Area-(acres). yield per acre
(standards). (standards).
Township 5:
Swamprandsspruceiland-.22. 5... ----.--- 2 cess eeeeesn- 10,376 39, 676. 58 3. 82
D 4,405 22,677.90 5.15
2,072 10, 675. 35 5.15

6, 960 19, 585. 20 2. 81

1, 869 6, 397. 76 3. 42

10, 982 57, 755. 88 5. 26

CTBT 2 Sooty Girls vipa Ce a Se apa ag 19, 811 83, 738. 84 | SE ae a
ANCOR OOP EXOD SO gidecee n= te coe nBer Goat se sees] Gel Soee ner OneneE 4 Se Heeesecosdes 4,20 -

Township 6:

Swanlpanmdisprucelandl: \ 2) 2 22252820. h2cc2s sess sesese 122 52.92 -43

IDs oc See c EB SSE ee wae CHOC Oe Be EDC > eae eae 12, 156 55, 374. 84 4. 56

IDO) 5 SSCA BEES RS or aS NE SOE peace rt rape ee 3, 609 15, 618. 26 4.33

IDO) 3 a Se Amer eset oer ee IEEE ae Can raed aap eas a 2,779 18, 391.98 6. 62

i) OMe Coe ile hel a id ab Aa ALY shee Seles be Coe 1,332 5, 740. 92 4.31

DOM ea oe Ceol fares hfe Soom ernest eto e gece e 1, 464 4, 832. 88 3.30

Ho talaga nies os tee ys pi 624 wba. BOI. Sk tie acs 21, 462 NCO Omi BO |ecescecatooose

PANY CHAP EMD EE ACEC pate setraicte eae a mse aaa esse acetate eects Semis eee ermetce Gate 4.70

Measurements of nearly 17,000 acres in Herkimer County, N. Y.,
gave an average yield for all types of coniferous land (both virgin and
cut-over) of only 1.4 standards. The yield for swamp land, which is
largely balsam-fir land, ran on an average as high as 5.42 standards,
or nearly 2 cords to the acre. (Table 49.)

TABLE 49.— Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Herkimer County, N.Y.

[Cutting to a limit of 10 inches in diameter breast high.]

Average
Total :
mene Area yield | ile per
ype. (acres). (stand- ( Bees
ards). ards).
Spruce land:
Virgin._.-..-. eee 3, 732 4,105 1.10
Cut-over ...- 4,158 5, 073 1,22
AIO TE oe scare Serr Rats OCI CLO EES SIE air ore COE ETN ORS 7, 890 9,178 1.16
Swamp PARE
WTI 5 ore Cha aa TOO ore SEI ore Re Eee ere Ne Ae Ne ee me as ae 210 1, 187 5. 65
(COIROWS? 2 oceoscescocn seaosadocescdncaseoredsccosaconossbeccsobeus 161 824 5. 12
ETicrtst en PRA vor ME GE Aro MNO TEE? Ube tid OEE 371 2,011 5.42
eeranidttotaleee. weet einem e AMR WEY VRiRe te EAE OE 5 o7ai|| MRI ER eee. z

INS OTAGO reraiere whe asaya se crsiamion SER EIS sie sees aetae seease piers Se SS oe [eer as ce oe eed sNeee hee 1.40

60 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In New Hampshire, measurements of over 2,000 acres gave an
average yield of 482 board feet for balsam and 1,772 board feet for
spruce (New Hampshire rule), or nearly 0.8 of a cord of balsam fir
per acre, forming about 27 per cent of the entire spruce yield. |
(Table 50.)

Tasie 50.—Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Grafton County, N. H.

[New Hampshire log rule.]

Total yield. Average yield per acre.
Area (acres).
Spruce. Balsam. Spruce. Balsam.
Board feet. | Board feet. | Board feet. | Board feet.
L(y SR ins SSE ea Seen 82 a Lg we omar Censet 124,97 63, 879 , 168 597
PORE EES gale SIE Neel a i ee 840 93, 520 44 5
A se Fo) Beet hoe ee ees Pe ee eee 2 94, 645 10, 925 823 95
MAD oe om woe poe ne oe nn eee rm eee eee meies Seeem esis es 170, 235 14,715 1,261 109
AA oe eon Sen See oe Sea ue ce Tere Bie ME 38, 2 846
M00 Fee anes 2 eee ee oc eee Poets de 651, 510 67, 260 3, 429 354
BAe 0 3 Bd Me MCE te eth cots eee amine 1,402, $56 392, 616 2,444 684
OEE oo see ee ee ae oe ae te ine abe ee ee eee 437, 192 172, 494 1, 688 666
AGNEW BREE 0. 0 I 2 SRE aga 17, 264 174, 386 1,384 391
Lb Oe ee aa oe OA ee Sn cicena Ise 146, 146 84, 700 550

Total: (2;233) 25 Job 2 5 tes Sen esses eee es 3,956,875 | 1,075,341 1,772 482

INCREMENT.

The sample plots in New York and Maine (Tables 46 and 47)
showed that mature stands of balsam fir produce annually from
one-sixth to one-third of a cord of wood per acre. At such a rate
the poorest land produces 10 cords per acre in 60 years, and the better
land 10 cords of pulpwood every 30 years. This annual increment is
very low as compared with the yields obtainable under forest manage-
ment. The increment should be at least two-thirds of a cord, or
possibly 1 cord a year.

MANAGEMENT.

EFFECT OF PAST CUTTING.

Balsam fir is so closely associated with spruce wherever it occurs
that it is impossible to outline a system of management for one
species that will not at the same time affect the other. Both species
are almost constantly contesting for the occupancy of the ground.
If left to themselves the greater tolerance and more persistent growth
of spruce would undoubtedly in the long run secure for it the pre-
dominance in the present forests as they formerly did in the virgin
stands, before the interference of man. Lumbering, however, has
turned the scale of the struggle between the different species in
favor of trees of smaller commercial importance. Thus, white pine,
the most valuable species of the northeastern forests, was taken
first, with the result that it was unable to hold its own against its
competitors. Then came the turn of spruce. The latter, in many

BALSAM FIR. 61

cases, is now being cut for the third time, smaller logs being taken
at each new lumbering. Balsam, on the other hand, has been spared
until recently and thus given a chance to spread at the expense of
spruce. These facts are well brought out by measurements taken
in Maine on 20 acres of virgin and 20 acres of forest cut over once.
The difference in the representation of the two species in virgin and
cut-over forest is especially striking in the trees of small diameters,
since not enough time has elapsed after cutting to affect in any great
degree the large trees.

TaBLE 51.—Average number of spruce and balsam fir up to 12 inches in diameter breast high
on an acre of virgin and cut-over forest in Maine.

Virgin. Cut-over.
Diameter breast high (inches).
Spruce. | Balsam. | Spruce. | Balsam.

ovens iE a ie ah EP IS oe eR ae 29.2 12.8 13.0 35. 2
Bo sold dicta COMI CERO GEIS AEE ORES yt Ente pe lee a Nine oy oe eb es 51.0 12.0 8.6 23.4
Bh 3 oe DEE SE OOO Ie ELIS I i on ee 44.2 11.8 7.4 21.4
Bech be adres eee CEI COS AE PREIS EO ae OR ta te es Eo eee ee 39.4 8.6 5.4 19.8
Quon cca tec dee ORO GES Ae REN Soe ret et aos eae OLE eee een 24.4 7.0 4.4 17.6
Geos cab en oe eS e Ses Bis eg es pata ae Grates Heya nto GaT eet an Om SOE 23.2 6.4 4.2 14.6
Baccus ale amin ined eee Be AIOE IE ae ae RED TRL Sear RAR Chm ps 17.8 6.4 4.0 13.0
Doc dec dee cle cob Gee IS Cate rE ER a RICE OTR ttf CEO nC 17.4 252 3.4 10.2
i pa ree oe pa I IN ON aioe einialnis bee mee e/qeeiaermainic 14.2 2.0 3.0 9.8
FL Sempra ee ao OS IY Ie 8) My IS, ochre velerciarare ive te arcyossiers/ arene 9.2 1.6 2.6 4.6
Ws cece bets Oe COREE RO ae Ce Ane tH Ee. nae 6.4 1.2 2.6 4.0
IEG HEU LS 3 pei Va eR a en Rd ae OR UR 276. 4 72.0 58.6 173.6

The rapid spreading of balsam over cut or burnt spruce land is
due chiefly to its prolific seeding, love for light, and rapid growth.
In this respect, as in many others, balsam occupies the same place
among the northeastern conifers as aspen does among the deciduous
species. It is the first of all conifers to take possession of openings,
burnt or cut-over land, and at present outnumbers spruce in the
young growth and smaller diameters throughout the northern woods.
Table 52 shows the number of spruce and fir trees on an average acre,
based on actual measurements of 955 acres in the forests of Maine.
The measurements were taken on the slope type, where spruce is
more at home than is balsam.

TABLE 02.—Number of spruce and fir trees on an average acre, based on 952 acres in Maine.

Diameter breast high (inches).| Spruce. Babew Diameter breast high (inches). | Spruce. Bakan
P&L 8 ee 9.1 ES LORE AS: Be Wee PERN EO REY 4.0 6.1
Bot Geo Ok A ae ee eae ae 9.9 USE O7 (ert | kot I a ce eo et Ue Ne abs 3.6 3.9
ARPA See AS O80 af Vad ce 9.1 ESR PL ea a NGS Lh cana Ne ay 203 8 IE 3.4 | 23
Heb SO Gel e EERE Eee ee Toe 15.9

Gin 9 oe aCe Aare ee eee a pees ae ae 5.8 13. 2 MOG SD Ce PP y faye te au 66. 1 124.6
Tf ebice ORE ea aS oe aa 5.4 11.2

Bie See ad Se tea ae a ae ea 4.6 9.6 |j Trees, 2 inches to 8 inches,

Oe, LORE DER Se eee eee neuen 4.0 “9 HOCUS socgdseecvcescesos 51.1 104. 4

62 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF CUTTING.

Upon the methods of cutting adopted in spruce stands will depend
whether the future forest will be chiefly spruce or balsam or whether
there will be future growth at all. In discussing these methods the
economic limitations and specific conditions which may affect their
application are not considered. These must necessarily differ for
each particular forest tract. In a general discussion of the silvicul-
tural system adapted to spruce and balsam it is possible to lay down
only general principles. 5

Natural reproduction may be secured in spruce-balsam fir stands
by two methods: (1) Clear cutting and (2) gradual cuttings.

CLEAR CUTTING WITH NATURAL REPRODUCTION.

In clear cutting, natural reproduction from stands adjoining the
cutting must be relied upon to restock the area. The size and form
of the clear-cut areas are therefore factors in the success of the repro-
duction. If natural reproduction is desired, the greatest width of the

3 is
z £0)
g ED
S A = 0
E eee e oD
= Sees eb: A

“10 9 8 7 6

Fic. 6.—Results secured by logging on the leeward side of balsam fir-spruce stands. The youngest stands
are found on the windward side and deflect the wind upward, preventing windfall among the older
trees.

area to be cut clear in spruce-balsam fir stands should not exceed
double the height of the adjoining stand from which reseeding is
expected. For example, if the average height of a spruce and
balsam-fir stand is 75 feet, then the width of the area which is to be
cut clear should not be greater than 150 feet. The length of the area
does not affect the natural reproduction and should depend, there-
fore, upon the amount of timber to be cut, convenience of logging,
and similar considerations. In general, then, clear cutting with
natural reproduction in spruce-balsam fir stands should take the
form of long narrow strips.

Since both spruce and balsam are shallow-rooted trees and there-
fore subject to windfall, logging operations should as far as possible
always begin on the leeward side of the mature timber, and proceed
against the wind. -If logging were to begin on the windward side
there would always be danger from windfall in the stands adjoining
the logged area. When the entire forest is cut over in this way,
the youngest stands will be on the windward side, their tops forming
a gradual ascending plane (fig. 6). The wind is thus deflected

BALSAM FIR. 63

upward, without breaking into the older stands. Logging from the
leeward side also permits the seed to be carried by the wind from the
mature stands to the logged-over area.

Successive strips—No matter how narrow the strips are made,
they should not be cut one after another every year, unless there is
sufficient young growth to insure a full stand. Spruce and balsam
do not bear seed every year, but at intervals of from four to six years.
If the strips are cut one after another every year, the logged areas
could not be reproduced for lack of seed. The stand adjoining
the logged area should be cut only after the latter has been fully
reseeded, or at the end of four to six years. With this method of
cutting the logging will have to be scattered over a fairly wide
territory.

Alternate strips.—To avoid too great a scattering of the cuttings,
which necessarily increase the cost of logging, the strips may be cut

Fic. 7.—Cutting in alternate strips. During the first half of the rotation only alternate strips are cut.
The remaining strips are cut over during the second half of the rotation. At the time the remaining
strips are cut the first strips are 75 years old and are capable of reseeding the adjoining clearings.

alternately instead of one after another, at an interval of from

four to six years. In applying this method, the entire tract is divided
into strips narrow enough to insure natural reproduction. The
tract is cut over twice. The first time only alternate strips are cut;
the second time, the remaining strips. Every year as many strips
may be cut as are needed to secure the desired amount of timber.

Under this method the timber tract, after it has been entirely cut

over, would consist of strips of timber in which two adjoining strips

would differ in age by as many years as it took to cut over all of the

alternate strips. If 150 years is decided upon as the rotation for a

mixed stand of spruce and balsam fir, the entire tract would be cut

over in 150 years, and the alternate strips would be cut over within
the first 75 years. The strips that were cut first would then be 75
years old when the adjoining strips are cut. At the age of 75 years
both spruce and balsam bear seed prolifically, and will readily reseed

the adjacent clearings made by cutting the remaining strips (fig. 7).

Cutting in alternate strips tends to concentrate logging, since as
much timber may be cut per acre as under the present methods of

64 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

culling the forest of trees of certain diameters. It requires, however,
great regularity and exactness in logging operations, and may there-
fore present difficulties, although it is being practiced to a considerable
extent in private and State spruce forests abroad.

Thinned and partially cleared strips—Another modification of the
system of clear cutting in strips is especially applicable to large
stands of mature timber. Watersheds, or other logging units large
enough to allow logging on the same area for a period of five or six
years, are divided into strips, all of which are cut over within the
five or six year period, but only for two-thirds of their full width.
Thus, if the width of the strips is 150 feet, each strip is cut only 100
feet. On the remaining 50 feet of each strip the timber is merely
thinned (fig. 8). As logging operations on the area will go on for
five or six years, there should be one or two good seed years during
which the logged areas will be reproduced from the adjoiing 50-foot

Fic. 8.—Partially cleared and thinned strips. Each strip is cut only for two-thirds of its width. On the
remaining one-third the timber is only thinned. Reproduction takes place on the adjoining clearings
and under the thinned stand. When reproduction is secured, the remaining one-third of the strip is
ecutclean. The entire logging area is reproduced within five or six years. F

strips of timber. Since 50-foot strips are thinned, reproduction
will occur on them. As soon as young growth appears on the clear-
ings and under the trees left uncut, the 50-foot strips are also taken,
and the entire area is thus cut and reproduced within a few years.
This method of cutting is simple and, under favorable conditions,
practical as a logging proposition. The great danger is from windfall,
to which thinned stands are particularly susceptible.

While often, as in cutting for pulp, clear cutting in strips is the best
method, even with the greatest precautions cleared strips often fail
to reproduce naturally with the desired species. No matter what
modification of the system is practiced, the narrower the strip the
greater are the chances for successful natural reproduction. When
abundant young growth exists under the old trees, clear cutting
need not be in the form of strips, but may cover the entire area
bearing reproduction.

Clear cutting in strips must naturally lead to an increase of balsam
in the second growth, since it is a prolific seeder and requires more

ene, te te te or a # 7 rr. se re

BALSAM FIR. 65

light than does spruce. This is especially true in the case of alter-
nate or successive strips. With partially cleared and thinned strips,
however, which are cut practically at the same time, the reproduc-
tion of balsam fir can be reduced in favor of spruce if thinning is
confined largely or exclusively to balsam fir, thus decreasing its par-
ticipation in reseeding the ground.

CLEAR CUTTING, WITH ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION.

Still another silvicultural method to which both spruce and bal-
sam fir are adapted, particularly for pulp, is clear cutting, with sub-
sequent planting. Such a system, however, presupposes intensive
management and a considerable initial outlay of money. The
planting of red spruce and balsam fir would be hardly advisable for
both silvicultural and financial reasons, because of the former’s
extremely slow growth and the latter’s comparatively inferior quali-
ties. If planting is to be done, it would be better to use more val-
uable and promising species, such as Norway or possibly white spruce.
The cost of establishing a stand artificially is the same whether
valuable or inferior species are used. For these reasons clear cutting,
with artificial reproduction, would hardly be a profitable undertaking,
at least for the balsam fir. The justification for retaining balsam fir in
the future stands must be in the ease with which it can be reproduced
naturally and cheaply.

GRADUAL CUTTING.

Selection 1n growps.—Spruce stands are best managed by gradual
cuttings. This is essentially the method used in the old-time logging
operations, when only the largest trees could be used, and is in vogue
now on a number of large spruce tracts owned by pulp and paper
companies. Only the larger mature trees or trees of a certain char-
acter are taken, and the rest left on the ground for future logging.

Natural reproduction of spruce and balsam is readily secured
under this method of cutting if the following rules are observed:

1. In logging, the trees should be removed not singly but in small
groups. The removal of such groups of trees will make small open-
ings, or ‘‘holes,” in the forest, which are more readily stocked than
openings made by the removal of single trees. When single trees
are cut, the openings are soon closed by the growth of side branches
of the neighboring trees, and the young growth that appears is soon
dither shaded out or stunted. Openings, or “‘holes,’”’ in the forest
formed by the removal of groups of trees a quarter of an acre or less
in extent receive abundant seed from the surrounding trees, yet have
enough light for a vigorous and normal development of the repro-
duction that springs up.

66 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. Thesame ground should not be logged too often; say, not oftener
than every 10 or 20 years. Frequent logging over the same area
prevents the firm establishment of young growth.

3. Keep out fires from the logged-over areas. ;

This system of gradual cutting, which may be called a selection
system in groups, is decidedly the most practical, simplest, and
safest so far as securing natural reproduction of spruce and balsam
isconcerned. Under it, spruce reproduction is favored at the expense
of balsam, since the openings are small and the light conditions
more favorable to spruce than to balsam. The greatest advantage
of the system, however, is the protection which it affords against
windfall—a very important consideration in all spruce cuttings.

The system differs from the method of logging practiced 25 to 30
years ago only in that the trees are cut in small groups instead of
singly. Many of the old cuttings, when fires were kept out, have been
cut over for the second and third time. Experience shows that no
forest has ever been ruined by such a method of cutting. It is the
recent logging, which amounts to practically clear cutting, especially
when followed by fires, which has reduced large areas of timberland
to a state where artificial planting or ae is the only means of
bringing them back-to forest:

By clear cutting small groups, opportunity is afforded for utilizing
all the merchantable timber, especially if the openings are made in
the older and more mature stands. At the same time, forest con-
ditions are preserved which are favorable for natural reproduction.
The danger from windfall under this method is almost entirely
avoided. | .

Cutting to a diameter invit.—Cutting in strips or selection cutting
in groups requires a careful selection of the logging areas and expert
technical knowledge. Wherever such knowledge can not be had,
light cutting over the entire logging area may roughly answer the
requirements of natural reproduction of both spruce and balsam fir.
The higher the diameter limit for both species the more favorable
will be the conditions for natural reproduction. The diameter limit
should be raised in thin stands and lowered in dense ones, the main
point being not to open the stand too heavily and destroy the con-
ditions under which natural reproduction takes place. Although by
cutting balsam fir to a lower diameter than spruce some advantage
may be given spruce in reseeding the ground, yet under such a rough
system it is difficult to control the conditions under which one or
the other species can best come up; the preponderance of spruce or
balsam fir in the future stand must therefore be left largely to chance.

BALSAM FIR. 67
ROTATION.

The difference in the rate of growth of balsam fir and spruce has
a direct bearing upon the choice of rotation or proper time of cutting
the two species. From the tables it is evident that balsam fir, if
its growth is to be utilized to the fullest advantage, should not be
cut before it reaches an age of about 100 or 125 years, or a diameter
of 12 to 14 inches breast high. Cutting balsam fir below 6 or 7 inches
means utilization of trees which are still making a fair growth.
Spruce, on the other hand, should not be cut before it is 175 or 200
years old, since most of its growth is made at the age of from 100 to
200 years. The rotation for balsam fir, therefore, should be about
‘100 years, and for spruce at least 175 years. These rotations, of
course, would be applicable only if balsam fir and spruce were grown |
separately. Since they usually grow together, the practical applica-
tion of these different rotations would simply mean that in cutting
over a virgin stand of spruce and balsam fir, the fir should be cut
to a younger age, only the older spruce being removed.

SUMMARY.

1. Balsam fir forms, on an average, from 10 to 15 per cent of the
entire red-spruce stand, or 5,355 million board feet.

2. Under present methods of cutting, balsam fir is increasing at
the expense of red spruce in the second growth throughout the entire
range of the two species.

3. Balsam-fir wood, while to some extent inferior to spruce for
construction material, has a definite place in the pulp and lumber
industries.

4. Balsam fir grows much faster throughout its entire life than
spruce, but is shorter lived and reaches maturity long before the
latter.

5. Balsam fir should be cut at an age of from 100 to 125 years,
while spruce, as it grows at present in the wild wood, should be cut
at an age of from 175 to 200 years.

6. The annual increment per acre of balsam fir throughout its
range varies from one-sixth to one-third of a cord, or 1 cord in from
three to six years.

7. The best silvicultural system of cutting is that of selection
cutting in small groups. The natural reproduction of both spruce
and balsam fir is assured under this system, with the possibility of
increasing the proportion of spruce in the new stand.

68 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER P. Comparative Anatomy of the Normal Diseased Organs
of Abies Balsamea, Affected with Aecidium Elatinum. (Botanical Gazette,
Nove, pp. 1897, v. 24, pp. 309-344.)

Balsam Fir, il. (Hardwood Record, Apr. 25, 1908, v. 26, No. 1, pp. 16-17.)

Criark, J. F. On the Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir. (Forestry Quarterly, Jan.
1903, v. 1, pp. 56-61.)

Dorner, Herman B. The Resin Ducts and Strengthening Cells of Abies and
Picea. (Indiana Academy of Science, Proceedings, 1899, pp. 116-129.)

ENGELMANN, GrEorGcE. A Synopsis of the American Firs. (Transactions of the
Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1878, v. 3, No. 4, pp. 593-602.)

Huntineton, A. O. Balsam Fir. (New England Magazine, Oct. 1904, n. s. v. 31,
p- 225.)
McApam, T. The ‘‘Human Interest” in Firs. (Garden Magazine, Aug. 1909, v.

10, No. 1, pp. 12-14.)

Mryake, K. Contribution to the Fertilization and Embryogeny of Abies Balsamea.
(Beihefte zum Botanische Centralblatt, 1903, v. 14, pp. 134-144.)

Moore, B., and Rogers, R. L. Notes on Balsam Fir. (Forestry Quarterly, March
1907, v. 5, pp. 41-50.)

Rornrock, J. T. Balsam Fir. (Forest Leaves, Feb. 1910, v. 12, No. 7, p. 105.)

von Scurenk, HermMANN. Glassy Fir. (Missouri Botanical Garden, 16th Annual
Report, 1905, pp. 117-20.)

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BULLETIN OF THE

J.) USDEARIENT OE MRICULTRE

No. 56

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
January 28, 1914.

A SPECIAL FLASK FOR THE RAPID DETERMINATION
| | OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL.

By Joun H. Cox,
Assistant in Grain Standardization.

INTRODUCTION.

The special flask which is described in this bulletin is used in con-
nection with the Brown-Duvel tester described in Circular No. 72
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of
Agriculture, entitled ‘‘A Moisture Tester for Grain and Other Sub-
stances and How to Use It,” by Dr. J. W. T. Duvel. The special
flask, shown in figure 1, has double walls and was developed for
commercial work so that a quick and accurate test could be made
of finely ground material, such as flour and meal. The single-
walled flask described in the circular mentioned is not suitable for
testing finely ground substances, as it does not always give accurate
results. The meal when tested in such a flask frequently burns
badly at the bottom, and the flask does not clean well and seon
breaks, while the double-walled flask may be cleaned without trouble
and does not break easily.

One of the principal causes why corn meal and other finely ground
materials deteriorate is the water which they contain. The manu-
facturers of these finely ground products can largely eliminate the
excess water in their meal and flour by proper precautions. The
amount of water in flour or meal can easily be tested in a few min-
utes by the use of this special flask, thereby determining whether
they contain too much water for safe transportation or storage.

The tester consists of two or more compartments, so that one
or more duplicate sample tests can be run at the same time. There
is a flask for each compartment and a gas, alcohol, or gasoline burner
beneath each one. Figures 2 and 3 show an external view of a
standard 6-compartment water tester ready for use.

19612°—14

2 BULLETIN 56, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIAL FLASK.

The flask, the dimensions of which are shown in figure 1, is double
walled and can be made of copper or glass. The inner flask has a
capacity of approximately 900 cubic centimeters and the space

2INZ
ge

OAT,

“10% Ti A WE Sey i
TOTAL LENGTH OF THEFRAIOME TEP? (32/NCHES
iN

between the two walls should hold not less
than 250 nor more than 300c.c. If the flasks
are made of copper, the thickness of the
copper before it is spun should be 22 thou-
sandths of an inch or 16 ounces to the
square foot. The copper flasks will have
to be made in two sections and soldered
together in the middle with a very hard
solder. The soft solder commonly used by
plumbers is not suitable for this work.
Success with these flasks has been attained
only when they were soldered together with

a silver solder. The neck of the flask must

be of but one thickness of copper, for if it is
too heavy it will melt

4 NO 5S ONE HOLE the rubber stoppers 5

23] AUBEER STOPPER.

The glass flasks
when made in ac-
cordance with the
proper specifications
will give as accurate
results as the copper
Lr.;- ones. They should —
| be made of the best

N2 3 ONE HOLE
RUEEEP? STOPPER?
FOR CONNECTING W/777
CONDENSER TUBE,

is0eo2 Fy} ysose on ; grade of resistant

glass and well an-

Fic. 1.—A distillation flask, showing its dimensions and the correct
adjustment of the thermometer.

nealed, andthe necks
should besufficiently
heavy to stand tight
corking. When 150
c.c. of oil is poured
in between the two

walls, the top of the oil should be about halfway up the sides of the
flasks. If the flasks do not meet these specifications they should not

be used.

HOW TO MAKE A WATER TEST OF FLOUR OR MEAL.

To make a water test pour 150 ¢. c. of oil in the inner flask and then
150 c. c. of oil between the two walls. Weigh an average sample of
50 grams on scales that are sensitive to at least one-twentieth of a

FLASK FOR DETERMINATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. 8

gram and put it into the inner flask by means of a long funnel, so as
to drop the material well down into the mner flask; otherwise, the
material will collect around the neck and will be liable to fill up the
tube which leads from the flask to the condensing tube.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE THERMOMETER.

The thermometer should be approximately 13 inches long and nine
thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter, with a bulb approximately
three-fourths of an inch in length. The thermometer should be grad-

wiping

Il 4 ll ii
S| Ii

Fic. 2.—A 6-compartment Brown-Duvel moisture tester.

uated in whole degrees from 0° to 210° C., with the graduations etched
on a stem having a white background.

ADJUSTMENT OF THE THERMOMETER.

The thermometer is more easily adjusted in the copper flask by first
putting the bulb in flour, leaving a fine white coating of the substance
on the thermometer. It is then put into the flask and quickly with-
drawn, so as to see the height of the oil on the bulb, which should be
so placed in the flask that it is approximately three-fourths covered
with oil, as shown in figure 3. If the thermometer is not properly
adjusted, the results will be inaccurate.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GRADUATE AND HOW TO READ IT.

The special graduate shown in figure 4, used when a 50-gram
sample is tested, is just one-half the volume of the graduate in regular

eee aa ee ees
4 BULLETIN 56, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

use and gives the percentage of water direct without multiplymg by
two, which must be done in employing the one commonly used.
_ Usually a small quantity of oil is carried over into the measuring
cylinder and collects on the surface of the water, so that the readings
should be made at the bottom of the meniscus between the oil and
the water, as shown in figure 4. After the test has been made the
graduate should be
emptied and wiped
dry. <A cleaner can
be made by doubling
and twisting a wire
which has a fair de-
Baie ae gree of stiffness and
oe ae wrapping absorbent
cotton or waste around
the end above the
hooks. The ends of
the wire should be
turned around ina half
circle, so as to make a
‘convenient hook to
catch the cotton or
waste, as illustrated in
figure 5.

N2 9 RUBBER

OIL USED IN MAKING
THE TEST.

The oil to be used
should be the same as
that specified in Circu-
lar No. 72 of the Bu-
reau of Plant Industry,
in which it is described
in part as follows:

In making tests a good

Fic. 3.—Sectional view of the Brown-Duvel moisture tester, showing grade of mineral engine oil
the various parts connected for use. A, Distillation flaskinposi- ghould be used. The oil
tion, three-eighths of an inch above the wire gauze; B, distillation must be free from water
flask in the wooden rack used only during the filling. ; Say

should have a flashing point

in open cup of approximately 200° to 205° C. (392° to 401° F.), and preferably a
viscosity between 10 and 15 (Engler) at 20° C. (68° F.). After the tests are com-
pleted and while the oil is still hot, empty the contents of the flasks into a strainer
to recover the oil, which can be used repeatedly. A funnel strainer fitted to the
mouth of a 3 or 4 gallon milk can is serviceable and inexpensive.

The funnel strainer mentioned is shown in figure 6. There should

be a small quantity of absorbent cotton placed in the bottom of this
strainer, so that only the oil can collect in the can beneath.

FLASK FOR DETERMINATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. 5

STOPPERS TO BE USED.

If copper flasks are used, a special No. 5 rubber stopper will have
to be made, so as to stand the high temperature. Figure 7 shows the
results of the heat on three rubber stoppers when run in a double-
walled copper flask. The temperature of the oil

in the inner flasks in each of these tests was 190°
C. when the flame was extinguished. Stopper A
was made especially to stand high temperatures and
was tested once; stopper B was also especially made
by the same manufacturer who made stopper A, but
was tested 30 times, while stopper C is the regular
No. 5 stopper and was tested only once. It is im-
portant that a special stopper which will stand high
temperatures be used if flour and meal are run in
_ the copper flask.

HOW TO TEST DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES.

The methods used in testing flour and corn meal
are as follows:

Fig. 5.—Test-
tube cleaner.

~
Te!

ililt
I

Wheat flour.—Use 150 c. c. of oil both in the
inner flask and between the two walls and 50
grams of flour in the inner flask. Extinguish the
flame when the temperature reaches 190°C. The
oil in the inner flask should reach 190° in about
30 minutes.

Corn meal.—Use 150 c. c. of oil both in the
inner flask and between the two walls and 50
grams of corn meal in the inner flask. Extin-
guish the flame when the temperature reaches
175° C. The oil in the inner flask should reach

PERCENTAGE OF 190; STURE |

ane ez z f
175° in about 26 minutes. , e 1

= Fie. 4—Graduated
TIME OF TEST. a measuring cylinder,

showing 13.2 per cent

One of the most important factors ¢¢ moisture.

in getting correct results in the test
here described ‘iis the time in which it is made. Unless the
flame is under the direct control of the operator and run
in accordance with the following directions, the test will
not be accurate.

The flame should be so adjusted that the temperature
of the oil in the inner flask will reach 120° C. in 15 minutes
and rise approximately 5 degrees for every minute after

that until it reaches the desired temperature. This will require 14
minutes for oil containing flour after it gets to a temperature of
120° to reach a temperature of 190°, and 11 minutes for oil contain-
ing meal after it gets to a temperature of 120° to reach a tempera-
ture of 175°. If the oil in the inner flask reaches a temperature of

6 BULLETIN 56, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

120° in less than 15 minutes, the flame should be turned down,
so that the temperature will rise approximately_5 degrees a minute.
If it takes more than 15 minutes to reach 120°, the flame may
be turned up, so that the temperature will rise at the rate men-
tioned. The temperature of the oil in the
inner flask should rise from 120° to 150° in
approximately 6 minutes. If the oil between
the walls is not emptied and another test is
made before the oil gets cool, the time required
to reach 120° will be less than 15 minutes with
a proper flame.

METHOD OF FINDING THE PROPER TEMPERA-
TURE. :

The proper temperature at which to extinguish
the flame in the apparatus was found by check-
ing duplicate samples in the common type of
double-walled water oven that was 11 inches
high, 11 inches wide, and 10 inches deep, outside

Fig. 6._Strainer for recov. imensions, and having a 1-inch space between
ering the oil. the outer- and the inner wall for the water.

The water in the oven was kept boiling by two gas flames and was
kept at a uniform height. The different substances were allowed to
remain in the oven until they came to a constant weight.

Fic. 7.—Rubber stoppers, showing the effect of heat when tested in a copper flask. Stopper A was
tested once, B 30 times, and C once.

POINTS TO REMEMBER.

(1) Both in the inner flask and between the two walls 150 ec. c. of
oul should be used.

(2) The thermometer in the copper flasks can be easily adjusted
by so placing the bulb of the thermometer in flour or meal that a thin
coating is left upon it. The thermometer is put into the flask and

FLASK FOR DETERMINATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. Ml

quickly withdrawn, so as to see the height of the oil on the thermome-
ter, which should be so adjusted that the bulb will be three-fourths
of its length in the oil.

(3) A moderate, steady flame should be kept, which will take 15
minutes for the oil in the inner flask to reach 120° C., 26 minutes for
the entire test for corn meal, and 30 minutes for flour. If the oil is
hot between the two walls when the test is begun, the time required

to reach 120° with a proper flame will be less than 15 minutes. In
such instances the time from 120° to 150° C. should be approxi-
mately 6 minutes.

(4) The thermometer should rise about 5 degrees C. in 1 minute.

(5) After the flame is extinguished there is an increase of 10 to
15 degrees C. in temperature.

(6) Before taking a reading the distillation flask Horii be dis-
connected from the condensing tube and all the moisture allowed
to collect in the graduate.

(7) The outside flask can be corked while the inner one is being
emptied, and the same oil may be used five or six times before being
changed.

(8) Cotton should be placed at the bottom of the funnel strainer.

(9) The inner flask should be rinsed out with an extra 150 ec. c. of
oil after it is emptied of the corn meal or flour.

(10) Only special stoppers of the best quality should be used in
the necks of the copper flasks.

(11) To insure accurate results when testing flour or meal a special
measuring graduate should be used.

(12) For correct results the first run in new flasks should be dis-
carded and the results of the second one taken; also,if the apparatus
has not been used for several days, a second run should be made.

PO Na COPIES ofthis publication
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-
ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. ,at 5 cents per copy

mb Ome PEN vor THF,

y USDEPARINENT OFAGRICULTURE % 3 |

No. 57

Contribution from the Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director.
February 21, 1914.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, AND SEWAGE DIS-
POSAL FOR COUNTRY HOMES.

By Rosert W. TRULLINGER,
Rural Engineer, Office of Experiment Stations.

INTRODUCTION.

It is the purpose of this paper to treat in a simple manner that
portion of the subject of farm home sanitation relating to pure
water supplies, the safeguarding of the same against contamination,
and the safe disposal of sewage. A few suggestive drawings and
illustrations are given to fit average cases, together with information
intended to aid the farmer, if necessary, to modify the designs in
order to apply them to his particular needs.

The greater part of this work is based on accepted ecient and
sanitary principles, and many facts have been drawn from the works
of authorities, to whom due acknowledgment is given.

THE FARM WATER SUPPLY.

DANGERS FROM CONTAMINATION.

Without doubt many of the germ diseases may be transmitted by
means of water; and some of the diseases are so uniformly trans-
mitted by water that they are known as “water-borne”’ diseases.
Typhoid, dysentery, and other intestinal disorders are such diseases,
and if they may be carried by water it is of the greatest importance
that every precaution be taken to insure a pure water supply.

Farm: water supplies may be divided into three classes, which in
the order of their liability to pollution are surface supplies, shallow
underground supplies, and deep underground supplies. The surface
supplies are obtained from streams, ponds, reservoirs, and cisterns;
both shallow and deep underground supplies are obtained from dug,
bored, driven, or drilled wells, and from springs.

That farm water supplies are very subject to pollution is evidenced
by the investigations of various authorities. The investigations of
K. F. Kellerman and H. A. Whitaker,! of this department, in coopera-

1U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 154.
19611°—14——]

2 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tion with the Minnesota State Board of Health, indicate that of 79
carefully selected and typical water supplies in Minnesota 20 were
good and 59 were polluted. Of the polluted wells 11 were so located
that even extreme care would not make them safe; 10 were poorly —
located, but improvements in the protection from surface wash and
infiltration would make them safe; 25 were bad only because of poor
surface protection and could easily be made safe. Practically all the
surface supplies investigated were polluted. During these investiga-
tions 23 of the farms examined showed a record of typhoid fever.

F. T. Shutt,* of the Canada Experimental Farms at Ottawa, re-
viewing his study of the subject since 1887, states that of the farm
water supplies examined 30 per cent may be classified as safe and
wholesome, 25 per cent as suspicious and probably. contaminated,
36 per cent as seriously polluted, and 9 per cent as nonpotable through
high salinity.

SURFACE SUPPLIES.
CONTAMINATION.

Surface water supplies are those most lable to pollution, and
authorities agree that they are the most unsatisfactory for farm use.
Streams and ponds receive the greater part of the surface wash from
the immediate neighborhood, and in many cases barnyard or stockyard
drainage from poimts remote from where the water is taken for house-
hold use. Streams or ponds located in pastures, manured fields, or
where stock can gain access to them are polluted. Sometimes sewage
and house drainage are emptied into streams and ponds. In fact,
since they are open and unprotected, there are a thousand and one
different sources of pollution for such supplies. Rain waters from
the roof are polluted by dust, dirt, and leaves, which collect in the
eaves trough, and by the droppings from birds.

Surface water supplies should therefore not be used for household
purposes, not even for washing milk cans or for laundry purposes,
unless no other supply is available. And it may be safely assumed
that the person who drinks water from surface supplies endangers his
health if such supplies are not first protected from the sources of
contamination as far as possible and then purified.

CISTERNS.

In localities where underground waters are hard to obtain, cisterns
may be used for the filtration, partial purification, and storage of rain
water, and surface supplies. The size of the cistern will depend on
the number of persons in the house and on the general water consump-
tion, as discussed hereafter, under ‘‘Pumping, storage, and distribu-
tion.”

1 Reprint from Pub. Health Jour., State Med. and Sanit. Rev., 1912, April.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, HTC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 3

The cistern should be of water-tight construction, to prevent leak-
age and to prevent pollution from the neighboring soil. It should
have an overflow drain and a tight cover. There should also be suit-
able provision for straining or filtering the water previous to its en-
trance to the cistern.

The cistern should ordinarily be in two compartments, with a filter
wall of porous brick between. One compartment serves then as a
settlmg chamber and the water receives a final filtration before enter-
ing the storage compartment.

Concrete is probably the most sanitary and durable material for
cisterns. In general, the walls and floor should be 6 or 8 inches thick
and well reenforced and the concrete should be carefully proportioned

INLET

Fic. 1.—Reenforced concrete cistern, showing arrangement of forms and reenforcing.

and mixed. A mixture of 1 part cement to 2 or 24 parts of clean
sharp sand and 4 or 5 parts of clean and fairly small crushed rock or
gravel is satisfactory for fairly water-tight concrete. The inside sur-
face should be coated with a 1 to 2 cement mortar. Figure 1 shows a
circular cistern of average size sufficient for a family of 6 or 8 people.

In constructing such a cistern, make a circular excavation 16 inches
wider than the desired diameter of the cistern and about 16 inches
deeper than the desired depth. Make a cylindrical form as shown in
the figure, the outside diameter of which will be the inside diameter
of the cistern. Mix the concrete in small batches fairly wet and
tamp in between the form and the earth. To construct the conical
portion, build a floor across the top of the cylindrical form, leaving a
hole of the desired size in the center. Brace the floor well with up-
rights from the cistern bottom. Build a cone-shaped mold of wet

4 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

earth or sand and lay the concrete and reenforemg on this cone.
Allow it to set and harden well before removing the forms and earth.
The following table gives an approximate bill of materials for two

sizes of cisterns:
Cisterns— Material.

{Concrete: 1 part cement, 24 parts sand, 5 parts gravel.]

14 feet” 133 feet
deep deep
(10-foot (10-foot
cylinder, | cylinder,
i 4-foot 3}-foot
Material. j cone), cone),
8 feet in 6 feet in
diameter, | diameter,
capacity capacity

3,800 2,100
gallons. gallons.
Comentns 8 2s ok tee eee tes age Rl Re ee UR bags. - 43 31
Sandie. so osac se at Pace RU ee Le toa es aig se eae ee ee cubic yards. . | 43 3
Graveliocs 252) pee eee ct eit act 2S ee pa ee ee do.... 9 63
Briel: for filter wall: =-2 oe $= = sa NSA a lls = PRI N donblas Ae gee eee 1, 000 800
Eamberfor forms’: Fey ks. 2 Ey tap tie ars ela pe el a re a board feet... 225 200

The Office of Public Roads of this department has established a
method of making concrete by imtermixing mineral residuum oil,
c PZ) EA “SW ZA SEVSIZASIE

ATER LEVEL ze
W. WA

16" SQUARE
INSIDE

PIPE

Fic. 2.—Crib of brick or stone for intake from pond.

which, according to their tests, makes a damp-proof and faily
water-tight concrete. Information may be obtained by writing to
that office for their bulletin on oil-mixed Portland cement concrete.'

If water is piped from a stream or pond subject to pollution, the
pipe entrance should be placed in a crib and screened, as shown in
figure 2. The pipe can then empty into a receiving filter, made of
concrete, which contains fine sand, gravel, and powdered charcoal
in layers (fig. 3), and from which it empties into the cistern. The
rain-water pipe from the eave trough should be provided with a
switch or cut-off, so that the flow may be diverted to the outside—
as, for instance, for a short time at the beginning of rains—to exclude
the filth collected on the roof and gutters. An overflow pipe should
be provided in the side of the cistern and should be screened to
exclude rats and other vermin.

1U.8. Dept. Agr., Office Pub. Roads Bul. 46.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 5

i 5° 2'6” “
8 | SLATE OR FLAGSTONE
ww v\)

\ ‘\

OUTLET

PERFORATED SLATE —— ——

WTS AM TOP VIEW

Fic. 3.—Cistern filter of concrete and stone.

Dees AND SLOPING

OO; -

Fic. 4.—Water still for household use.

6 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The above treatment will, in a large measure, purify surface
water for household uses other than drinking or cooking; but if this
water is to be used for drinking or cooking it should first be boiled.

DISTILLED WATER.

Sometimes a simple still can be conveniently used on a kitchen
range to provide distilled water for drinking purposes. Saline (alkali)
waters are satisfactorily treated in this way. Figure 4 illustrates a
form of still which has been found effective and convenient for house-
hold use.t’ It has the advantage of being inexpensive and can be made
by any tinner. The still consists essentially of a water boiler (A) on
the range, having a capacity of about 14 to 2 gallons, and a condenser
suspended at the proper height from the ceilmg. The pipe (B) con-
veys steam to the condensing chamber (() and is kept cool by water
in the compartment (D). The distilled water collects in (#) and can
be drawn off from time to time or allowed to run continuously into the
bucket (F/). The metal used in the construction of the still should
be well-tinned copper and no solder should be exposed to the action
of either the steam or the distilled water. |

‘UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLIES.

CONTAMINATION.

Tt is usual to distinguish between shallow underground supplies and
deep underground supplies. Wells from 15 to 30 feet in depth to
water flowing in a layer of gravel or sand, which rests on an impervicus
stratum, are considered as sources of shallow underground supply.

Both shallow and deep farm wells are often polluted from local
sources. They are often located for convenience in the barnyard,
under the barn or stable, close to stock pens, privy vaults, or leaching
cesspools, or close to the back door, out of which household slops are
thrown and near which animal and vegetable refuse is often allowed
to accumulate and decompose. The soil surrounding the well becomes
saturated with organic filth and, unable finally to perform its useful
work of filtration and purification, allows the surface water percolating
through it to carry its load of contamination into the well.

The curbing or covering is often loosely constructed of boards,
permitting small animals and vermin to fall into the well; and
surface water carrying filth and manure, especially after rains, runs
into the well from the top.

The well may be located at such a distance from sources of con-
tamination that ordinary pumping will bring no bad results, but in
case of unusually heavy pumping the underground water surface for
a distance around the well may be sufficiently lowered to reach the
zone of contamination. This principle is illustrated in figure 5.

1 Montana Sta. Cire. 7.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. t

Deep bored or driven wells are less liable to pollution than shallow
dug or bored wells, since in the first case the wells are usually im-
perviously cased and the surface water must filter through a depth
of soil equal to the depth of the well before gaining access to it, while
in the second case the wells are usually loosely lined with brick or
stone, and the surface water, having only a short distance to filter,
seeps in through the entire depth.

That both deep and shallow wells are subject to contamination is
shown from many examinations which have been made. Of 177 deep
and 411 shallow farm wells examined in Indiana,' 116 of the deep well
waters were of good quality, 45 were bad, and 16 were doubtful; 159
of the shallow well waters were good, 209 were very bad, and 43 were
doubtful.

The safety of water supplies when near sources of possible surface
pollution often depends largely on the character and quality of the
material in which the
wellissunk. Surface WEEE
waters in sinking
through sandy soils or
surfaces are filtered,
and in the finer sands
much of the polluting |
matter which they
carry is frequently re-
moved. In coarser
sands or gravel the
degree of filtration is
less, but water taken
from sands and gravels at a considerable depth may be considered
relatively safe. Waters from wells in clay are not often polluted,
since surface pollution filters through clay very slowly.

Waters from welis in limestone are frequently polluted, owing to the
fact that limestone soils usually contain passages and channels at
different depths which sometimes form a continuous passage for
underground water for a considerable distance and which are very
often directly connected with sinks and basins occurring here and
there on the surface. It is a common practice to dump manure,
trash, and garbage into such sinks or basins, and rain water falling
into these plunges directly into the underground channels, carrying
with it the impurities from the basin to those points where wells are
sunk. In this manner garbage or refuse dumped anywhere in the
neighborhood of or even at a considerable distance from a well in
limestone may pollute the water. Figure 6 shows how the pollution
of wells and springs may occur in limestone.

ORDINARY PULMPING

VERY HEAVE PUMPING

Fic. 5.—Effect of pumping on ground water.

1 Ann. Rpts. Ind. Bd. Health, 27 (1908), p. 345; 29 (1910), p. 349.

8 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Deep wells in granite or jointed rock are often polluted, although
cased to a great depth, since polluted water may sink in a zigzag
course along the rock joints until it reaches the bottom of the well
casing. It is therefore necessary to exercise care in the location of
the well and in the preliminary protection from pollution.

WELL LOCATION AND PRELIMINARY PROTECTION.

The farm well, especially a shallow dug well, should be located
somewhat above the barns, buildings, yards, and stock pens, or at
least in such a position that the surfaco drainage from all possible
sources of animal and vegetable contamination is away from the well.
The location should also be as far removed from these sources as
convenience will permit. .

To properly safeguard wells against outside contamination, first,
all sources of contamination should be removed as far as possible.
If local conditions and prices will permit, it is a good idea to provide
impervious floors with

water-tight drains for

farm buildings and
stock pens.t Under
the same conditions
_ concrete manure pits
might well be pro-
vided to not only pre-
vent the liquid ma-
nure from polluting
the neighboring _ soil
but to save the manure. No garbage, manure, or rubbish should. be
dumped into sinks or basins in the immediate neighborhood, and these
should be fenced off and kept free from polluting matter. The house
should be provided with some safe method of sewage disposal, while
slops and garbage from the kitchen should be deposited in tightly cov-
ered garbage cans and disposed of by burying in the fields, burning, or
feeding to pigs. The use of privy vaults and leaching or overflowing
cesspools should be absolutely avoided, since they are likely to be
sources of the worst contamination. Second, the farmer should be-
come acquainted with the various types of wells and the best methods
of protection, and the well should be so protected as to exclude filth
from those sources of contamination which it has been impossible to
remove or have been overlooked.

Fic. 6.—Pollution of subsurface water in limestone.

TYPES OF WELLS AND METHODS OF SINKING.

In the selection, location, and sinking of a well it is always a good
idea to consider permanence in addition to safety. This will depend
on the kind of well used, and one should be acquainted with well

1U.S8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 481.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 9

types and methods of smkmng. The well should penetrate to levels
below that of the ground-water surface in the driest seasons.
Figure 7 illustrates four different common types of deep and shallow
wells. No. 1 shows a dug well, with pump, which may be lined with
either concrete or cemented brick. No. 2 shows a driven well,
which is constructed by attaching a point on the end of the pipe
and driving the pipe into the ground until water is reached. The
point is provided with a short length of pipe with perforations which
permit the water to enter the pipe and keeps out the sand and gravel.
This arrangement is best suited to shallow wells, as the cylinder is
near the surface in a dry well. If the depth to water is greater than
the suction limit, it is necessary to dig a dry well deep enough to place

ae oe
o| ee

Fig. 7.—Types of deep and shallow wells.

the cylinder within the suction limit. Nos. 3 and 4 are drilled wells
consisting of a small hole which may be from 3 inches to 15 inches in
diameter. ‘This hole is lined with an impervious iron casing which
prevents caving in and keeps out all water, except that which enters
at the bottom. This type of well can pass through as many water-
bearing beds as desired and none but that from the lowest will enter.
The casing is large enough to allow the cylinder to be placed below
the water surface, or as near the water as is necessary. No. 4 shows
a drilled well with a dry well installed above it to accommodate the
lower half of a pump made for underground discharge.

M. L. Fuller! states in regard to types of shallow wells and con-
ditions to which they are adapted:

Dug wells are generally circular excavations 3 to 6 feet in diameter. They are
adapted to localities where the water is near the surface, especially where it occurs

1M. L. Fuller. Domestic Water Supplies for the Farm. New York and London, 1912, p. 68.
19611°—14—__2

10 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in small seeps in clayey materials, and requires extensive storage space for its conser-
vation. Bored wells are wells bored with various types of augers from 2 inches to 3
jeet in diameter rotated or lifted by hand or horsepower. They are usually lined with
cement or tile sections with cemented joints and often with iron tubing. They are
adapted to localities where the water is at slight or medium depths and to materials
similar to those in which open wells are sunk. Punched wells are small holes usually
less than 6 inches in diameter sunk by hand or horsepower by dropping a steel cylin-
der slit at the side so as to haul and lift material by its spring. They are adapted to
clayey material in which water occurs as seeps within 50 feet of the surface, but not at
much greater depths. These wells should also be lined with tile, iron tubing, or sheet-
iron casing. Driven wells are sunk by driving downward, by hand or horsepower
apparatus, small iron tubes, usually 14 to 4 inches in diameter, and provided with
pointand screen. They are adapted to soft and fine materials, especially to sand and
similar porous materials, carrying considerable water at relatively slight depths, and
are particularly desirable
where the upper soil is
likely to be polluted.

Since most well-
water supplies are
obtained from sand
and fine gravels, the
cheapest and best
method of well sink-
ing is by driving.
In a driven well
the water can only
be polluted at the
depth of the strainer.
4 In some materials,
ee 5: Hg such as clay, it is

whch oa necessary to bore
the well, in which
case it is absolutely
necessary for safety
that the well be lined with impervious casing to the strainer. Deep
and shallow dug wells should also be lined. |

Fic. 8.—Concrete well lining, showing arrangement of forms.

PROTECTIVE WELL LININGS.

For lining shallow dug wells the latest practice has been the use
of reenforced concrete. This has also been successfully practiced in
lining deep dug wells. Concrete may be made practically impervi-
ous to water, so that a concrete-lined shallow or deep dug well can
only be polluted from the bottom.

Figure 8‘ suggests a method of linmg dug wells with concrete.
Dug wells are usually about 6 feet in diameter. The concrete need
be only about 6 inches thick with vertical steel reenforcing of 3-inch
rods spaced 18 inches apart, and circular reenforcing of }-inch steel

1F.N. Taylor. Small Water Supplies. London [1912], pp. 34-36.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. I1

rods spaced about 9 inches. The two sets should be bound together
by steel wire with the circular reenforcing placed inside the vertical.
A carefully proportioned concrete mixture of 1 part cement and 2
parts sand to 4 parts of gravel or crushed rock should be used. A cir-
cular collapsible form is necessary, with diameter 12 inches less than
the diameter of the well and about 5 feet long. The two rings, A
and B, are cut to a diameter equal to that of the shaft,
less twice the thickness of the concrete and 4 inches
for the 2-inch lining boards. The rings are made by
drawing a circle the size of the frame and laying boards
around its circumference, as shown by the figure. The
boards are then lightly tacked together and a circle
of the same radius marked on three ends. Finally,
around the circumference of the ring are fastened
boards, each 2 inches thick and of the required length
of the form. The concrete lining rests on the bottom
of the well, which has been previously leveled to re-
ceive it. A wet mixture is advisable for this class of
work. The form should be left in until the concrete
has properly set before it is raised to construct the
next section.

In regard to other types of well lining or casing
M. L. Fuller* says:

Cemented rock or brick linings protect the well from pollution,
except at the bottom, as long as the walls are not cracked. They
also prevent the entrance of sediments and animals and do not im-
part a taste to the water. Iron casings are used in both rock and
unconsolidated materials. They are usually used in deep wells.
They may be either iron tubing 1 to 4 inches in diameter, or sheet-
iron casings 4 to 16 inches in diameter, with snug joints. They are
adapted to wells of all depths in which water is obtained from a
stratum below the casing or from a stratum between cased sections,
or in case it is decided to procure water from a number of strata.

Tron casings may be obtained from manufacturers of
pumping apparatus or from hardware dealers. Figure
9 shows a type of iron casing with pump inside.

FORCING CYLINDER

Fig. 9.—Iron well
casing with pump
and cylinder in-
side.

PROTECTIVE WELL CURBINGS OR COVERINGS.

Both shallow and deep wells should have water-tight
curbs, in addition to imperviouscasings. Thedrip from
the pump is often the cause of serious pollution. The casing or lining
should extend 6 or 8 inches above the ground surface except when a
dry well is used, and a concrete curbing should be built over the top
with a slope away from the pump opening in the center. This cover
should extend at least 2 feet beyond the edge of the wellif a dug well,
and if a bored or driven well the cover should extend 4 to 6 feet in all

1M. L. Fuller. Domestic Water Supplies for the Farm. New York and London, 1912, p. 70.

12 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

directions from the center. The outer edge should be raised to form
a trough emptying into a tight drain, or a drain trough should be
provided to catch the drip. E. Bartow' suggests that the earth be
excavated for 4 feet outside of the regular casing to a depth of 4 feet
and that an extra 4-inch coating of waterproof Portland cement mortar
be placed outside this casing with 4 to 6 inches of mortar in the bot-
tom of the excavation. This bottom should have araised portion atits
outer edge to divert the seepage water to a tile drain. This arrangement
prevents surface water that has not been filtered through at least 4 feet
of earth from gaining
access to the well.
Figure 10 shows a
combination of these
protective arrange-
ments. .

SPRINGS.

Springs are good
sources of water sup-
ply, since they usu-
ally come from great
depths within rock or are filtered through many layers of sand and
cravel. However, they are subject to pollution. from the same
sources as wells and should be closely watched in this respect.
Farm spring supplies are often polluted by the drainage from build-
ings and stock pens. Spring water supplies from limestone are also
subject to pollution from distant garbage and sewage dumps in sink
holes, as shown in fig-
ure 6. Thesame pre-
cautions should be
taken for safeguard-
ing spring supplies as
in the case of wells,
and in addition the
spring should always
be fenced to keep out
stock. It should be cleaned of all trash and walled in to form a kind
of reservoir, as shown in figure 11. The supply may then be conducted
to the house by gravity or by means of ahydraulicram. Where aspring
is small a large vitrified tile may be so placed as to form a small storage
reservoir. The reservoir should be covered and protected as much
as possible from filth and vermin. After rains the spring should be
noticed for any signs of turbidity which may indicate pollution from

Fig. 11.—Method of walling in springs.

1 Univ. Ill. Bul., 7 (1909), No. 2.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 13

distant surface sources. Spring supplies should be frequently exam-
med for pollution of any kind, and the water should be boiled before
drinking, if possible, although this is not absolutely necessary in all
cases.

PUMPING, STORAGE, AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER.

After a pure water supply is made available the first things to be
considered are the quantity of water needed, choice of pumping
equipment, and means of storage and distribution.

QUANTITY OF WATER NEEDED.

The quantity of water needed depends on the power used and
whether the service is for the entire farm or for the house only.
Hand-operated systems are applicable where small quantities are
required for house service only, but in case water is wanted for stock
also the use of a windmill, engine, electric motor, or hydraulic ram
is necessary. If a windmill is used the storage should be large enough
for at least three days’ supply, to provide water in case of calm
weather. Where the other sources of power are used the storage
capacity need not exceed one day’s supply. The following table gives
approximate quantities of water required per day:

Approximate quantities of water required per day.

Gallons.
Each member of the family for all purposes will require. ......--- 25-40
Pen Comawlllne quite: means -me sete oe Moe. ie Ie ie NL le 1
PAC MOTSeHWML REQUITCS tases Co. ORR EAT BE ae Se a ae 10
Baek Nagiwilkreguires fis 24 820k. eg eg Foe AMER Meas 24
Haehysheep walllfrequiress¢.. 2 o2 225.224 gb Ss BOTs ae 2

The water consumption will vary from day to day and with the
seasons. Fire protection should also be considered, and in determin-
ing the size of tank the maximum amount likely to be required should
be provided.

For a family of 6 persons a 200-gallon supply should be sufficient
if the water is used in the house only. On a farm where water is sup-
plied to a family of 6 persons, 10 horses, 12 cows, 25 hogs, and 15
sheep, the daily storage supply should be at least 500 gallons, with
whatever additional amount, if any, the farmer deems necessary
for fire protection.

There are three general systems of storage and distribution which
may be readily applied to farm conditions, viz, the gravity, pneu-
matic, and autopneumatic systems.

14 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE GRAVITY SYSTEM.

In the gravity system water is forced into an elevated tank placed
higher than the highest discharge cock. A storage tank may be placed
in the attic, on the roof, or on a tower outside. The agricultural ex-
periment station at Ames, Iowa, has designed a silo with the storage
tank placed on top. Figure 12 shows a gravity system with the stor-
age tank in the attic and

a’
: H

% Overfiou | iY aE figure 13 (p. 16) shows the
Ee } q storage tank placed on the
2. [Attic Tank. zs windmill tower.
ST dai = Since there is consider-
ZS a 2 able frictional resistance to
g b 2 : A the flow of water through
Z silk = the distribution pipes, the
Z 3 : n tank should ‘be placed at
Z o£ least 10 feet higher than
g % the highest discharge cock
g = to insure a flow under
g a eee pressure.
Z pp ae les SS Water weighs 62.5
g fbn Tek ely SY pounds per cubic foot, or
A wR er about 8.4 pounds per gal-

FI ; lon, so that in placing a
S| tank in the attic or on the
roof the supports should be
made sufficiently strong to

uphold this weight.
Hither wooden or gal-
vanized metal tanks may
be used. Wooden tanks
may be obtained of almost
any size, either circular or
“7 rectangular in’ shape.
ee They are generally built of
Feed Pipe? Tp cedar or cypress, and are

lst Floor, : t )

slightly conical. They are
Fic. 12.—Gravity supply system with storage tank in attic. usually kn oe k e d d own
when shipped, and should be set up and filled with water as soon as
received. The foundation should be good and solid and the weight of
the tank should rest on the tank bottom and not on that part of the
stave which projects below. The capacities of circular tanks may be
found by the following: Capacity in gallons equals diameter in feet,
squared, multiplied by 0.7854, multiplied by the depth in feet,
multiplied by 7.48. One cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons. When
located in buildings wooden tanks are commonly made rectangular.

Hot Water
Gircul ation Pipes:

To Kitchen Sink:
Return

Soil Pipe.

Water Front

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 15

They may be lined with tinned copper, but never with lead. To
obviate the use of heavy planking, rods are used to rigidly tie together
the end and side braces.

Steel tanks may be purchased in circular, round end oblong, and
rectangular shapes. Commercial sizes of these tanks are given in
the following tables:

Round storage tanks.

Diameter. | Height. | Capacity. || Diameter. | Height. | Capacity.
Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Gallons.
3 2 106 5 3 440
4 2 189 5 4 588
4 De 235 5 5 735
4 3 283 5 6 880
4 4 378 53 8 1, 400
4 5 470 6 2 423
4 6 567 6 24 528
4 8 756 6 3 635
5 2 299 6 4 845
5 23 368 6 5 1,056

Round end storage tanks.

Width.|Height.| Length. | Capacity. Width. Height. Length. | Capacity.
Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons.
2 2 4 118 4 2 14 820
2 2 5 150 4 2 16 945
2 4 6 181 4 23 8 536
2 2 7 202 4 23 10 756
2 2 8 236 4 2b 16 1, 200
2 2 10 299 4 3 8 725
2 23 8 299 4 3 10 915
24 2 8 299 4 5 10 1, 480
24 2 10 378 5 2 16 1, 200
3 24 8 378 5 2 16 1, 480
3 2 8 362 6 2 8 740
3 2 10 440 6 2 10 900
3 Dee 8 440 6 2 16 1, 420
3 24 10 567 6 24 8 900
3 3 10 662 6 24 10 1,120
4 2 8 473 6 3 10 1,340
4 2 10 598 6 4 10 1, 760
4 2 12 693 6 | 9 10 2, 200

}

Tanks 4 feet long, 1 top brace; 5, 6, and 7 feet, 1 side and 1 top brace; 8
feet, Zside and 1 top brace; 10 feet, 3 side and 2 top braces; 16 feet, 5 side
and 3 top braces.

Square end storage tanks.

Width.) Height. | Length. | Capacity. Width, Heit Length. | Capacity.
Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons.
2 2 4 118 3 2 10 448
2 i 5 150 3 2k 8 448
2 2 6 181 3 23 10 565
2 2 il 210 3 3 10 673
2 2 8 240 4 2 8 478
2 23 8 299 4 2 10 - 598
23 2 8 299 4 24 8 598
22 23 8 378 4 24 10 748
3 2 8 360 4 3 8 718

Tanks 4, 5, and 6 feet long, 1 side and 1 top brace; 7 and 8 feet, 2 side, 1
top brace, 10 feet, 3 side, 2 top braces; longer and deeper tanks are extra
well braced. :

16 BULLETIN 57, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE PNEUMATIC TANK SYSTEM.

The pneumatic tank system consists of a force pump, an air-tight
steel tank, necessary pipe, valves, fittings, ete., and power for operat-

WN
PETTITT TTA
PITTI IT TT AM
AHS BOBRESSaoa
JARED RERARL

Lia nase Seeaes
Sass

Fic. 13.—Gravity supply system with storage tank on

é
a

RCRINCNANCACNANCESS
TG: OO aig hers sor Or aot es OO

Ww
Z
QPWWS Ia
LLL LET
Ly
Li
dD
SF
A a
ptt [1]
tia S a
aS <<“

windmill tower.

ing the pump. The system
may be a small one operated
by hand, windmill, or small
engine, or it may consist of a
large pump operated bya pow-
erful engine with two or more
tanks of large capacity. The
tank may be placed in the base-
ment or underground, thus
keeping the water cool and
preventing freezing. Figure
14 shows a pneumatic system
with the tank in the basement
and supplied by a hand force
pump. This figure also well
illustrates the water plumbing.
Figure 15shows the tank in the
basement supplied by a wind-
mill deep-well pumping outfit.
The tank may be set in the
eround below frost line close

~ to the well or house foundation.

In the operation of the preu-
matic system water is forced
into the air-tight tank, thus
compressing the air into a
smaller space and creating an
air pressure which forces the
water to the discharge cocks.
In determining the capacity
of the tank, then, it is neces-
sary that about one-third of

the computed storage capacity be added to provide space for the

compressed air.

matic tanks

The following table gives commercial sizes of pneu-

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 17

Commercial sizes of pneumatic tanks.

D ane Length. | Weight. | Capacity. || P pe Length. | Weight. | Capacity.
Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Gallons. Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Gallons.
jo ob eile teppei aed tba meee diana
py 10 675 245 42 14 2) 200 1,000
30. 6 560 220 42 16 2,400 1,150
30 8 700 295 A8 10 2,066 1,000
30 10 870 365 48 12 2,320 1,130
30 12 900 440 48 14 2,610 1,300
es ey vai fide. cays dn) 288 ee
36 10 1,050 52 =} S48 20 3,950 1, 880
36 12 1,200 630 48 24 4, 650 2) 260
42 8 1, 450 575 60 20 | 98,900 2,940
| |
i }
ee
ie Oe
| V2" PIPES LL
- on aL NEY FR ay OS
_———
——
ee pe CEMINGP

aN
Ya" PIPE }
= CY

ae
es

iz
12]

[*]
es |

4
joked

A el fe Ee
mee
ees id es

ia
al

—

dat Egy
J! STOP & WASTE COCA

b / V2" CHECK VALVE
hy / Ka" STOP COCH
JIB" PIPE

Fig. 14.—Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force pump.

Each tank is equipped with a pressure gauge which will show the
internal pressure at any time. If water is pumped into the tank
until the pressure gauge registers 25 pounds, water can be forced
about 60 feet above the tank. If a discharge cock 20 feet above the
tank is opened, water is discharged until the pressure falls to 8.6

19611°—14—_3

pounds, when it is insufficient to deliver the remaining water 20
feet high. It will also be found that when air is compressed in the
same tank with water, the water gradually absorbs the air, thus
making constant renewal of the air necessary. Both of the above
troubles are overcome by compressing excess air in with the water
until the pressure gauge again registers 25 pounds, if the tank is half
full of water. Excess air pressure may be secured by an air intake
valve in the suction pipe, controlled by hand, by a combination of
air and water pump, or by use of an air compressor when power is used.

| 18 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
if

“&S Zs le S

y Tf

LSE

ZA
MUL SAYVSE

Fig. 15.—Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by windmill deep-well
pumping outfit. :

The following table gives the pressures in the tank necessary to
force water to certain heights in the house:

Feet head of water and equivalent pressure in tank.

‘ Pressure ili fe Pressure . Pressure
Elevation. sine; Elevation. sa icoeaile, Elevation. Sbaikvalte
| ee. zs a 2 ones
Feet. Pounds. Feet. Pounds. Feet. Pounds.
1 0. 43 20 8. 66 75 32. 48
2 . 87 25 10. 83 80 34. 65
3 1.30 30 ‘ 12. 99 85 36. 81
4 1.7% 35 15. 16 90 38. 98
5 2.17 40 17. 32 95 41.14
6 2. 60 45 19. 49 100 43.31
7 3.03 50 21.55 110 47. 64
8 3.40 55 23. 82 120 51. 97
9 3.90 60 25.99 130 56. 30
10 4.33 65 28. 15 140 60. 63
15 6. 50 70 30.32 150 64. 96

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 19

Pipe friction should be included in computing the pumping height,
as discussed under ‘‘Pumping.”’

THE AUTOPNEUMATIC SYSTEM.

In the autopneumatic system the water is delivered fresh from the
well to the faucets. This system consists essentially of an air com-
pressor driven by a small gas engine or electric motor, an air-tight
steel air-pressure tank, and one or more autopneumatic pumps. No
water tank is required, since nothing is stored but compressed air.
The pump consists of two small metallic chambers submerged in the
water, and when a faucet is opened they automatically fill and dis-
charge, owing to the
air pressure from the
storage tank, thus
giving a continuous
flow of fresh water.

Figure 16. illus-
trates the principle
of operation of the ceusr rave
pump. Suppose a eke
small air-tight tank
A with inlet valve
is submerged in
water and allowed to
fill. A discharge pipe
B is connected at shes as lope
the bottom leading
upward to faucet
K. Compressed
air is forced through
pipe C into the
top of the tank so

that the water is
Fig. 16.—Princi i i i &
f orce d out through 1G rinciple of operation of an autopneumatic pump

FROM COMIPRESSED
AR TANK

EXHAUST VALVE
OPEN

|_ INLET VAL TALE INLET VALVE
CLOSED EG 7 a OPEN) 4

Fy _ CYLINDER AGS Th SEES

= CscmaRcing —— — CYLINDER "D* _
ATER ——— EXHAUSTING AND
—_ — FEFIL

LING —

the discharge pipe until the tank is emptied of water. A similar
tank Dis connected as shown. The pump has a device for auto-
matically opening and closing the air valves and exhaust valves to the
tanks alternately. While A is emptying of water D is filling, and
they discharge alternately.

Figure 17A gives a front and side view of an autopneumatic pump
and figure 17B shows the entire working parts of a system and also
how the pump may be used in bored and cased wells.

Each pump requires an air-pressure reducer, shut-off and release
cocks, pressure gauge, etc. The air-pressure reducer is necessary to
reduce the high pressure carried in the tank to the uniform low pres-
sure required to operate the pump. It is placed in the air-pipe line

20 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

between the air tank and the pneumatic pump. It can be adjusted
to the proper pressure with an ordinary wrench. The proper work-
ing pressure required to operate the pump and raise water to the

PRESSURE REDUCER

34" PLU/TIP GAUGE
PRIITING COCK

Sy, ZA
Ya" TEE —" ll VB" CUTS. Bz
INCREASER 7 F Y8" TEE
UNION

AUR PIPE LINE

MANHOLE
g
q
K
)
sat Ww 3
q SV ae
wS2 t 78
> ON el} ||
yet | &|{||%
bit SHIFTING LEVER ‘y\\\|o
‘i WG s
S

YS"ANIR PYRE
WATER O/S-
CHARGE PIPE

—_-WELL CASING
i<—LOW WATER LEVEL

ING REASEFA
VR" PIPE

WATER CYLINDERS
=)
YA DISCHARGE PIPE

ly K
Q ly
= N
Wy NO6 rs
Ny) WUTO - PNEUMATIC rt
& PUIP & |:
\y ty |:
: Re
R ES
| SIDE
' VIEW
B A
Fie. 17.—Working parts of an autopneumatic pumping system: A, Front and side view; B,entire working

system as used in bored or cased wells.

required height in the building is recorded on the pump gauge
placed on the air-pipe line between the reducer and the pump. ‘The
following table shows the number of gallons of water that can be

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 21

drawn from faucets with the pump under working ‘pressures varying
from 25 to 65 pounds and total starting pressures in a 1,000-gallon
air tank varying from 40 to 100 pounds:

Pumping capacity of a 1,000-gallon air tank, in gallons, under varying internal pressures.

Work . Total pressure in air tank at start.
pressure
on pump
guage. 40 pounds. | 50 pounds. | 60 pounds. | 70 pounds. | 80 pounds. | 90 pounds. | 100 pounds.
Pounds. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
25 375 259 833 1,075 1,310 1,548 1, 786
30 221 |. 442 663 884 1,105 1,326 1,548
35 102 306 510 714 924 1,123 1,327
FAQWO Tan Eon neta 187 374 561 748 936 1,123
EAE EN ob Besa bean Co aes 85 255 425 596 765 936
GU) og | 3 Smee by ata lem aera eo ge 153 306 460 612 765
| ENG} cI OR Sead REED Its Ae ae 68 204 330 476 612
| GO ayes ees Yeepeepesies cleneeea (RS ea 119 237 375 476
at 3d IE ee aa Ti ie allege 51 153 255 a5
| |
ZB
rh q [EEE a
paaaer eye ae al Z
= =< —_—=imerie SYVvS.- — = - Se re RS Oe eee ee A
=) Z
<—— | sommes] THE |
OOS. AeA Ty © Iii

LL dA

CELESTE LI

et eh ee

HARRY

Wo Vey
Cnt te A Me,

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RIMM YASS

———.
rw ———

— A153 A
ZZZ_ZZZZZEZZZZEZ AT TF Parone sh
AIP COMPRESSOR |G fee tie ay

a
NN

/_ZZZZZZZZZZ_E_ZEZEZEZE
WELL WATER

ANUVLAARLRARARRYRAANY}

cite

i eo
tl

i EX ZA
AUTOPNEUMATIC PUMP |B AUTOPNEUMATIC PUMP

i]
Ul be

ARAN AANA ARARARARLEALNERURRUR ARANIR [RAT

Fig. 18.—Application of autopneumatic system to a farm home.

For air tanks of other than 1,000-gallon capacity divide the figures
in the table by 1,000, move the dectmal point three places to the left,
and multiply the result by the capacity of the tank in gallons.

Assume, for example, that the height to which the water is to be
raised and the pressure required to operate the pump, including
friction, make necessary a working pressure of 40 pounds on the
pump. Then if the initial pressure in the air tank is 50 pounds, 187
gallons of water can be delivered at the faucets before the pressure in
the air tank becomes too low to operate the pump.

The autopneumatic pump can be used in wells, springs, or lakes
where the water is free from sand and mud and does not have to be

22 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lifted more than 100 feet, or where the working pressure on the pump

does not exceed 65 pounds.

Figure 18 illustrates the application of this system to a farm home.

PUMP FRAIIES

PLUNGER OR
FORCE PISTON

DOUELE ACTING
PULP CYLIVOER

LIFTING FUSTOM
WITH VALVE

Fic. 19.—Force pump with cylinder submerged in shallow well.

PUMPING.

The water level in shal-
low wells is usually near
enough to the surface to
be within the limits of
suction. The limiting
practical suction lift for
a pump is about 20 feet,
although it will vary with
the elevation above sea
level. This: means that
the pump cylinder which
raises the water by suction
in lift pumps and which
raises by suction and also
forces the water in force
pumps should not be more
than 20 feet above the
water level in the well.
To practically eliminate
suction lift the cylinder
may be submerged as
shown in figure 19, thus
making the cylinder and
pump frame separate and
connected only by a sec-
tion of pipe. This pre-
vents the valves from dry-
ing out and makes the
pumpself-priming. Force
pumps often have two
cylinders, and in deep
wells it is necessary that
the lower or suction cyl-
inder be either submerged
or within at least 15 feet
of the water level. In

the figure shown the forcing cylinder is within the suction cylinder.
The suction of any type of pump must be air-tight.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 23

To find the approximate discharge at each stroke of a pump in
gallons use the following table:

Table of capacity of pumps.

Length of stroke in inches.

Diameter) —_ 7
of cyl- : ae ay aN 8
inder in ; |
inches.

) | 10 | 12 14 | 15 | 16

Capacity per stroke in gallons.

1 0.017 | 0.020} 0.024] 0.027} 0.031} 0.034} 0.041 | 0.048) 0.051 | 0.054
ips - 022 - 026 - 030 - 034 - 039 - 043 - 052 - 060 -065 | .069
i - 027 - 032 - 037 - 043, - 048 - 053 . 064 - 074 -079 | .085
13 - 032 - 039 . 044 - 051 - 058 064 077 - 089 -096 | .103
ity - 038 . 046 - 054 - 061 - 069 077 - 092 - 107 115] .122
1} | ..052 . 063 073 - 083 - 094 - 104 125 - 146 -156 | .170
2 - 068 . 082 - 095 - 109 - 122 . 136 . 163 - 190 -204 | .218
24 - 086 - 103 121 - 138 - 155 172 - 206 241 -258 | .275
2s - 106 - 128 . 149 -170 - 191 213 - 255 - 298 -319} .340
23 - 129 - 154 - 180 . 206 . 231 257 - 309 - 360 -386 | . 411
3 - 153 . 184 214 ~ 245 275 - 306 - 367 - 428 -459 | . 489
3 179 215 - 251 - 287 -323 - 309 - 431 - 503 -539 | .575
3s - 208 - 249 - 292 - 333 -375 417 . 499 - 583 -625 | . 666
+ - 239 - 287 +339 - 382 - 430 - 478 574 - 669 717} =. 765

i 272 - 326 381 - 435 - 490 - 044 - 653 - 762 -816} .870
4} 307 - 368 - 429 - 491 - 553 . 614 137 - 860 -921 | .982

45 344 413 - 482 ool - 619 - 689 - 826 -964 | 1.033 | 1.102
43 384 - 460 +537 - 614 - 690 . 767 -920 | 1.073 | 1.150 | 1. 227
5 - 425 -510 - 595 - 680 - 765 -850 | 1.020] 1.190) 1.275 | 1. 360
be - 469 - 062 - 656 - 750 - 843 937 | 1.124] 1.311] 1.405 | 1. 499
os -ol4 - 617 . 720 - 823 -926 | 1.029] 1.234) 1.440] 1.543 | 1.646
52 - 562 - 674 «787 -899 |} 1.011) 1.124) 1.348} 1.573} 1.686 | 1.798
6 612 734 - 857 -979 |} 1.102} 1.224] 1.469) 1.714) 1.836] 1.958

The discharge per stroke as shown by the above table may be
multiplied by the number of strokes per minute to find the discharge
in gallons per minute.

The power required for pumping will depend on the number of
gallons per minute one wishes to pump and the total lift.

The total lift is the vertical distance from the surface of the water
in the well to the highest faucet or to the storage tank plus the
friction loss in the pipes. If the length of distribution pipe is over
100 feet the loss by frictional resistance in feet of lift should be
determined and included in the total lift. The following table gives
the frictional loss in feet of lift per 100 feet in pipes from ? to 4 inches
in diameter, discharging from 5 to 40 gallons per minute.

Fractional loss in feet for 100 feet clean iron pipes.

5 7.6 1.9 0. 71 0. 27 0. 09 0. 05 CUS) DIS I ered Se eee
10 29.9 7.3 1.4 1.0 - 28 - 09 - 05 ONOU A Fee aes
15 66. 0 16.1 5.5 2.2 or 18 - 09 - 05 0. 02
20 115.0 28. 0 9.5 4.8 - 96 -32 13 -07 03
25 179. 0 43. 7 14.7 6.0 iL? - 48 23 09 05
30 264. 0 63. 2 21.0 8.6 2.1 - 69 -30 14 07
35 372.0 85. 1 28. 9 11.6 2.7 - 92 39 20 11
49 461.0 110.0 37. 0° 14.9 3.7 1.2 - 53 25 14

1 Kilis and Howland’s experiments.

24 BULLETIN 57, U. S..DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Water weighs 62.5 pounds per cubic foot and there are 7.48 gallons
in a cubic foot. Divide the number of gallons pumped per minute
by 7.48 to get the cubic feet pumped per minute. Multiply the
cubic feet by 62.5 pounds to get the weight of water pumped per
minute. Multiply the weight by the total lift, which will give the
foot-pounds of work per minute; 33,000 foot-pounds per minute
equal 1 horsepower. Divide the foot-pounds per minute by 33,000
and the result will be horsepower. The horsepower as computed
from the quantity pumped per minute and the
total lift should be doubled, as a pumping outfit
usually has an efficiency of about 50 per cent.
In general, from 1 to 3 horsepower is all that
is required for ordinary farm pumping. In
cases where water for the house only is wanted,
4 to ? of a horsepower is sufficient.

TYPES OF PUMPS.

There are several types of pumps which may
be used in farm pumping. The most common
are the ordinary lift pumps which simply
raise the water to the ground surface from a

shallow well. For elevated tank systems and
pneumatic tank systems the combination lift
and force pump is necessary. If a special air
pump or compressor is not employed it is
necessary that a combination air and water
pump be used for pneumatic tanks, especially
in pumping from deep wells.

There are many types of hand force pumps
for shallow and deep well pumping which may
be applied to either elevated tank or pneumatic
tank systems.

Figure 15, page 18, shows a deep-well wind-

Fic. 20.—Pumping jack foreither mill pumping outfit applied to a pneumatic
deep or shallow well pumping. tank system, and figure 13, page 16, shows a
shallow well windmill pumping outfit supplying water to a tank on
the windmill tower. Figure 20 is a pumping jack which may be
connected with a deep or shallow well pumping outfit applied to
either system. This jack may be operated by gas engine or electric
motor. Figure 21 shows two other types of windmill force pumps,
A for shallow wells, and B for deep wells.

In obtaining information from the manufacturers of pumping
equipment as to the particular equipment which will suit certain
needs, the power required, etc., it is well to send data on the follow-
ing: The source of water supply, whether a well, spring, or surface

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 25

supply; imside diameter and total depth of the well; the distance
from the ground surface to the water level in the well; the flow of the
well; the number of gallons to be pumped per hour; the relative
positions of the water supply and the point to which the water is to be
forced; the position in which the pump is to be placed; one’s pref-
erence as to pneumatic tank, elevated tank, or autopneumatic sys-
tem; the kind of power to be used, and whether or not power is
already available, such as electric motors, windmills, or gasoline
engines, with a com-
plete description of the
power, its revolutions
per minute, voltage,
cycles, phase, direct
or alternating cur-
rent, etc.

Where a supply of
pure water may be
obtained in the imme-
diate neighborhood,
which is so situated
that a considerable
fall may be obtained
with a reasonable
distance, a hydraulic
ram may be used for
pumping.

THE HYDRAULIC RAM—

HINTS ON INSTALLATION
AND OPERATION.

The hydraulic ram
is a simple though
wasteful machine,
which utilizes the mo-

mentum of a stream of A B

water falling a small Fig. 21.—T wo types of windmill force pump: A, For shallow wells;
B, for deep wells.

height to elevate a
portion of that water to a greater height. A complete installation
consists of a drive pipe, ram, and delivery pipe, and the ram itself
consists of an air chamber, dash valve, delivery valve, and body pipe.

The hydraulic ram is usually used to elevate water from a pure
spring. Water may be elevated from streams to stock tanks, but
this water should not be used for household purposes. The flow of
the spring should not be less than one-half gallon per minute. It
is necessary that there be considerable difference in elevation between

26 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the level of the supply and a convenient location for the ram within a
Figure 22 shows a cross section of a simple type

reasonable distance.
Figure 23 shows the usual relative positions of

of hydraulic ram.
spring, ram, and storage tank.

Wilittttsstpeprerth, sstatsssseettten

Moy,

eS Ly Ly
= SWS See ee
i

Fic. 22.—Cross section of simple type of hydraulic ram.

The operation of a ram may be briefly explained as follows: The

water flowing down the drive pipe acquires a certain energy due to its
weight and velocity and upon entering the body pipe of the ram strikes

LIFT, 1, WILL VARY WITH READING
ON PRESSURE GAUGE.

POUND OF PRESSURE (5 EQUAL
~ 70 2.3 FEET OF HEAD.

RAST FIT ear
Fig. 23.—Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual relative position
of spring, ram, and storage tank.

the open dash valve with considerable force, which js sufficient to
close it. The resuJt is that the water piles up and exerts an interior
pressure, which causes the delivery valve to open, admitting water

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 27

into the air chamber. (See fig.22.) The water then rebounds back
up the drive pipe until forced down again by the weight of the water
in the drive pipe, and the operation is repeated. During each momen-
tary reflow a small quantity of water is forced into the air chamber,
compressing the air. The resulting air pressure forces water up the
delivery pipe to the point of delivery. The operation of a ram is
continuous, once started, until the valves become worn. The ordi-
nary small ram completes its cycle about 60 times a minute, the length
-of stroke of the dash valve governing the number of pulsations per
minute.

The length of drive pipe is most important and is governed by the
ratio of the fall to the elevation. If too long or too short the auto-
matic supply of air is interfered with and the efficiency impaired.
The length of drive pipe is usually about 7 times the height of fall,
although this may vary between 5 and 10, depending on the height
and distance to which water is to be delivered. The diameter of the
drive pipe is usually twice that of the discharge pipe.

DELIVERY VALVE

BSO2PY PIPE
Fig. 24.—Double acting hydraulic ram, showing method of using a turbid creek supply to pump clear
spring waiter.

The proper size of ram to suit certain conditions depends on the
followmg: (1) The flow of water from the source of supply,. deter-
mined by the time necessary to fill a vessel of known capacity or by
welr measurement; (2) the difference between the level of the supply
and the lowest point within a reasonable distance for the location of
the ram; (3) the distance between the source of supply and the pro-
posed location of the ram; (4) the difference in level between the ram
location and the highest point to which water is to be delivered; (5)
length of pipe necessary to conduct the water to the point of delivery.
In purchasing a ram this information should be sent to manufac-
turers.

Sometimes a double-acting ram is installed where there is a spring
too small to operate a single-acting ram but located near a brook from
which an ample supply and fall can be obtained to operate the ram.
These are so constructed that if properly installed under a fall of at
least 2 feet below the spring and 3 feet below the brook it is impossi-
ble to deliver anything but the spring water. Figure 24 illustrates

28 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this method. If this method is preferred, it should be so stated in
purchasing. The following table gives approximate sizes of hy-
draulic rams to suit certain conditions.

Sizes of hydraulic rams.

Dimensions. | Quantity
_| Size of Size of | per minute} Least fall |
Number. | drive | delivery | required recom-
to operate | mended.

P rs pipe. pipe.
| Height. | Length. | Width. engine.

5 | Ft.ins.| Ft.ins.| Ft.ins. Ins. Ins. Gallons. Feet.
102. tars | 2.2 2 10 0 12 13 2 2- 6 2
1 fe ea es ore 2.2 oan 0 12 13 2 6-12 2
2 aes 2 eo 3 iL 692 2 1 8-18 2
25 2 5 3 4 fh 23 1 12-28 2
30 soe reed 2a od, iS} 3 14 20-40 2
Hos! 76: BPE 4 9 1 8 4 2 30-75 2

There are four separate problems connected with the hydraulic ram.
These, with practical examples, are described by W. C. Davidson +
as follows: (1) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of water desired,
find the necessary supply at spring. (2) Given the lift, quantity of
drive water, and quantity of water desired, find the fall required.
(3) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of drive water, find the quantity
of water supplied to the storage tank. (4) Given the fall, quantity
of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find how high this
water can be pumped.

The computations which follow are hased upon an approximate rule,
which is stated as follows: Multiply the fall in feet by the quantity of
water supplied to the ram in gallons per minute, divide the product
by the height the water is to be raised, and the result will be in
gallons per minute. This may be expressed in an equation as follows:

OxH
af,
H=fall in feet from spring to ram. h=height of storage tan!:
above the ram in feet. g=quantity of water pumped in gallons per
minute. The result should be reduced by about one-third to allow
for friction.

Example i. It is desired to find the quantity of drive water in
the spring necessary to raise 8 gallons per minute to a height of
60 feet, when the head of drive water on the ram is 8 feet. Sub-
stituting in the equation @ sige gallons per minute.
In this case about one-third of the result should be added to allow
for friction in pipes, valves, etc., making the necessary drive water
supply 80 gallons.

, in which Q=supply of spring in gallons per minute.

1 Missouri Bd. Agr. Mo. Bul., 10 (1912), No. 2.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 29

Example 2. It is desired to find the necessary fall from the spring
to the ram in order to supply the storage tank with 2 gallons per
minute, when the drive water supply in the spring is 10 gallons per
minute and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet.

Substituting in the equation H= “xa a oe =8 feet. Add one-third

to allow for friction, making the total fall necessary 10.66 feet.
Example 3. It is desired to find how much water will be delivered
into the storage tank if the drive water supply is 6 gallons per minute,
the fall is 10 feet, and the height to which the water is to be pumped
is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation poe 1b
gallons per minute. Deduct one-third of this result to allow for
friction, making the quantity delivered per minute 1 gallon.
Example 4. It is desired to find how high 1 gallon per minute
can be pumped if the drive water supply is 4 gallons per minute

and the fall is 15 feet. Substituting in the equation pee
=x* 60 feet. Deduct one-third to allow for friction, making the

result 40 feet.

The above computations are only approximate, but should give a
good general idea of the operation of a ram.

The following table gives commercial estimates of the quantities of
water delivered in 24 hours under certain conditions:

Capacity of hydraulic rams.

Power Pumping head in feet—
head iE
in | |
feet. | 4 | 10 | lo | 20 | 30 | 140} 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 120 | 140 | 160 | 180 | 200
2 | 540 | 192) 128) 96) 64; 43] 29
Bi |josoue 301 | 192 | 144) 96) 72] 58
Ay rc oes 432 | 256 | 192 | 128 | 96] 77
ON eei= 26 540 | 345 | 240 | 160 | 120) 96
@) Saowalleeeer 432 | 302 | 192 | 144 | 115
| es aT 505 | 378 | 235 | 168 | 134
&|Ssocelloondolleadee 432 | 270 | 192 | 154
Oi ABuecloacos pecee 485 | 300 | 216 | 173
10. e 5 8 eecealicsoc 540 | 360 |1252 | 192
WA Vocosollesage cogs||osa55 430 | 301 | 230
oe lecaeel EGce Sesee 505 | 353 | 270
LG | 3 seaeel eas ol ea ches aa 432 | 323
USS TSS isthe hei i es es Nisan alleles 486 | 390
AO Cee Spee Sea aeee peed 540 | 430
PA ARS nc Fee Kee es aE a | CAS ito ips Ns 475 le
Pie Co ESE Bllbe Seale mee ieee a 520 | 405 | 346 | 288 | 256 | 230 | 192 | 164 | 144 | 128 |115
ASS ees Ese (oes |e acca tes Sl ei 470 | 375 | 3828 | 278 | 250 | 208 | 178 | 156 | 139 |125
2S Nice disp ose|scocelossos lasaie feeeeet iene 505 | 480 | 354 | 300 | 269 | 224 | 192 | 168 | 149 |134
SLO ese A Ra 1 os IT es Pea see | 540 | 465 | 405 | 336] 288 | 240 | 206 | 180 | 160 |144
I

! Multiply factor opposite ‘power head”? and under “pumping head” by the number of gallons per
minute used by the engine and the result will be the number of gallons delivered per day. Example: With
a supply of 6 gallons per minute, 10 feet fall, 40 feet elevation, No. 10 or 15 engine wiil deliver 1,512 gallons
per day; 6 252=1,512.

This table will give only approximate quantities since the results will vary with the length of delivery
pipe. Due consideration of pipe friction will give more correct results.

The efficiency developed is governed by the ratio of fall to pumping head, being greatest for a ratio of 1 to
2% or 1 to 3, and the ram will not usually work well when the ratio is over 1 to 25, friction in the delivery
pipe being duly considered.

30 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The spring should be walled in to form a reservoir as shown in the
discussion of springs, page 12. If a stream is used it should be
dammed back until a sufficient flow and fall is obtained.

Rams may be obtained to supply water for both elevated tank and
pneumatic tank systems. In purchasing a ram this should also be
specified.

In order to obtain the desired fall it is often necessary to convey
the water a greater distance than the length of drive pipe used.
Figure 25 illustrates two methods of securing the necessary fall.

It is necessary to provide a shelter for the hydraulic ram to prevent
freezing in cold weather. The pipes should also be placed below the
frost line. In setting a ram the foundation should be firm and level.
The drive pipe should be laid on a perfectly straight incline without

SUPPLY 7TANPT DRIVE TANA,
a WATER LEVEL

SPRING

PAI PIT

Fic. 25.—Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe.

bends or curves, except where the pipe enters the ram, and this
should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings should not be used.
The upper end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the sur-
face of the water to prevent air suction—at least afoot. A good open
strainer should be provided at the upper end also. Above all things
the drive pipe should be air-tight.

The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary bends, according
to the usual practice in laying water pipes, but all pipes should be
connected before starting the engine and they should be left uncovered
until all leaks are stopped. However, there should be as few bends
and elbows in the delivery pipe as possible in order to reduce friction.

Manufacturers of hydraulic rams should supply directions for the
proper installation, operation, and care of their particular rams, and
these directions should be carefully followed.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. ol

PLUMBING.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED.

The important points to be considered in the arrangement of a
plumbing system are (1) durability of material and construction, and
(2) simplicity. Avoid any complication of pipes and arrange the
water pipes so as to carry the water to the point of discharge in as
nearly a straight line as possible. The use of lead pipe or lead-lined
receptacles for drinking water should be avoided in small private

systems.
WATER PLUMBING.

The main pipe from the supply tank should be about 14 inches
in diameter and never less than 1 inch. It leads to the kitchen
range and then branches. One branch conveys cold water to the
fixtures and the other conveys water through the heater, through the
hot-water tank, and thence to the hot-water fixtures. The hot-
water pipe should parallel the cold-water pipe but should not be so
close to it that the temperature of either will affect that of the other.
The arrangement of water pipes, hot-water tank, etc., is shown in
figure 14. The hot-water pipes are shown in black. All water pipes
should be put in with red lead and all fittings should be screwed tight.
The natural direction of travel of hot water 1s upward, and this should
be aided, in arranging the hot-water pipes, as much as possible.

The sizes of pipes generally used for supplying water to the various
fixtures are given in the following table:

Size of water pipes in building.

ays |
Low | High

Low High
| pressure. | pressure.

Supply branches. pressure. | pressure.

Supply branches.

)

| Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
fol 4 aN

To bath cocks...............- 3 || To water-closet flush pipes...- 1 el en
To basin cocks.......-.-..---- £ 3-4 || To kitchen sinks____/__2.-._._. 5 3 i §
To water-closet flush tank -._. 3 3 Moy panithyacinkee ee seeelennes a g-4
To water-closet flush valve. -- 1-14 SET |i) UNO Slo SMG oho bbe ocasaacbe 5 3 1 8

All water pipes should have sufficient slant to drain them back into
the tank or drainage system, and a drain pipe and cock should be
provided at the low point in the system, so that in extremely cold
weather the system may be drained into the sewer or drainage system
to prevent freezing. This necessitates a stop cock on the pressure-
tank outlet to prevent draiming the tank. .

Pipes should be kept from the outer walls to prevent freezing, and
pipes located where they are in any danger whatever of freezing
should be boxed in sawdust or some other nonconducting material.

Since a plentiful supply of hot water is convenient and a large
quantity retains heat for some time, it is well to provide a fairly large
hot-water tank. However, the size of boiler depends on the existing

eae.

32 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

conditions, such as the water supply and the size of buildmg. A safe
rule is to allow a 35 or 40 gallon boiler to a building having one bath-
room and to add 30 gallons additional capacity for every extra bath-
room. One hundred square inches of water-back heating surface is
sufficient for a 40-gallon boiler.

Boilers should be galvanized inside and out, particularly inside-
Copper boilers are preferable if properly coated inside with block tin.
These are classed as
light, heavy, and ex-
tra heavy, the latter
being tested to 150
pounds water pres-
sure. Ordinary steel
I or iron boilers are
tested to 150 pounds
water pressure and
extra heavy ones to
250 pounds pressure.
The latter should be used when the gauge pressure is more than 40
pounds per square inch.. The following table gives standard sizes of
galvanized boilers:

rad
poe

Fic. 26.—Sewer trap at house foundation, showing ventilator.

Standard sizes of galvanized boilers.”

Capacity. Length. | Diameter. | Capacity. Length. | Diameter.
| |
| Gallons. Feet Inches. || Gallons. Feet. Inches.
18 12 48 14
21 34 12 | 52 5 16
24 4 12 | 53 4 18
24 3 14 63 6 16
27 4h | 12 66 5 18
28 34 14 | 79: 6 18
30 5 12 | 82 5 20
32 4 14 | 98 6 20
35 5 13 | 100 5 22
36 6 12 120 6 22
36 4h 14 | 120 5 24
Peres 5 14 144 6 24
42 4 16 | 168 7 24
kite 47 43 16 | 182 8 24

SEWER PLUMBING.

he sewer plumbing serves as a drain for the water plumbing.
The drainage system should be so constructed as to carry away com-
pletely everything emptied into it, and it should be constantly vented,
frequently and thoroughly flushed, and have each of its openings into
the house securely guarded. All drains, soil pipe, and waste pipe
should be water-tight and air-tight. The soil pipe or house-drainage
main begins at the sewer opening and passes up through the house
as nearly vertical as possible and out through the roof for free venti-
lation. It should be at least 4 inches in diameter, of extra heavy
cast iron, and all joints should be tightly calked with lead and oakum.
All discharge from the wash basins, sinks, and toilets empties into

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 33

the soil pipe, and connections should be tightly made. The sewer
inside the cellar wall should always be soil pipe; tile should never be
used except outside of the wall. A soil-pipe trap should be provided
at the house foundation, as shown in figure 26. Every fixture should
have a trap to prevent foul air from coming back through the waste
pipe. Vent pipes should be provided on all waste pipes to prevent
siphonage and the consequent destroying of the traps. Figure 27
(p. 34) shows a good arrangement of sewer plumbing.’ Note the
traps and vent pipes on each waste pipe. The least sizes of waste
and vent pipes are given in the table below.

Sizes of waste and vent pipes.

Namie of pipe. Diameter. Name of pipe. Diameter.
|
|
Inches. | Inches.

Main and branch soil pipe ..-..--.-..- 4 || Wash tubs, 14-inch waste pipe to 2-
Main waste pipes: (2320. . seit se 2 iravela\ (sez 0) HOw D WbIOSS oooecussoeceace- 14-2
Branch waste pipes for kitchen sinks. . 2 Waste pipe for 3 or 4 tubs...-....---.- 2
Bath or sink waste pipe.......-------- 13-2 Main vents and long branches. .....-.. 2
Basin waste pipe. .-....--------------- 1{-1, || Branch vents for traps over 2 inches... 2
Pantry sink waste pipe...-.--.------- 14 || Branch vents for traps less than 2 inches G
NOeLE-CLOSCLULAD I= = cee ieee ee elise =e 33-4

All plumbing should be tested by filling with water or smoke to
detect leaks.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION AND DISPOSAL.

The problem of the purification and disposal of farm sewage by
small private systems differs somewhat from that of city sewage dis-
posal, owing principally cto the extreme fluctuations in flow, small
size of the system, fresh character, and variation in the quality of
the sewage.

The process of sewage disposal is partly mechanical and partly
bacterial, consisting of (1) preliminary or tank treatment and of (2)
final treatment, which is application to a natural soil by surface or
subsurface distribution or to a specially prepared filter.

PRELIMINARY OR SEPTIC-TANK TREATMENT.

The exact nature of the action which takes place in a septic tank is
a subject of dispute among sanitary experts and bacteriologists.
Several theories have been advanced, but it is apparent that no
definite conclusion has been reached. Some authorities advocate
the use of open ventilated tanks, others advocate the use of air-tight
tanks.

Experience has shown that, in a small sewage disposal system, a
dark, air-tight tank of sufficient capacity and so constructed that
sewage may remain in it entirely at rest for a period of from 18 to 24

1 Univ. Mo. Engin. Expt. Sta. Bul. 3.

34 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

hours gives the best results and the least annoyance. The solid
matter settles out in such a tank and, according to the theory at
present accepted, it is partially liquefied, deodorized, and destroyed

Yertilation

a S| ee ree

Sol Pipe- #4

PAS ———
Water Closet Ew S

gor
Via. 27.—Plumbing system for sewage disposal.

by countless numbers
of bacteria, which
thrive in filth and live
without air. Some
authorities assert that
these bacteria also
slightly affect the dis-
solved organic matter
in raw liquid sewage.

In such a tank a
thick scum forms on
the surface of the sew-
age, which protects
the bacteria from the
incoming air and is
evidence of good bac-
terial action. The

breaking up or dis-

turbance of this scum
will destroy the bac-
terial action for the
time being and is
likely to cause con-
siderable annoyance
by bad odors.

FINAL TREATMENT.

It isfound that the
septic tank effects
only about 40 per cent
purification. The
liquefying action in
the tank, however,
makes it possible to
subject thé sewage to
a final treatment by _
filtration or distribu-
tion in a natural soil.
This final purification

is effected by means of bacteria which work in the air. Therefore it is
necessary that the sewage be applied to the final disposal system in
latermittent doses so that the system may have a chance to air out.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 35

If the sewage is applied continuously and in such quantities that the
system is kept saturated, the filter or disposal area becomes water-
logged and ‘‘sewage sick”’ and ceases to be effective. It is therefore
necessary that the final treatment system be of sufficient capacity to
dispose of each dose of sewage quickly.

DOUBLE-CHAMBER SEPTIC-TANK SYSTEMS.

The septic tank for a small sewage-disposal system should ordi-
narily consist of two chambers. In this type of tank the sewage is
received, settled, and partially purified im one chamber and collected
and discharged from asecond chamber. This type of tank if properly
designed should give satisfactory operation, since the sewage in the
settlmg chamber suffers little disturbance, and the discharge to the
final disposal system may be made intermittent by means of an auto-
matic siphon placed in the discharge chamber.

DESIGN.

Practice indicates that the settling chamber of a small septic tank
should have a capacity of from 5 to 15 cubic feet or from 40 to 80
gallons per person in the family. Some allow an average of 10 or 11
cubic feet per person. The best results are obtained when the
capacity approaches the larger limit, so that 18 to 36 hours’ sewage
from the house may be held at one time, thus causing the sewage to
remain in the tank and undergo sedimentation and bacterial action
for this length of time. But care should be taken not to make the
tank so large that liquefied sewage will remain in it more than 36
hours, for in that event putrefaction is likely to set in. For this
reason one should make an accurate estimate of the daily sewage
flow, which will be practically equal to the daily water consumption.
Although a depth of 3 feet may be sufficient for some classes of sewage,
it is better to have the depth from 4 to 8 feet, according to the
number of people, in order to give the sludge a good chance to settle
and liquefy. The width of the chamber may ordinarily be about
one-third or one-half the length, although this may vary for economy
and convenience. The width should not be less than 3 feet, however.

The inlet from the house should be provided with an elbow, so that
the discharge will be at least a foot below the contained sewage, thus
preventing disturbance of the surface scum. The outlet from the
settling chamber should be equipped in the same way. Where the
entrance and discharge velocities are very strong, baffle walls of
wood or concrete should be placed before these openings to break the
current. These precautions are especially beneficial in the smaller-
sized tanks.

36 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The discharge chamber should be of such capacity and depth as to
discharge about every 10 to 12 hours. It may be desirable to dis-
charge at more or less frequent intervals, according to the nature of
the soil in the disposal area, and this may be controlled by the
arrangement of discharge chamber and siphon. Where little outlet
fall is available it is possible to so construct the discharge chamber
that its floor will be considerably above that of the settling chamber.

The capacity and depth of discharge chamber and the size of siphon
will depend on the number of persons served and the means of disposal.
If a sand filter is used or a distribution system in heavy loam, the
discharge chamber must be larger and deeper, in order that the
discharge interval may be lengthened and the distribution system
be given ample time to aerate. If the distribution is in sandy or
very porous soil the discharge may be more frequent. .

The following table of dimensions of septic tanks suggests sizes of
settling and discharge chambers and the corresponding siphon sizes
to apply to various average conditions. The depths of siphon cham-
ber given are the minimum allowable.

Dimensions of septic tanks.

al
| Siphon chamber.
: 3
Settling chamber. Pee arae i ae at |

ee an er or heavy | Sandy or porous soil <q.
ae loam distribution. distribution. “phon
STE | |

. in. a ~
6 4 6 3} 3 2 4 3 2 4
8 4 63 4 4 4 24 3 4% | 2 4 3
12 4 a 5 4 5 2 5 3 4 25 4
15 4 8 5 4 6 2 5 3 4 25 4
25 4 10 5 4 6h | 3 2 3h 4 3 2 5
35 4} 12 5 4 6s | 3 2 32 at la -2 5

The above table is computed on the basis that the inlet and outlet
of the settling chamber should be placed with their inverts 12 inches
below the roof of the tank, thus making the depth of sewage in both
settling and discharge chamber 12 inches less than the mean inside
depth.

The tank dimensions given in the above table, it should be remem-
bered, are for average cases only. and are not standard for all such
cases. They are subject to such variations to suit local conditions
as the farmer’s judgment indicates; yet care should be taken not to
vary any of the esssential dimensions and not to go below the given
minimum depth of siphon chamber.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 37

Figure 28 shows a type of double chamber septic tank for a family
of six people, designed by W. C. Davidson.’ Figure 29 is another

PLAN

“ELELATICVY

F1G. 28.—Double chamber septic tank for six people, suited to conditions where plenty of outlet fall is
available.

type of septic tank for a family of eight people. These tanks are
suited to conditions where plenty of outlet fall is available. Figure |

C./. PIANHOLE

TOP. VWIEW. .
Fig. 29.—Double chamber septic tank for eight people.

30 is a double-chamber tank for a family of six persons, designed by
C. A. Ocock of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.

1 Univ. Mo. Engin. Expt. Sta. Bul. 3. 2 Wisconsin Sta. Cire. Inform. 34.

38 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This tank is suited to flat ground where outlet fall is difficult to obtain,
as will be noted by the difference in elevation between the floors of the
twochambers. For satisfactory operation a small septic tank should
not be built of smaller size than for six persons.

LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION.

The septic tank, although air-tight and supposedly water-tight,
should be located as far from the house and the well or spring as con-
venience and local surroundings will permit, thus reducing the danger
of pollution or nuisance in case of leakage or improper operation of
the system.

APE ERT AECL
Fic. 30.—Double chamber septic tank for family of six people, suitable to conditions where outlet fall is
difficult to obtain.

The sewer from the house should be of vitrified sewer pipe, usually
of 4 inches size, with tightly cemented joints, and should be laid to
a grade not less than 9 inches per 100 feet. Where the fall from
the house to the tank is excessive, it is a good idea to lay the last 100
feet of tile to the minimum grade to break up entrance velocity.

It is assumed that the farmer has a working knowledge of small con-
crete structures.1 The septic tank should be constructed as nearly
water-tight as possible, preferably of concrete. The walls should be
6 or 8 inches thick, the floor 4 to 6 inches thick, and the roof about
6 inches thick and reenforced. Some means should be provided at
the bottom to facilitate the cleaning out of settled sludge. Hither
the floor may be sloped toward the inlet end for this purpose or a pipe

1U.8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 461.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 39

with a valve may be installed below the tank, as shown respectively
in figures 29 and 28. The discharge chamber should be fitted with
an outlet set above the siphon which will allow the sewage to escape
in case the siphon becomes clogged.

A concrete mixture of 1 part cement to 2 or 24 parts sand to 4 or 5
parts of broken stone or gravel should be used in the construction
of the tank, and it is a good idea to use the oil-mixed method pre-
viously noted (p. 4) to help to waterproof the concrete.

THE AUTOMATIC SIPHON.

The automatic si-
phon may be installed
to operate as fre--
quently as may seem
desirable. Figure 31
shows a 3 or 4 inch
automatic siphon in-
stalled. The siphon
operates as follows:
As the liquid enters
the discharge cham-
ber its weight in-
creases with increas-
ing depth, and the air
between the water
surface in the bell and
the water inside the
‘siphon leg’”’ is com-
pressed. As thewater
outside increases in
depth the compression inside becomes greater until the water outside
reaches the drawing or discharge depth for the siphon. Then the
inside pressure is sufficient to force the water in the siphon leg around
the bend, instantly relieving the compression. The water from the
tank then rushes in to fill up the space which was occupied by the air
and starts the siphon, which continues until the outside and inside
pressures are again equalized.

The following table gives working data and dimensions, as shown
in figure 31, to be used in installing 3, 4, and 5 inch siphons. Sizes
of 5 inches and over are constructed a little differently from the 3
and 4 inch sizes, although the working principles are the same.

Ar SOP ent - oerere

Fig. 31.—Three-inch or four-inch automatic siphon installed.

40 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Dimensions for automatic siphons.

Dimension.

Diameter of siphon.-.-......--- Biro es pe Bekok ais Eee see ase

Diameter of bell
Diameter of discharge head
Drawing depth

Width of trap
Height above floor
Clearance under bell

GATE CHASTEER

Danial texpe sg. a e aek ee do e ed

|
Sere) Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
| eae ae
A 4) oh 5
B 10 12) 4} 15
C 4 4 6
D 13 14 23
F 12 13 22
G 10 12 14
H 7 82 gh
K 2 2 3
Ss 4 | 46 6-8
J 203 | 223 334
cubieitect | eens 0.16 0.35 | 0.73

From 7arre

Fic. 32.—Ground plans of tile sewage disposal systems.

THE FINAL DISPOSAL SYSTEM.

DISPOSAL BY SURFACE OR SUBSURFACE DISTRIBUTION.

Where the soil is porous or sandy and there is plenty of area
available which is used for no other purpose, the sewage from the
septic tank may be discharged through 4-inch distribution tile laid
on the surface of the ground in gridiron or herringbone fashion.
Four hundred and fifty to 500 square feet of area are necessary for
each person served if the soil is very porous and sandy, and the soil
should either be tile-drained or have natural underdrainage.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HoMES. 41

A better method of disposal is by subsurface distribution. In

this method the tile are placed in the ground in herringbone or
eridiron fashion, not deeper than 14 or 16 inches from the surface
of the soil to the top of the tile. Figure 32 shows ground plans of
such systems. In very porous or sandy soils 1 foot of 4-inch tile
per gallon of discharge per day is sufficient. In the heavier loam
soils 2 feet of 4-inch tile are necessary and sometimes more for every
gallon. <A rough estimate should be made of the number of gallons
of sewage in each discharge from the tank and the number of dis-
charges per day. Not less than 35 feet of 4-inch tile per person
should be used in sandy or porous soil and not less than 60 feet per
person in very heavy loams.
In average loams 300 to 400
feet of tile are sufficient for a
family of six or eight. —
- Aeration of heavy soils can
be brought about by the use
of coarse cinders or gravel laid
in 12-inch to 16-inch layers
‘in the bottom of the tile ditch
with the top about 12 inches
~below the surface. The tile
are laid in these at the usual
depth. Figure 33 shows such
an arrangement.

The disposal tile should have
a fall not to exceed 1 inch in
50 feet, else the water will
rush to the lower end and
water-log the soil there. The

4 Zs
tile are usually laid about 4 woe
inch apart and in rows about

15 feet apart. The latter dis- Fig. 33.—Cross section of single tile sewage disposal

; i system, showing method of aerating heavy soils.
tance, however, will vary with

the porosity of thesoil. Where there is no subsurface drainage, artifi-
cial drainage should be provided by means of tile drains laid below
the sewage tile as shown in figure 34. In some cases an impervious
stratum underlying the filter earth is underlain by a stratum of sand.
Cases have been noted in which this impervious stratum has been
broken by dynamite at 15-foot to 20-foot intervals along the tile line,
thus providing natural drainage.

DISPOSAL BY INTERMITTENT SAND FILTRATION.

If subsurface disposal is not feasible, for instance when the soil is
compact and nearly impervious or is swampy and underdrainage is
difficult to obtain, disposal by intermittent sand filtration is necessary.

42 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The sand filter usually is a bed of sand 3 to 4 feet thick which is
fine on top and gradually increases in size to coarse gravel at the
bottom. The sewage from the tank is distributed over the filter by
means of tile laid loose-jointed over the surface in much the same

ee AZ
£5 LAM UA LO ZE
oe iD, My, LG
LITERS CRE SOON. WL
Looe ee GIL,
Fee 99909 LY. 7.5
aes Cais ee
Yt So 7 ae rx ty Lay
LEELA Eee VLIIE
LLL RE bee

o AU,

asa

a?
Odo

Oe
D
©

9 4

9 e2D AID
6 ? 0°

Fic. 34.—Cross section of single tile sewage disposal system,
showing second tile below for underdrainage.

manner as in the ground-
surface distribution sys-
tem. The filter should be
sufficiently porous and
there should be sufficient
natural or artificial under-
drainage to allow every
dose of sewage to sink
away rapidly. Sewage
should not stand on the
surface of thé filter for
any length of time, as this
will soon destroy its puri-
fying properties. About
45 square feet of filter
should be provided for each
person served by the sewer.
The area should be divided
into from three to five
beds so that each bed may
be allowed to rest occa-
sionally. Figure 35 shows
a plan and partial section

4, of a sand filter for a family

of eight persons.

In constructing a filter
a sufficient area should be
leveled off and small earth
embankments be made 18
inches to 2 feet high to in-
close the beds. The depth
of the filtering material
will depend largely on the
porosity of the subsurface

and the means of underdrainage, but it is well to have it not less
than 24 feet; 3 to 5 feet is better, but the depth should not exceed
6 feet. A good plan is to allow a minimum of 1 cubic yard of filter-
ing material for every 50 gallons of sewage flow.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 483
SINGLE-CHAMBER TANK SYSTEMS.

Single-chamber septic-tank systems may be made to give fair
satisfaction if properly designed and operated. In such a system
the sewage is received, settled, partially purified, and discharged
by one chamber.

There is necessarily considerable disturbance of the sewage in the
tank, and, in addition, the discharge is continuous. This makes
necessary two disposal systems, with a diverting gate to allow an
occasional breathing spell for each system. If such an arrange-
ment is not used the disposal system must be of much larger capac-

ioc gees
PARTIAL CROSS SECTION OF
SAND FILTER

> GS SS \
YY I S Se
DIWERTING MANHOLE. M yy
RWS
DISTRIBUTING
i V4 TROUGH

SEWER FRO/T
PESIDENCE

SETTLING TANA

Fig. 35.—Sand filter for eight people.

ity than for the double-chamber tank system, in order to prevent
the continuous discharge from waterlogging the system.

If a single-chamber tank is used it should be designed and con-
structed on the same basis as the settling chamber of a double-
chamber tank, with the elbows at inlet and outlet and baffle boards
before these openings to break up the current.

Figure 36 shows a single-chamber tank for a family of six. This
tank has a continuous discharge, and it is necessary to use a switch

or diverting gate, as shown in figure 37, so that the liquid sewage

may be intermittently diverted from one part of the disposal sys-
tem to another.

44 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The disposal system should be divided into at least two divisions
for intermittent application, and the capacity of the system should
be 10 to 15 per cent larger than for a double-chamber tank system.

The single-chamber septic tank system requires considerable at-
tention, since there is no provision for automatic discharge. Fig-
ures taken from the work of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station show that im the long run there is little difference in the
cost of the single and double chamber tank system.

ON LEVEL GROUND —
fee THIS OUTLET.

TOP VIEW.
Fig. 36.—Single-chamber septic tank for six people.

THE GREASE TRAP.

The grease trap acts as a separator of the grease and sewage from
the kitchen sink or dairy room. If grease is allowed to enter the
sewer it accumulates and eventually clogs the system.

Figure 38 shows a grease trap.! Two large, glazed sewer tiles are
placed in the ground. The inlet is usually a 2-inch iron pipe. The
outlet must be so arranged that the mouth of it is at all times below
the surface of the sewage. The grease, being lighter, naturally
floats upon the water, and is thus prevented from entering the out-
let. The outlet is made of 4-inch glazed sewer tile and is connected
with the sewer inlet of the septic tank. A concrete cover is provided,
and grease and dirt which may accumulate are removed when
necessary.

1 Wisconsin Sta. Cire. Inform. 34.

WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 45
SUGGESTION ON OPERATION.

Contrary to the usual opinion, small sewage systems require some
watching and care. It is well to study the system and watch the
action in the entire plant for any signs of clogging or waterlogging.
In this way one will soon become acquainted with the conditions
of location and soil best suited to his needs and will be able to oper-
ate his plant on a satisfactory basis.

CAST /RON COVER.

@)
n
eNo rn NLL IIL TTT TNT

CAST /FON
CYLINOEP?
DIAIIETE Fe 12 5

PPT ILLIL LLL LLL LLL LLL

LR SISYINVANS

:
a 38" C.1. GATE
>|

8SOTTO/N

PLAN.
Fig. 37.—Plan and section of sewage diverting gate.

CONCLUSION.

It is hoped that the foregoing discussion has presented informa-
tion of a nature practical enough at least to indicate the general

Tequirements to be met in planning sanitary systems adapted to

the average farm home. Nevertheless, should the farmer feel that,
though desirable, such an installation is beyond his own skill, the
matter is still of such importance as to make it advisable to amlay

46 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a reliable pump expert, plumber, or sanitary engineer, local prices
of labor and materials and other conditions permittmg. Enormous
expenditures are being made by progressive cities in the installation
of sanitary systems to protect the health of their people, and similar
protection is surely due the country resident. It is urged, there-
fore, that the questions discussed in this bulletin be considered of
prime importance in planning or improving the farm home, instead

[7]

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Fic. 38.—Grease trap.

of being postponed to a time when other matters do not press for
attention. i

No costs of material or labor have been quoted, since these will
vary with time and locality. Suffice it to say, however, that noth-
ing has been recommended in this bulletin which is not considered
to be an economical investment for any progressive farmer. It is
believed that convenience, comfort, and economy may be combined
in the practical application of the suggestions made, providing com-
mon sense and proper care are exercised in the installation, opera-
tion, and maintenance of the conveniences.

DDITIONAL COPIES of this publication -
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-
ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy

BULLETIN, OF (| THE

ze) USDEPARIMENT OFACRICULIURE %

No. 58

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. @
February 7, 1914.

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS.

By W. L. McAtex, Assistant Biologist.

Numerous requests for Circular No. 81, containing information on
the value, appearance, distribution, and propagation of three impor-
tant wild-duck foods, namely, wild rice, wild celery, and pondweeds,
attest the widespread demand for knowledge about plants attractive
to wild fowl. The data gathered by the Biological Survey relating
to duck-food plants has been widely used by State game commissions,
game protective associations, and individuals interested in the pro-
tection, preservation, and propagation of our native species of ducks
and geese. To make available further information of this nature the
present account has been prepared, which treats of five other plants
of great intrinsic value. Though at present of local importance, all
of them are suitable for propagation over most of the United States,
and there is no reason why they should not be introduced and take
rank among the staple foods of wild ducks in many localities where

now unknown.
DELTA DUCK POTATO.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

In the latter part of January and early February, 1910, the writer,
under authorization of the Biological Survey, visited the Mississippi
Delta, La. One of the principal objects of this trip was to find out
what it is that attracts large numbers of canvasbacks to this shoal-
water region, the shallow ponds and lakes of which are so different
from the comparatively deep water bodies frequented by canvas-
backs in the northern States. The attraction was found to be a
species of Sagittaria (S. platyphylla), which is known to the hunters
of this and other parts of Louisiana as wild potato or wiid onion.
From an examination of a large number of stomachs it was found that
about 70 per cent of the food of the canvasbacks collected consisted
_ of the tubers of this plant, as did also more than 65 per cent of the food
of the mallards. The pintail also was found to feed upon the tubers.
The gullet of one canvasback was filled to the throat with the duck
potatoes, 24 entire ones being present, besides ground-up remains of
several others. Other individuals had 14 to 17 of the tubers in their
gullets. There is no doubt that Sagittaria platyphylla is an impor-

19610°—Bull. 58—14—1 |

2 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tant food for the larger species of ducks not only in the Mississippi
Delta but throughout the whole range of the plant.

.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

The Delta duck potato (fig. 1) when well developed stands about
18 inches above the soil. The broadly elliptical leaves have a char-_

Fic. 1.—Delta duck potato. (Scale is 18 inches long.)

acteristic firm appearance and a beautiful clear green color. Like
all plants of its genus, this species produces the flowering peduncles
| from about the center of the group of leafstalks; these peduncles bear

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 3

flowers in whorls of three, and the mdividual flowers each have three
white petals and a yellow center. The petals soon fall and the small
green balls of immature seeds remain. These enlarge during the
summer, and when ripe are brown and nearly half an inch in diameter.
They are easily crushed, separating into hundreds of thin triangular
seeds. ;

The tubers are of irregular globular shape and vary up to an inch
in diameter. They are formed at the ends of runners (thicker than
the roots) and bear on the side opposite the attachment to the runner
a scale-sheathed bud which may be an inch or more in length. Run-

Fig. 2.—Tubers of the delta duck potato. (About two-thirds natural size.)

ning around the body of the tuber are two or three darker lines from
which originate fibrous sheaths. A glance at the-illustration of the
tubers (fig. 2) of this species shows the aptness of the name wild
potato. It should be explained, however, that normally the tubers
would be more widely separated than is the case with those on this
particular specimen, which was grown in a flower pot.

DISTRIBUTION.

In ancient times the Mississippi River emptied into a vast bay
which extended at least as far north as the region now known as

4 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

southern Illinois. Its actively growing delta (which is still apparently
in full vigor) made thick deposits of silt over some thousands of
square miles of this area while the remainder was being slowly ele-
vated. Sagittaria platyphylla is so nearly confined in its distribution
to this ancient basin, and is so characteristic of the present delta, that
the name delta duck potato is eminently fitting. The outlying points
of the range of the plant as now known are San Antonio, Tex., Lake
City, Mo., Chattanooga, Tenn., and Mobile, Ala. (See fig. 3.)

PROPAGATION.

The delta duck potato undoubtedly can be propagated from seed,
but all things considered, transplanting the tubers is probably much
the better method. This insures a large percentage of success, the

Fig. 3.—Range of the delta duck potato.

plants will be larger, and as they will produce other tubers the first
year they are much more valuable. Extraordinary precautions to
prevent drying are not necessary, but the tubers should be kept cool
and well exposed to the air to prevent heating or fermentation.

To plant, embed the tubers in mud bottom where the water is not
more than a foot deep, preferably not more than 6 inches. Itis better
to err on the shallow side. The plant will grow thriftily on soil never
covered by water but which has plenty of moisture. In such situa-
tions, however, the tubers are not available to ducks unless over-
flowed in winter. The delta duck potato is not injured by a slight
amount of salt in the soil. The plant is probably hardy anywhere in
the southern half of the United States and may prove to be so farther
north.

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS, 5

WAPATO.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

The tubers of wapato (Sagittaria latifolia and Sagittaria arifolia)
have been known to white men as an important food for wild fowl
since the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804-1806. These
famous explorers state that in the Columbia River Valley large num-
bers of ducks, geese, and swans
occur where this plant is
abundant and that the swans
in particular feed extensively
upon the plant. A corre-
spondent of the Survey, George
W. Russell, of Gaston, Oreg.,
writes that the wapato is fed
upon most by the diving ducks,
as the canyasback, redhead,
and bluebills (scaups), and
that they seek it whenever
they are present in the country
where it grows. Prof. David
Dale Owen in his report of a
geological survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota notes
that these tubers afford much
nourishment to the larger
aquatic fowls. The vernacu-
lar names swan potato and
duck potato that have been
applied to these plants give
further evidence of their value
to wild fowl. Other local
thames are swamp potato,
muskrat potato, Chinese onion,
andwater nut. The Biological
Survey has found various parts of Sagittaria plants in stomachs of
the following species of waterfowl: Mallard, widgeon, green-winged
teal, blue-winged teal, spoonbill, pintail, canvasback, little bluebill,
ruddy duck, Canada goose, and whooping swan.

Fig. 4.—Young eastern plant of the wapato with sin-
gle tuber. (Two-thirds natural size.)

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

The general relations of the stems, flowers, and tubers are the same
in the wapato (fig. 4) as in the delta duck potato. The shape of the
leaves, however, is entirely different. Both S. latifolia and S. arifolia
have arrowhead-shaped leaves. These vary greatly in the length,
width, and shape of the point and barbs and in the degree of

6 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

divergence of the latter. Various forms of leaves are illustrated by
figure 5. The wapato plant sometimes reaches a height of 4 feet.
The appearance of the flowers and seed balls is much the same as in
the delta duck potato. :

The tubers of S. latifolia (fig. 6), from six to nine in number per
plant, are formed on runners in the same manner as those of the delta
duck potato, but they attain a much larger size.. The largest speci-
men examined by the writer is 2 inches in its longest diameter and 1
inch thick. Including the bud and ashort stalk at the base, the entire
tuber may measure as much as 5 inches in length. The mature
tubers of plants from the northwest are more or less flattened, the
shape being comparable to that of the ordinary edible crab. The
smaller tubers are more nearly spherical (varying to ovoid), and this
is the shape of even the largest tubers of eastern plants that the writer
has seen. The sheaths of the tuber being of a darker color than the
body are conspicuous.

AbAM

Fig. 5.—Various shapes of wapato leaves. (About one-tenth natural size.)
DISTRIBUTION.

Sagittaria latifolia is found from the Altantic to the Pacific coast,
its range covering practically the whole United States. Areas from
which it apparently has not been reported are peninsular Florida,
the southern two-thirds of Louisiana and Texas, New Mexico, Arizona,
and southern California. The northern limit of its range is marked
by the following localities: Vancouver Island, Saskatchewan River,
and southern Ontario and Quebec. Sagittaria arifolia is confined to
States from Michigan and Kansas westward. Its range is largely
included in that of latifolia, although it has been collected in New
Mexico. The two species are only distinguishable with certainty
upon the basis of mature seeds, and for all practical purposes may be
considered as one. (See fig. 7.)

PROPAGATION.

Wapato may be transplanted by means of both seeds and tubers,
but the latter are the most reliable and give the quickest results.
They may be set with the bud just beneath the surface in mud bottom
under a foot, or preferably less, of water. The plants will grow in

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 7

wet soil, but the tubers are not available for duck food in such places
unless overflowed in fall and winter.

The tubers of this plant are known to retain their vitality when
dried, but more uniform success will probably be had if drying is not

Fig. 6.—Wapato tubers. (About two-thirds natural size.)

carried to an extreme. We recommend that the tubers be shipped
promptly after gathering, in well ventilated packages, and that they
be planted immediately upon receipt. Wapato is suitable for culti-
vation in practically all parts of the United States.

ae —_ :

8 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CHUFA.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Like some of the other duck foods mentioned in this circular, chufas
are at present known to be of only local importance. Those best ac-
quainted with conditions at Big Lake, Ark., one of the most famous ~
hunting grounds of the South, believe that the chufa, or nut grass,
as itis there called, is the principal element in rendering that lake
so attractive to waterfowl. Examination of stomachs from that local-
ity seems to justify this belief. Six out of a series of nine mal-
lards collected at Big Lake in December, 1910, had fed on sedge
tubers, the average percentage of which in the total food of the nine

2 eo 35" 130° 125° 120" ise Le = 90° 80° joa 60° aX 45° — =
50 IE NNR,
heen | TS LN OS
Wien’

‘

¢ ELLIE MASS LIE ECS
WHALE LEI

Fic. 7.—Range of the wapato.

was 56. Tubers of this species or others of its genus have been found
also in duck stomachs from Florida, Ilinois, Minnesota, and California.
The species of ducks now known to feed on chufas are the wood duck,
mottled duck, mallard, and canvasback.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

The chufa (Cyperus esculentus) (fig. 8) belongs to the group of
plants known as sedges. These are grass-like and usually classed with
the grasses by nonbotanists. Many of the sedges, however, including
the chufa, have triangular, not round, stalks. The members of the
genus Cyperus have a group of leaves at the base from which rises
the stalk bearing the flowers and seeds. In the chufa these stalks
are from 1 to 3 feet high. Several flower clusters on peduncles of

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 9

varying length rise from the top of the stalk. I’rom the same point
three rather long grass-like leaves project below the fruiting clusters.

Many members of the genus have a very similar appearance
and it is not expected that nonbotanical observers can distinguish
them. This is unnecessary, however, as tubers of the chufa for

Fic. 8.—Seed-hearing and immature plants of the chufa. (Much reduced.)

propagation may be obtained from most seedsmen. The tubers
of the chufa are formed at the ends of scale-covered rootstocks.
The plant is extremely prolific, cultivated forms usually producing
100 tubers to the plant, and instances are known in which more than
600 tubers were produced in one season from one tuber planted in
the spring.

19610°—Bull. 58—14——2

10 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Well-developed tubers of the cultivated variety average about
three-fourths of an inch in length by three-eighths of an inch in
diameter when dried. Tubers from wild plants are usually much
smaller and have a greater proportion of fiber. The general appear-
ance of chufas and of tubers from a wild sedge are well shown by
figure 9.

Chufas are known also by the vernacular names, earth almonds
and ground nuts, and the plant as nut grass and cache-cache.

Fic. 9.—Tubers of wild Cyperus and cultivated chufas. (Natural size.)

DISTRIBUTION.

The northern boundary of the natural range of the chufa is marked
by the following localities: Southern New Brunswick, southern
Ontario, northern Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, and the Columbia

River Valley. The plant seems to be absent from most of the Great
Basin and Rocky Mountain regions. From the northern line specified
the plant ranges southward over the remainder of the continent. (See
fig. 10.) It is widely distributed in warm climates over the entire
world.

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. fat
PROPAGATION.

Although the chufa seems not to grow naturally in a large area in
the western United States, there is no doubt that it can be cultivated
everywhere except in the higher parts of the Rocky Mountain region.
It is said to do fairly well at the altitude of Denver.

Chufas can be obtained from most seedsmen and are so cheap that it
will pay sportsmen to buy new stock every few years, if earlier
plantings show degeneration in size of the tubers and hence reduction
in value as duck food. Chufas do best on light or somewhat sandy
but rich soils. They are only available for duck food when planted

(OL eeTS UIT:

IS SN hl
Noo

\
SASK ASRS
Ae J

‘

Fic. 10.—Range of the chufa.

on land dry in summer and overflowed in winter. In the open they
should be planted thickly so as to give the plants a better chance in
competition with weeds. In timbered land they need not be planted
so thickly, but they will do well only in rather sparse growths, where
considerable light penetrates to the ground. When possible the
land where planting is intended should be broken up and freed from
weeds. Plant the tubers just beneath the surface in spring.

WILD MILLET.
VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Wild millet (Echinochloa crus-galli) is an important food for ducks
in widely separated regions of the United States. At Mud Lake,

12 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Ark., the writer found seeds of this plant to constitute more than
10 per cent of the food of the 41 mallards collected; at Belle Isle, La.,
it made up more than half of the food of the few mallards examined,
and at Cameron, La., over 75 per cent of the diet of a collection of
50 ducks of the same species. Pintails, teal, and other shoal-
water ducks are almost equally fond of it. Geese eat the stems
and leaves of the plant, as also do ducks when they are hard pressed.
Testimony as to the value of the plant has come from Wisconsin and
Oregon, and the Biological Survey has found seeds of wild millet
in duck stomachs from Massachusetts, South Dakota, Missouri, and
Nebraska in addition to the States above mentioned.

The plant is popularly known throughout lower Louisiana as wild
rice and is given about the same rank as a duck food as the plant
(Zizania aquatica) known by that name in the north: Other popular
names referring to the preference of wild fowl for the plant are goose
grass and blue vine food.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Wild millet is a coarse, leafy grass which grows from 1 to 6 feet in
height. The stems and foliage are not especially remarkable, but
the fruiting head has characters which enable us easily to distinguish
this from other species of native grasses. The chaff or outer seed
coverings is set with rows of short, stiff, outstanding spines. These
project beyond the general outline of the body of the seeds and
give them an easily visible spiny appearance (fig. 11). The inner
scale of the chaff terminates in a spme which is always stouter and
longer than the others. This spine or awn may be very short or
it may be from 2 to 3 inches Jong or more, surpassing by many
times the length of the seed. One of the oie scales also may bear
a long spine at the tip. The prickly character of the seed coverings
is referred to in the name cockspur grass. The longer awns in
particular and sometimes the whole fruiting heads may have a deep
purplish color. This, no doubt, suggested the name blue duck
food used in the Mississippi Delta. The long-awned form has been
given the varietal name longearistata but for present purposes we may
consider all the types illustrated in figures 11 and 12 under the same
name. Itis probable also that the form named Lchinochloa walteri
is fully connected with crus-gall, by intergrades, and deserves only
varietalrank. This form has the lower or all leaf sheaths rough hispid.

DISTRIBUTION.

The northern limit of the range of wild millet so far as known to us
does not much surpass the latitude of the northern boundary of the
United States. From there the plant ranges indefinitely to the
southward, occurring generally in rich moist soils or swamps at least
to Central America.

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 13

Fic. 11.—Part of fruiting head of wild millet. (Natural size.)

14 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PROPAGATION.

Wild millet is easily cultivated and reseeds itself. It requires a
moist and preferably a rich soil, such as the edge of a marsh or lake,
and it will grow in water at least a foot in depth. Break up the
soil (mainly for the purpose of discouraging other plant growth) and
sow thickly in spring. Once established, the plant will take care of
itself. The nearer to water it is planted the more available it will be
for duck food. It is a splendid plant to use for low lands that are
flooded in winter.

The seeds are sold by most seedsmen under the name barnyard
grass. A variety has been widely advertised as Japanese barnyard

Fic. 12.—Fruiting heads of wild millet. (One-third natural size.)

millet or bilion-dollar grass. The plant is also known as cockspur
grass and sour grass. It may be cultivated in any part of the United
States having the proper soil conditions.

BANANA WATER LILY.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

The writer has investigated the value of the banana water lily
(Nymphea mexicana) as a food for wild ducks in only one locality—
Lake Surprise, Tex. The proofs of its importance are so great, how-
ever, that they should be brought to the attention of American
sportsmen. At Lake Surprise the banana water lily alone made up

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 15

nearly half of the entire food of the 10 vegetarian species of ducks
occurring there at the time. This showing is much more significant

from the fact that sago pond weed (Potamogeton pectinatus) also was
abundant in the lake. The latter plant, in the writer’s opinion, is the
best all-round duck food + in North America, yet at Lake Surprise it
furnished somewhat less than 29 per cent of the food of the ducks in
comparison with more than 48 per cent supphed by Nymphea
mexicana.

Thirty-seven canvasbacks collected at Lake Surprise had eaten
various parts of this plant to the extent of 71.6 per cent of their diet.
This is a second illustration of the unusual phenomenon of the canvas-
back’s being attracted to shallow water by a highly prized food.
Six ring-necked ducks or blackjacks made more than 91 per cent of
their food of this plant, and two southern black ducks (Anas ful-
vigula) 98 per cent. The parts eaten are the rootstocks, stolons,
tubers, and seeds. Mr. Charles W. Ward has sent us rootstocks
of Nymphxa mexicana from Avery Island, La., with the information
that this plant and wild celery (Vallusneria spiralis) furnish the bulk
of the food of canvasbacks in that locality.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

For the purposes of field identification the water lies of the United
States may be divided primarily into two groups according to
the shape of the leaf. Two genera, the water shield (Brasenia)?
and the American lotus, or water chinkapin (Nelwmbo),? have entire
circular leaves with the leaf stalks attached at their centers. The
remaining two genera have more or less heart-shaped leaves or a
circular or oval leaf with a cleft or sinus from the edge to the point of
attachment of the leaf stalk. Of these two genera, one (Nuphar),?
including the spatterdocks or toad lilies, has the top or more of the
ovary plainly visible when in flower, the other has the ovary practi-
cally hidden by the very numerous stamens. To this last group
belongs Nymphza mexicana, and it is the only native species of the
genus that has yellow flowers.

Both the leaves and flowers of this species may either float on the
surface of the water or stand a few inches above it. The leaves are
ereen above with brown mottlings and vary from greenish to purplish
red below with small black markings. The edges of the cleft of the
leaf are either somewhat separated or overlapping (fig. 13). The
plant springs from an upright rootstock (fig. 14) which bears some
resemblance to an unopened pine cone. The rootstocks vary in size
up to 2 inches in thickness and 12 inches in length. The smaller ones
(at least up to 1? inches in length. by three-fourths of an inch in
thickness) are swallowed by ducks.

_1See Biological Survey Circular 81, pp. 11-17, for full account.
2 The seeds, at least, of all these plants are eaten by many kinds of ducks.

16 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tender white stolons or runners extend in various directions from
the rootstock. These runners are from a quarter to half an inch in
diameter. During the active growing season they give rise to new
plants, but in autumn they form peculiar hibernating bodies. These
consist of the short modified tip of the stolon, which bears several.
(1-7) upwardly-directed buds on one side and a cluster (2-17) of thick
tuberlike roots on the other. The appearance of these (fig. 15) is
strongly suggestive of a miniature “hand” of bananas, and for this
reason the name banana water lily is proposed for this plant, which

Fic. 13.—T wo types of leaves of the banana water lily. (The larger outline half natural size.)

at present has no distinctive vernacular appellation. The name has
the additional merit of suggesting the yellow color of the tubers and
of the flowers.

DISTRIBUTION.

The banana water lily has been known chiefly as a native of Florida
and the plants of that State have long gone under the name Nym-
phea flava. Plants identified from a few localities in Mexico and
from Brownsville, Tex., have been called N. mexicana. Dr. H. S.
Conard, who has monographed the genus,' unites these species, as he

1 Publication No. 4, Carnegie Institution, 1905.

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK

Fic, 14.—Small rootstocks of the banana water lily.

FOODS.

(Natural size.)

18 BULLETIN 58, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is fully justified in doing on the basis of their possession in common of
characters unique among water lilies. The new records of the plant
from Galveston, Tex., and Avery Island, La., go far toward bridging

Fic. 15,—Hibernating bodies of the banana water lily. (Two-thirds natural size.)

the previous apparent gap in distribution of the plant and to cor-
roborating Dr. Conard’s views. The accompanying map (fig. 16)
shows the probable natural range of the species.

Fic. 16.—Range of the banana water lily.

PROPAGATION.

Although the banana water lily is native to only a small portion of
the United States, it can be successfully grown over practically the
whole country. The plant has long been familiar in cultivation and
is sold by most dealers in ornamental aquatics. The water lily expert
of one of the largest firms in the United States has informed us that

FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 19

Nymphexa mexicana is perfectly hardy: as far north as New York City
when covered with a foot of water and he believes that if covered with
2 feet of water it would be hardy at Boston.

The banana water lily needs an abundance of sunlight, water from
‘1 to 3 feet deep,! and a mud bottom. It is not injured by a trace
of salt, as is shown by its growing in lakes very near the coast The
rootstocks may be planted by weighting them with stones and drop-
ping where desired. They have great vitality; they may be shipped
with only moderate precautions to prevent them from drying, and
may be transplanted at almost any time of the year.

1 When established it will spread to places where the water is even 5 feet deep.

[OEE Os COPIES of this publication
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-

ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
. Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914

Se A

BULLETIN OF THE

> ))USDEDARINENTOFARICUTRE 4

No. 59

Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief.
January 19, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM.

By A. C. Morean and §S. E. Crums,
Of Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The following account of the tobacco splitworm (Phthorimaea
operculella Zeller), although not complete, contains data not hereto-
fore published. The life history notes, description of stages, etc.,
were made by the junior writer. Credit is due the senior writer
for the observations made in Florida and for the recommendations
under the heading: ‘‘ Remedial measures.’

In California this insect is a serious potato pest, and Dr. F. H.
Chittenden + reports that m 1912 two growers at El Monte, Cal.,
lost $90,000 and $70,000, respectively, on the crop of that year.
Although quite generally distributed over the Southern States, this
insect has caused serious loss to tobacco growers in only one locality,
viz., Dade City, Fla. The injury at that place was severe in 1906,
more severe in 1907, and culminated in 1908 in a conservatively
estimated loss of $150 per acre—a loss totaling $12,000 for the 80
acres of shade-grown tobacco. The injury since 1908 has been very
light, due in part to the early planting and in part to the very, careful
and very thor ough remedial measures employed.

The variation in food habits, which is noted later, had created the
suspicion that the form online upon potatoes might be specifically
distinct from the one attacking tobacco. During the summer of 1913
experiments were conducted to determine this point.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPECIFIC STATUS OF THE TWO FORMS.

The potato-tuber moths used in these experiments. were of the
habitual potato-feeding type from Whittier, Cal., kindly furnished
by Mr. J. E. Graf. The splitworm moths were of the habitual
tobacco-feeding type from Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia.

1 Chittenden, F. H., 1912. The potato-tuber moth. A preliminary account. (Phthorimaea operculella
Zell.). U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Cire. 162, p. 2. Chittenden, F. H., 1913. The potato-tuber moth.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 557, p. 2. ;

19794°—14 1

2 BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Larve of the potato-tuber moth were reared on potato tubers
and on the foliage of Solanum carolinense, eggplant, Physalis sp.,
Datura stramonium (‘“jimsonweed’’), and tobacco; they also mined
the leaves of Solanum nigrum until the plant died. Larve of the
tobacco splitworm moth were reared on’ potato tubers and on the
foliage of Solanum carolinense, eggplant, Physalis sp., Physalodes
physalodes, Datura stramonium, and tobacco. There was no per-
ceptible difference in the period of development, in habits, or in
behavior of the two forms on a given food plant that could be ascribed
to the different origins of the individuals. A male potato-tuber
moth of the habitual potato-feeding type and a female splitworm
moth of the habitual tobacco-feeding type, reared from isolated
pupz and caged together, produced larve that reached matu-ity
upon tobacco.

The earliest stages of the two types show no appreciable differences
except in the case of the larva, and here the differences, excepting
size, are entirely colorational. The larva on potato is larger, grayish,
and has the mesothorax and metathorax pinkish, while the habitual
tobacco feeder is green and has the mesothorax and metathorax deep
maroon. By reversing the two food plants the larve can be made to
approach each other in coloration, but even after two generations on
tobacco the habitual potato feeder is less green and has the thorax
distinctly paler than the habitual tobacco feeder; also, the coloration
of the latter type persists when reared upon potato tubers. The
larve of the crossed moths were intermediate in coloration between
the two types just discussed.

The rather persistent color variation noted in the two larval types
under discussion, while probably of sufficient constancy to warrant
a varietal separation, is not, the writers believe, of sufficient mmpor-
tance to justify a specific separation.

Potato-tuber moths reared from potato are usually somewhat
larger than splitworm moths reared from tobacco. This difference
disappears when the potato-tuber moth is reared on other plants.
Potato-tuber moths reared from potato tubers, Physalis sp., Solanum
carolinense, tobacco, and Datura stramonium, and splitworm moths
reared from tobacco, potato tubers, and Physalis sp., were submitted
to Mr. August Busck, who reported that he could find no _ specific

differences.
DISTRIBUTION.

In the United States the species occurs in California and southward
from a line connecting the District of Columbia and Colorado. The
definite localities include Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Florida, and Texas. Reports of more northern occurrence
are probably due to the shipment of infested potatoes into these

THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. 3

localities. The known range also includes Cuba, Costa Rica, Peru,
Hawaii, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Sumatra, Transvaal,
Algeria, and southern Europe.

COMMON NAMES.

Phthorwmaea operculella when working upon tobacco is known as
the tobacco splitworm and the tobacco leaf-miner; when working
upon potatoes it is known as the potato-tuber moth and the potato
moth.

FOOD PLANTS.

The known food plants of Phthorimaea operculella include Solanum
torvum, S. verbaserfolium, S. carolinense, S. nigrum(*), eggplant,
potato, tomato, Physalis peruviana, Physalis sp., Physalodes physa-
lodes, Datura stramonium, and tobacco. —

FOOD HABITS.

The larva occurs as a borer and also as a leaf-miner. The former
is probably the original habit, examples of which have been ob-
served by Quaintance in the fruit of eggplant, by Kotinsky in toma-
toes, and by C. W. Howard and Oliff in the stems of tobacco. Dr.
L. R. De Bussy considers this the more common form of injury to
tobacco in Sumatra, where the larva forms a gall in the stem. C. W.
Howard reports a similar habit of the larva in the Transvaal.'

In Cuba and the United States the insect is known on tobacco as

a leaf-miner only. A boring tendency is still apparent, however, as

noted by Houser, in that the larva usually tunnels the midrib or a
vein in addition to mining the membrane of the leaf. In about 50
mines examined by us the larva had also tunneled the midrib or a
vein in almost every case.

Only the older tobacco leaves are affected, unless the infestation
is very severe; and in these, the lower leaves, grayish, irregular
blotches are produced, which later turn brown and become fragile,
so that the tobacco is unfit for wrappers. At Clarksville, Tenn.,
where the infestation is very shght, the larva in most cases begins
work in the “ruffles” along the midrib and may afterward migrate
and form mines in various parts of the leaf.

In forming its mine the larva begins by spinning a tent of silk
between the midrib, or between the vein and the surface of the leaf.
Under this protection it soon forms a shelter between the leaf sur-
faces by consuming the parenchyma. The mined leaf becomes
more or less distorted, and this is especially noticeable on leaves,

1Gnorimoschema heliopa Low causes similar injury to tobacco in India, Ceylon, and Java.

4 BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

such as those of Solanum carolinense, which the larva is more cap-
able of manipulating, but there is no tendency to form a firm, cylin-
drical, silk-lned tube, as is the case with the blue or bluish-green
larva of Phthorimaea glochinella Zell., which feeds upon some of the
same plants as does Phthorimaea operculella.

DESCRIPTION OF STAGES.
THE EGG..-

The egg is pale, translucent, yellowish gray, and strongly irides-
cent; it is oval, 0.45 mm. long, 0.35 mm. broad at the middle, mem-
branous, and without apparent sculpture. The side upon which it
is deposited is slightly flattened.

THE LARVA.

The full-grown larva is 7 to 14 mm. long. The head shield is
0.80 to 0.86 mm. broad and fuscous brown. The cervical shield is
darker brownish fuscous, with a pale mid-dorsal line, shining, the
posterior margin medially straight. The anal shield is brown. The
mesothorax and metathorax are deep maroon. The body varies
in color through green and gray and is overlaid dorsally with purplish
as the larva nears pupation. It is slender, tapering from the meso-
thorax posteriorly and set closely and uniformly with minute gran-
ules each bearing a minute point, the granules of the thorax and the
last abdominal segment being the larger. The tubercles and their
sete are inconspicuous, brownish; tubercle HH is slightly larger than I.
The legs are deep fuscous; the prolegs, green.

The larva which has just emerged is light grayish, with strongly
contrasting dark head and cervical shield.

Larve which have been reared habitually upon potatoes are of
a larger average size than those reared upon tobacco, and the maxi-
mums of the foregoing measurements are from potato-feeding larve.
The larva on potato is more grayish on the body than the tobacco
miner and has the mesothorax and metathorax pinkish instead of
deep maroon.

THE PUPA.

The pupa is yellowish brown, 5.5 to 7 mm. long and 1.5 to 2 mm.
broad; it is broadest through the metathorax, tapering both ante-
riorly and posteriorly. The head is rather distinct and slightly nod-
ding. The abdomen, excepting the last three segments, is set with
very minute spinules; it bears at the tip mid-dorsally a short, curved,
erect, pointed horn flanked by about four pairs of long hooked
spinules, and ventrally a pair of blunt, rounded lobes beneath which
are about four pairs of long hooked spinules. Each abdominal seg-
ment is set with a transverse row of spinules near the anterior margin.

THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. 5

As in the case of the larve, the pupz of the habitual potato
feeder are larger than those from the habitual tobacco feeder and the
maximum measurements in the foregoing description are from
potato-reared pupe.

The adult is a slender, inconspicuous moth with dark grayish wings
bearing indefinite yellowish streaks and having an expanse of about

20 mm.
LIFE HISTORY.

At Clarksville, Tenn., the spitworm requires 25 to 30 days in sum-
mer for completing its development from egg to adult. _ Of this time 4
days are spent in the egg stage, 15 to 17 days in the larval stage, and
6 to 9 days in the pupal stage. The length of these stages is consid-
erably affected by temperature, as is indicated in detail in the accom-
panying tables. By reference to Table III we see that at an average
mean temperature of about 81° to 82° F. the minimum pupal period
is obtained, and that when the average mean temperature falls below
about 68° to 70° F. the pupal period is very greatly lengthened.

Eggs are deposited singly upon the foliage of the host plant.
Moths begin to oviposit two or three days after emergence and con-
tinue ovipositing for several nights. The largest number of eggs
obtained from a single moth was 46, but this probably does not
represent the maximum oviposition under normal conditions.

The larva is very active, is capable of prolonged exertion imme-
diately after hatching, and clings very tenaciously to the foliage.
The frass is either stored in a particular part of the mine or is cast
outside where, in the case of those working upon potato tubers, it
forms masses held together by silk. The larva pupates in a slight but
somewhat tough cocoon of silk and débris among clods or rubbish at
or near the surface of the soil.

TaBLE I.—Length of egg stage of tobacco splitworm.

1 Forenoon.

BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE II.—Length of larval stage of tobacco splitworm.

The lengths of the larval stage given above are corroborated by
about 25 records giving the combined length of the larval and pupal
stages.

Tasie II].—Lengqth of pupal staae of the tobacco splitworm.

Number Average
QanaGhe Larva pupated}| Moth emerged} Pupal| mean Food plant of
“s 2 night of — night of — | stage. | tempera- larva.
viduals. t
ure. :
Days. eel
2 | Apr. 21,1909 | May 14,1909 | 23 65.1 | Tobacco.
4 May 22,1910 | June 5,1910! 14 67— Do.
1 | July 6,1910 | July 14,1910 8 83.3 Do.
1 | July 25,1913 | Aug. 1,1913] 7 85.1
13 | Aug. 19,1913 | Aug. 28,1913] 9 77.1 | Potato.
1 Uae ee GOlssae =<! res eo (eee 9 77.1 | ‘Jimsonweed.’’
Dee | ev ae3 do.. 3 Aug. 29,1913 | 10 77.5 Potato.
1] Aug. 21, 1913 Aug. 30,19133) 8.5 76.4 | Tobacco.
1 | Aug. 27, 1911 | Sept. 8) 1911 12 76.8 Do.
1 | Aug. 31,1913 | Sept. 6,1913 6 83.7 Do.
ial aaee fie Reese calbes 72008). ene 5.5 83.7 Do.
1 =| Sse dosteeeee 6— 83.7 Do.
3 Sept, at 1913 | Sept. 7,1913| 6 83.7 Do.
Le ee .| Sept. 8, 1913 7 83. 2 Do.
1 | Sept. *5; 1913 | Sept. 9,1913| 7 81.8 Do.
1 Sept. 5 1913 esos dos s 6 81.4 Do.
Tt ae = con aan feeoee dorsi 7 81.4 Do.
Bjiek eee: -| Sept. 10, 1913 7 81 Do.
2 | Sept. 76, 1913 Sept. 23,1913 | 13 69 Potato.
Lj. -2-d0:--.2.-| Sept.24, 1913 14 69.1 Do.
1 | Sept. Tn 1913 | Sept. 27,1913 | 16 68— | Tobacco
2 | Sept. 13/1913 | Sept. 29,1913 | 16 67.6 Do.
1 Sept. 27,1913 | Oct. 9,1913 | 12 70. 4 Do.
1 Sept. 30,1913 | Oct. 15,19134) 15 68.3 | Physalis.
1 Ock. 9 E1913 eee do4. 222 te 14 68.3 Do.
1 Reared from moths of the habitual potato-feeding type. 2Forenoon. %2p.m. ‘4 Afternoon.

SEASONAL HISTORY.

_ Full-grown larvee have been received from Florida in late April, indi-
cating that oviposition may begin in that region as early as March.
Larve have not been found at Clarksville, Tenn., earlier than June 3,
and moths have emerged in numbers as late as the middle of No-
vember. Itseems probable that at least six generations are produced
in Florida and that about three or four are produced at Clarksville,
Tenn. Moths emerged in five cages at Clarksville November 14,
1913, and were still active December 15, 1913, upon which date
about an equal number of cages still contained pupe. ‘These records
seem to indicate that the winter is passed in both the pupal and
adult stages. No larve, so far as known, have entered hibernation
successfully.

THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. 7

PARASITES.

Kotinsky! records two larval parasites, Chelonus blackburni Cam.
and Limnerium polymesialeCam. About 25 per cent of the full-grown
larvee of a large shipment of splitworms, sent by Mr. G. A. Runner late
in August, 1913, from Kinston, N. C., were parasitized. Several
parasitic larvee emerged from each splitworm which was killed at or
just before the emergence of the parasite, and while still in the mine.
The parasites spun their cocoons in the mine and sometimes within the
larval skin. A single splitworm from which this parasite was reared
was included in another large shipment of material sent by Mr. Runner
from Appomattox, Va. Larve of this parasite which emerged from
the host September 1, 1913, pupated September 3, and the adults
emerged September 10, giving a pupal stage of seven days.

REMEDIAL MEASURES.

Quaintance ? recommends the destruction of the larve in the mines
by pinching, and the destruction of all trash in and around tobacco
fields and tobacco barns. Both of these recommendations should be
followed. However, in severe infestations it may be necessary to
prime off and destroy the leaves infested by the earlier generations.
A heavy infestation would ruin the leaves for wrappers, in which case
the priming and destruction of the leaves will be a cheaper and more
thorough method of destruction, for it will cause the death not only of
the larvee but also of alarge number of eggs. This plan was pursued at
Dade City, Fla., following the severe infestation of 1908, and with
excellentresults. Since that year, also, the crop has been transplanted
“much earlier than was the custom previously, and was matured before
the appearance of the most destructive generation of the splitworm.
Loss has been very light since 1908.

To summarize the remedial recommendations: (1) Transplant the
crop as early as possible, in order to mature it before the appearance of
the most destructive generation of the splitworm; (2) when the early
infestation is very severe, prime off and destroy the infested leaves;
(3) destroy all tobacco stubble as soon as the crop is harvested to pre-
vent the breeding of a hibernating generation; (4) clean up and de-
stroy all trash in and around tobacco fields and tobacco barns; (5) do

not follow potatoes by tobacco, for the infestation of tobacco has been -

more severe in such cases than where a different rotation was followed;
(6) grow potatoes as far as possible from tobacco fields.

1 Kotinsky, Jacob, 1906. Hawaii. Forester and Agr., v. 3, no. 7, p. 200-201.
2Quaintance, A. L.,1898. The tobacco leaf-miner (Gelechia picipellis Zett.). Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul 4,

p. 178-181.
O

BULLETIN, OF), THE

J) USDEPARTMENTOPAGRICUTIRE ©

No. 60

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
e February 16, 1914.

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO
COTTON GROWING.

By O. F. Coox,
Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The need of closer contacts between the manufacturer who uses
cotton and the farmer who produces the raw materials has been recog-
nized in a recent circular on ‘Factors Affecting the Production of
Long-Staple Cotton.”? It is desirable to go somewhat more fully
into this relation, in the hope of making clear to the manufacturer,
as well as to the farmer, the fact that the present methods of buying
cotton do not contribute to the improvement of the cotton crop, but
tend rather to discourage the planting of better varieties and to the
neglect of the precautions that are necessary to produce superior
fiber. The farmer who produces better cotton than his neighbors
needs to understand why it is often difficult to secure a better price.?
And at the same time the manufacturer should understand the need
of greater discrimination in prices, as the best means of encouraging
the production of superior fiber. The greatest improvements in pro-
duction are to be expected in communities organized to grow com-
mercial quantities of the same variety of cotton. The mutual in-
terest of the farmers and the manufacturers hes in this direction of
organized production. 5

Manufacturers who use long-staple cotton, both in the United
‘States and abroad, have complained of deterioration in quality and
diminished supplies of the raw materials, and have believed that
their branch of the cotton industry was threatened by agricultural
dangers over which they had no control. In reality, there is no —
agricultural reason why long-staple cottons should not be produced
in the United States in much larger quantities than at present and

1U.5S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 123, p. 3-9, 1913.

2 Similar conditions exist with reference to the better grades of short-staple cotton. A discussion of the
methods and practices prevailing in the western end of the cotton belt is presented by W. A. Sherman,
Fred Taylor, and C. J. Brand, of the Office of Markets, in their Studies of primary cotton market condi-
tions in Oklahoma. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 36, 36 p., 1913.)

20127°—14——_1

2 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

also of better quality. These possibilities have had abundant demon-
stration in many districts of the cotton belt, as well as in the newly
settled irrigated regions of the Southwest. It now rests largely with
the commercial world of manufacturers and the buyers to determine
what kind of fiber the farmer shall produce. .
The fear that the boll weevil will put an end to the production of
long-staple cotton in the United States may be dismissed. The de-
velopment of new, early-maturing varieties and the discovery of
improved cultural methods for shortening the growing season are
making it possible to produce excellent crops of long-staple cotton
in the presence of the boll weevil. Indeed, im the presence of the
weevil there are additional reasons for growing long staples instead
- of short staples. The extra care and precautions that are required |
to protect the cotton against the weevil make it possible to prodyce
a better staple. Thus the growing of long-staple cotton, to sell at
a higher price, may be considered as a means of securing a return
for the increased cost of production or the diminished yield that may
be caused by the boll weevil!

THE NEED OF DISCRIMINATION IN BUYING.

With the solution of the biological and agricultural problems of
cotton improvement, it has become evident. that another class of
problems must be ‘solved before any complete development of our
resources of cotton production can be expected. These problems
may be approached from the commercial side, as they are closely
involved with the handling and marketing of the crop, but they have
also a very important agricultural bearing that needs to be recognized
in planning. improvements of commercial conditions. Greater dis-
crimination must be used in the buying of cotton before the farmers
will put forth their best efforts toward the development of a new long-
staple industry in the United States.

Discoveries that have been made in the investigation of problems
of acclimatization and breeding can be applied in commerce as well
as in agriculture. Indeed, the commercial applications are likely to
determine the extent of the agricultural utilization of the superior |
varieties that have been developed by acclimatization and breeding.

The selection, or ‘‘roguing,”’ that is necessary to maintain the purity
and uniformity of varieties can be done much more easily and effect-
ively by taking out the inferior plants early in the season. This not
only improves the quality of the seed but also renders the fiber more
uniform and more valuable for manufacturing purposes. The same
method of field inspection can be used by the buyer to determine the
quality of cotton that any field will produce, not only before it is
picked, but even before the bolls are set. If selection has been

1Cook,O.F. Cotton improvement under weevil conditions. U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Farmers’
Bulletin 501, 22 p., 1912.

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 3

neglected or admixture with other varieties has taken place, the
inferior plants can be seen and counted, and different fields can be
eraded on a percentage basis. Buying cotton in the bale is a mere
game of chance compared with what buyers might do in the way of
accurate classification if they began with the cotton in the field.

Of course, a system of judging cotton in the field would be very
difficult to apply to the cotton industry in its present unorganized
condition, with each farmer of a neighborhood likely to grow a differ-
ent kind of cotton. One of the chief objects to be gained by better
methods of buying would be to develop a better system of produc-
tion, in which the same kind of cotton would be grown throughout a
whole community or district. Many advantages, commercial and
agricultural alike, would be gained if cotton production were organ-
ized on a community basis.1

That the present system of buying is seriously defective is now

widely recognized, and radical reforms are being sought through legis-
lation and otherwise. But it is highly desirable that reforms in the
commercial world be considered in their relation to the improvement
of the quality of the crop and not merely to secure higher prices for
inferior cotton. There is no prospect that such prices can be main-
tained by any action that may be taken in the United States. The
only secure basis for our cotton industry is in the improvement of the
product. Otherwise, we remain exposed to the danger of foreign
competition. It is much more important to improve the quality of
our cotton crop than to secure high prices without such improvement,
since high prices for inferior cotton will only stimulate the rapidly
increasing production of low-grade cotton in other parts of the world.

VARIETIES DETERIORATE BY LOSING UNIFORMITY.

The fundamental agricultural improvement that requires com-
mercial cooperation is the preservation of superior varieties, so that
a uniform product can be obtained. For manufacturing purposes,
uniformity is an even more important quality than length of staple
and one that must be guarded continually in the production of long-
staple cotton. It is much easier to breed new varieties than it is to
keep them pure and uniform after they have passed out of the hands
of the breeder into the field of commercial production.

The causes of deterioration must be understood before we can
appreciate the precautions that have to be taken to preserve superior
varieties. There is a misleading popular idea that varieties of cotton
are bound to deteriorate and that new seed must be planted every
few years in order to maintain the crop. Before the art of antiseptic
surgery was known, inflammation and suppuration of wounds were

1Cook,O. F. Cotton improvement on a community basis. Yearbook, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
1911, p. 397-410. 1912.

Brand, C.J. Improved methods of handling and marketing cotton. Yearbook, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 1912, p. 443-462, pl. 53-56. 1913.

mpg Soro

4 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |
considered inevitable. The deterioration of cotton varieties is often
thought of in a similar way, as something’ that is sure to occur in a
few years. But such deterioration can be avoided just as definitely

as wounds can be protected from infection.

The most frequent source of the infection that causes a variety
of cotton to degenerate is mixture of seed or crossing with other
varieties. The planting of different varieties close together and the»
exchange of seed at the gin are the usual causes of contamination.
The present system of public gins might be described as an unconscious
conspiracy to destroy the purity of varieties and does millions of
dollars’ worth of unrecognized damage in this way every year. The.
machinery of the gin is arranged to hold a bushel or more of the seed
of each customer and to mix it into the seed of the next farmer in the
line. No farmer can keep his variety pure who allows a public gin
to handle his seed in the usual way. To keep his variety pure, a
farmer must either have his own gin or he must find a public gin
where he is allowed to clean the machinery and thus keep his seed
from being mixed. Very few farmers think of taking such precau-
tions. They prefer to believe, as a correspondent recently assured us,
that ‘‘what little gets in at the gin will not do any harm.”

Vilben mixture with other kinds of cotton is avoided, it is still
possible for a variety to degenerate, in the sense of losing its uni-
formity, unless care be taken to recognize and remove the ‘‘sports”’
or aberrant plants that continue to appear in even the most carefully
selected stocks. To rogue out these degenerate plants is as necessary
as to prevent mixing with other varieties. The degenerate individ-
uals are like so many different varieties, for the characters of many
of them ‘‘come true’”’ when the seeds of such plants are saved and
planted separately. It is only by observing these two precautions
of avoiding admixture and roguing out the ‘‘freaks”’ or “‘sports”’ as
they appear that varieties are kept from deterioration and made to
serve the purposes of production for many years.

After a discovery like antiseptic surgery has been made it seems
altogether unreasonable that people should disregard it, at the risk
of pain or even death. But it is the lesson of history that reforms
come slowly, and the improvement of the cotton industry is likely to
follow this rule. It is only when we undertake to avoid infection or
contamination that we learn how difficult it is to do so. Even after
the farmer understands the importance of maintaining a pure stock
of seed there are many ways to bring in contamination, and some of
the most intelligent and efficient farmers often make fatal mistakes
in their first efforts to maintain a pure stock of seed. The most
disappointing cases are those where some accident or error occurs
after most of the precautions have been taken. It is not until the
farmer learns to think, as it were, in terms of pure seed that he is
able to guard himself all along the line of possible errors.

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 5

CAREFUL FARMERS DESERVE THE HIGHER PRICES.

No complete or permanent improvement is to be expected unless
more direct financial advantages are offered to the careful farmer.
The scientific and moral encouragement to raise pure, uniform, high-
grade cotton so as to enhance the reputation of the district may be
urged as a motive of local patriotism, and local agencies may con-
tinue to cooperate in the effort to organize the whole community
in the interest of long-staple production, but all these considerations
may fail of the desired result unless the commercial interests will
add a financial object to the other motives.

As a means of illustrating this, it may be well to give extracts
from a report by Mr. Argyle McLachlan, of this department, cover-
ing the different kinds of mistakes or accidents encountered in a
single season in the effort to guard the Durango cotton against con-
tamination from the Upland short-staple and Egyptian cotton
previously grown in the Imperial Valley of California. In addition
to placing the farmers more on their guard, an account of these errors
may make it easier for manufacturers to understand not only that
special precautions are necessary, but that the regular observance
of such precautions amounts to a real reform of agricultural methods,
a reform that needs to be encouraged by a change of commercial
policy.

If any single precaution were sufficient to keep the seed pure, a
general observance would be much more easily established, but in
reality many different precautions must be taken. Most farmers
are now so careless or so little intent upon the idea of keeping their
seed pure that they fall readily into one or another of the many mis-
takes that are fatal to the uniformity of a variety of cotton.

Mr. McLachlan’s statement is as follows:

That intelligent management is required to preserve clean stocks of any variety of
cotton seed is forcibly shown by the numerous accidents which have occurred in the
Imperial Valley in connection with the Durango cotton.

Clean Durango seed, purchased at fancy prices, has been planted on land where
short-staple cotton was grown in the previous season, thus insuring mixture of seed
and cross-pollination from the volunteer short-staple plants. In one case a farmer
who had been cautioned against planting his new pure seed on land where Egyptian
cotton had previously been grown, afterward planted the seed on land which had
been in short staple. This shows that the object of the precaution was completely
misunderstood, for if new land could not be had it would have been much better to
plant the Durango where the Egyptian cotton had been. Egyptian volunteer plants
could have been detected and removed much more easily than the short-staple Upland
volunteers.

Several lots of Durango seed were brought in from Texas, and came from as many dif-
ferent planters. Some lots were known to have been carefully grown and ginned
separately to avoid mixing with seed of other varieties, but other lots were not known
to have received similar care. Special care had been urged in handling these different
lots in order to keep the seed that was known to be clean separate from the other lots.
In spite of repeated cautioning, the identity of the clean seed was made uncertain

6 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by failure to mark the bags or to keep them separate. The different lots were piled in
the same warehouse and some of the piles fell down.

In one instance, at least, seed of another variety had been distributed as Durango
on the careless assumption that all kinds of long-staple cotton were much the same,
so that a substitution would be only a mild form of deception. The seed used in this
instance to replace Durango was of an inferior mixed stock and would give a very
misleading idea of the variety.

Unmixed Durango cotton raised in the Imperial Valley was sent to the public gin
and the seed allowed to pass through the conveyors which had been used with short-
staple cotton and contained a quantity of the short-staple seed. An appreciable mix-
ture with the short-staple cotton, in some fields from 4 to 6 per cent, occurred in this
manner.

Admixture of Durango cotton with Egyptian also resulted from putting Durango
seed into sacks in which Egyptian seed cotton had been carried to the gins. Fields
planted with this seed showed a scattering of Egyptian plants among the Durango.
The changing of sacks without proper care in cleaning them, it would seem, might
be a very common cause of mixture.

The purity of another carefully guarded field of Durango cotton :was jeopardized by
the carelessness of a neighbor who had left some short-staple seed by the roadside.
In preparing the land for the Durango cotton some of the short-staple seed was dragged
into the field. The owner knew nothing of this until the scattering short-staple plants
were noticed in one corner of the field, and then the origin of the contamination was
traced. In this case immediate attention was given to the removal of the short-staple
plants, which were easily distinguished from the Durango.

A final instance is that of a farmer who took pains to secure a good stock of Durango
seed for planting his field, but he did not secure a complete stand so replanted
with Triumph short-staple cotton to fill the vacant places.

As a result of such accidents and oversights a large proportion of the fields are more
or less contaminated. But a few of the growers who were able to secure clean seed
are following the advice of the Department of Agriculture in order to preserve the
purity of theis seed. They have planted on land uncontaminated with other cotton
and will use proper precaution to prevent mixing with other varieties in handling
and ginning the cotton in the fall. They propose to carry through, for planting in
1914, quantities of Durango seed as clean as the stock from which it is being grown
this season.

The number of these more careful or more fortunate farmers is not large, but the
seed they are raising would plant a large acreage of pure Durango next year if the
importance of using clean seed were properly appreciated. But as long as the farmers
who have mixed fields can get as high a price for their fiber as those who have pure
fields, they are likely to continue the planting of their mixed stocks instead of making
a new beginning with pure seed and guarding with more care against contamination
in the future.

DISCRIMINATION IN BUYING MORE IMPORTANT THAN HIGH PRICES.

That prices determine the production of a crop is a familiar idea,
but the state of the cotton industry shows that high prices alone
can not be relied upon to increase the production of superior fiber.
The buying of the crop with proper discrimination is just as neces-
sary in establishing and maintaining production as any factor of
climate, soil, cultivation, or other agricultural requirement. The
higher grades of Egyptian cotton are now worth approximately
twice as much as the standard middling grade of short staples, while

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 7

Upland long staple brings from 30 to 60 per cent more than middling
short staples. Both types can be produced in much larger quan-
tities at such premiums if the premiums are paid to the farmers
who produce the superior cotton. Paying high prices without dis-
crimination encourages the wrong class of farmers to plant long-
staple cotton, instead of securing the interest of those who might
place the industry on a substantial basis.

There is no reason why the farmer who refuses to take the pre-
cautions that are necessary to produce good long-staple cotton should
get any more for his crop than for short staple. The new early-
maturing, long-staple varieties are as productive as most of the
short-staple varieties that are now being grown, and in some in-
stances even more productive, as in the case of the Durango cotton
in the Imperial Valley. On the basis of the present varieties the
ereater cost of production of long staples lies entirely in the greater
care that must be exercised to produce a more uniform fiber. The
farmer who will not take the extra precautions that are necessary
with long-staple cotton has no just claim for a premium. Unless
the most intelligent and careful farmers can be enlisted, there is
little prospect that the culture of long-staple cotton can be established
or maintained in any community.

The failure to discriminate in price to the farmer is so general that
many buyers do not consider it dishonest, but look upon it merely
as one of the ways of increasing the profits of their business. Yet
the policy is certainly wrong from the standpoint of agricultural
improvement, quite apart from the responsibility of the buyer to
pay the farmer a fair price. Indeed, many buyers do not have the
skill necessary to determine that one bale contains better fiber than
another. - In such cases the question of dishonesty need not be raised,
but the effect on the farmer is the same. He will not continue the at-
tempt to improve his crop unless he can find recognition in the market
price of the cotton. Itisno encouragement to him to know that some-
body else, whether factor, buyer, or manufacturer, makes larger profits
from his improved crop if he is unable to secure ashare of these profits.

As long as cotton is bought without regard to quality, it is useless
to expect that the farmer will take pains to grow cotton of better
quality. The additional care that must be given to the crop to pro-
duce superior fiber will not be applied by the intelligent farmer unless
he can be assured that the buyer will discriminate and pay more for
his cotton than for that raised by his ignorant or careless neighbor.
To buy all the long-staple cotton of a district at a flat rate, like
short-staple cotton, must be expected to have the same effect with
long staples as with short—that of encouraging the planting of the
inferior varieties rather than those of higher quality.

8 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The system of buying at a flat rate makes it of interest to the buyer
to keep the farmer from knowing how good his cotton is, and this
keeps him from trying to make it any better. The buyer, rather than
the farmer, draws a temporary advantage from any exceptionally
favorable conditions or from the introduction of improved varieties
that enable better staple to be produced. In its final result, the
present system is opposed to agricultural progress, even to the extent
of defeating its own object of securing increased business in handling
long-staple cotton.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LONG-STAPLE DISTRICTS.

The buyer’s function in the general economy of the cotton industry
is to take the cotton in small lots from the individual planters and
assort it into larger lots of the same kind of fiber for sale to the
manufacturer. Unless this work of assembling and classifying the
cotton is properly done, so that uniform lots can be sent to the manu-
facturer, permanent harm may result to the community where the
cotton is grown. When the buyer fails to recognize and discriminate
in favor of the productive possibilities of a new district the manufac-
turer also fails, for his judgment is based on the cotton the buyer
sends him. If buyers in a certain district send in only mixed or
uneven fiber, the manufacturer concludes that the district is not
suited to the production of long staples. The manufacturer does not
consider that cotton deteriorates because the buyers follow the
unfortunate plan of paying the same price for good and bad fiber
alike and do not discriminate in favor of farmers who take proper
care of their crop. Instead of recognizing that the failure is due to
commercial causes, recourse is had to the theory that something is
lacking in the climate or the soil, something that prevents the
cultivation of long-staple cotton outside of some specially favored
region.

This is the history of many attempts that have been made to
grow long-staple cotton in new districts. The first plantings with
pure seed are successful. The samples are approved by expert buyers
and manufacturers, and one or two crops of good staple are raised.
But with each season the seed becomes mixed more and more, and
about the time that the stage of commercial production is reached
the manufacturer finds the staple too uneven for his purposes, decides
that the district is not suited to long-staple production, and refuses
to make further purchases from that quarter. The buyers or the
farmers may be left with unsalable cotton on hand which they can
dispose of only with difficulty and at ordinary short-staple prices.

An excellent example of the importance of intelligent buying in
the development of a long-staple community is now to be found in
South Carolina. A flourishing, long-staple industry is developing in

‘ THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 9

the district around Hartsville, largely as the result of the public-
spirited efforts of Mr. D. R. Coker. This new long-staple industry
is based on the Columbia type of long-staple cotton originally selected
from a short-staple stock by Dr. H. J. Webber, then of the United
States Department of Agriculture. Mr. Coker has not only main-
tained the Columbia stock and developed special selections from it,
but, what is even more important, has assumed the responsibility
of buying and finding a market for all of the good Columbia cotton
that is raised by his neighbors. Familiarity with the variety has
enabled him to buy with discrimination and thus encourage the use
of pure seed in a much more effective way than would have been
possible if attention had been given to breeding alone without partici-
pation in the commercial field. Farmers who mixed their cotton
could not sell it except at a lower price than those who had a pure
stock, and thus the quality of the long-staple cotton grown about
Hartsville has been maintained. Mr. Coker’s services to his com-
munity as a discriminating buyer should be even more highly appre-
ciated than his efforts at breeding improved strains. There are other
districts where the Columbia cotton has fallen into the hands of
careless or inexperienced buyers, and where the planting of pure
seed was not encouraged by the necessary discrimination in price.
The result, as might be expected, is that the New England spinners
are buying long-staple cotton from Hartsville while refusing that of
other localities where the natural conditions are favorable but where
the precautions that are necessary to maintain uniformity have been
neglected for lack of proper discrimination in buying. ‘Thus, the
presence of a careless or incompetent buyer is a serious danger to the
long-staple prospects of a community.

Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to grow Upland long-
staple cotton in the Carolinas in the last half century. The last was
made a few years ago in connection with a long-staple variety called
Florodora, which was planted in many places as a result of extensive
advertising of the seed. But the necessary uniformity was lacking
in this variety, with the result that both the manufacturer and the
farmer were disappointed and returned to the idea that only short
staples could be grown to advantage. The lesson that lack of uni-
formity in the variety was the chief cause of failure was not learned.

The same lack of uniformity is to be expected in any long-staple
variety that is brought into a short-staple region and not guarded
against admixture with other varieties and degenerate sports. The
note of disappointment is already beginning to be heard from manu-
facturers who have experimented with inferior stocks of Columbia
cotton and have thus reached an adverse opinion of the possibi ities
of a long-staple industry in South Carolina, or in other States where
the Columbia cotton may be grown. The history of the Florodora

20127 -— 14 ———2

10 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cotton is likely to be repeated with the Columbia, for mixed stocks
are being sold in Texas and elsewhere on an advertising basis, and a
large amount of inferior fiber is likely to come into the market.

Of course, there are some parts of the cotton belt, like the drier
portions of Texas, where the conditions are not really favorable for
the production of long-staple cotton. Only a few varieties and a
few localities may be able to produce a staple equal to that of the
Mississippi Delta region, but a large part of the cotton belt could
produce excellent long staples if proper care were taken. Most of
the former attempts at long-staple production failed, in all proba-
bility, not because of agricultural difficulties but because the varie-
ties were not kept uniform and because the buyers did not discrimi-
nate between the good fiber that was worth a premium and the
mixed stocks of long and short cotton that possibly had even less
value than short cotton alone. If the mixed fiber had been rejected
promptly, no more of.it would have been grown and the production
of uniform stocks would have continued and increased. Instead of
using discrimination in time, the mixing is allowed to go on for two
or three years until the stock has deteriorated and the crop has
been refused by the manufacturer. Thus, the prospects of establish-
ing a new center of long-staple production are seriously diminished,
if not altogether destroyed.

In some respects the best opportunities for developing new long-
staple districts are in the irrigated regions of the Southwest. The
natural conditions must be admitted to be extremely favorable, with
such advantages as rich soil, control of water supply by irigation,
freedom from wet weather in the harvest season, and absence of the
boll weevil. Moreover, in these newly settled communities it is
easier to secure a general agreement on the planting of a single kind
of cotton. In the Salt River Valley of central Arizona, where only
Egyptian cotton is grown, the crop has increased from 33 bales in
1911 to 262 bales in 1912, and about 3,000 bales are expected in the
present season. In the Imperial Valley of southern California there
has been a still more rapid expansion of the Durango cotton from
about 3 acres in 1911 to 200 acres in 1912 and to about 5,500 acres in
1913, using all the seed of this variety that could be bought. If the
present crop brings a fair price, the Durango variety is likely to be
planted next year for the entire crop of the Imperial Valley, or to
an extent of 20,000 to 30,000 acres.

The danger that seems likely to interfere with the progress of such
communities is that the buyers will continue to follow their usual
policy of taking the entire crops at flat prices and thus encourage
the farmers to neglect the precaution of keeping the varieties pure.
It was not to be expected, perhaps, that the manufacturers who
bought the small early crops to encourage the pioneer planters would

j THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING To COTTON GRowinG. 11
give themselves the further trouble of discriminating among the
numerous small lots. Nevertheless, it was bad policy to take the
mixed, weak, or uneven fiber at the same price that was paid for
the best.

The care that must be used in maintaining the quality of future
crops is Just as necessary as any other part of the work of produc-
tion, planting, irrigating, cultivating, or picking, but it is a part
that has been neglected in the past and is likely to be neglected in
the future if the value that it adds to the fiber is ignored by the
buyer. In other words, increased production of long-staple cotton
is very largely a commercial problem. Further improvements of
varieties and methods are to be expected, but the varieties and
methods that. are now available make it possible to produce almost
unlimited quantities of long-staple cotton in the United States. All |
that seems now to be needed is that the commercial world appre-
ciate its agricultural responsibilities. The supply will correspond to
the demand, but the demand must be made effective by proper dis- .
crimination in price.

COMMERCIAL CAUSES OF DETERIORATION OF COTTON.

The manufacturing world, in Europe as well as in the United States,
seems to be unanimous in the opinion that the cotton crop has
deteriorated in recent decades. The same complaint is made regard-
ing all of the principal types of cotton—Upland short staples, long
staples, Egyptian, and Sea Island. While direct evidence on the
fact of deterioration is not easy to obtain, there is circumstantial
support for the idea that deterioration has taken place, for the sys-
tem of buying has allowed changes that would naturally tend toward
a decline in the quality of the crop. The necessary precautions of
selection and for avoiding admixture of seed have been relaxed, and
even the planting of inferior varieties has been encouraged.

The general disregard of the essential qualities of length, strength,
and higher grade on the part of buyers has had the natural effect of
leading the farmers to believe that the most desirable character a
cotton variety can have is that of giving a high percentage of lint,
‘‘a large outturn at the gin.” This erroneous idea is now firmly
fixed in the popular mind, and is not likely to be eradicated while
the present system of buying continues. No matter how inferior in
other respects a variety may be, thousands of bushels of seed can be
sold by advertising a high percentage of lint.

The fact that some of the varieties with highest lint percentages
produce extremely short, inferior fiber does not interfere with the
planting of such varieties as long as the farmer can sell three-quarter-
inch cotton for as much as inch cotton or even inch-and-an eighth
cotton. The popularity of such varieties is a result of the present

12 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

system of buying. In former decades, when the quality of the fiber
was considered, nobody would have thought of growing such cotton
or of breeding such varieties. In addition to their inferior lint, the
high percentage varieties usually have smaller seeds and weaker
seedlings, a very undesirable character from the agricultural stand- _
point. It is easier to secure higher percentages by selecting varia-
tions toward small seeds than to increase the amount of lint on the
seeds.!

Manufacturers have assumed or have been led to suppose that the
dangers threatening the cotton industry were purely agricultural,
such as the exhaustion of the soil, change of climate, or attacks of
the boll weevil, and this makes it harder for them to understand
that the primary causes of deterioration in the quality of the fiber
have been commercial rather than agricultural. This does not mean,
of course, that there are not many other agricultural improvements
that need to be made, but it does mean that the manufacturer should
take greater care to see that the farmer has the necessary induce-
ment to plant superior varieties and to adopt the more careful meth-
ods that are necessary to produce better fiber.

DETERIORATION OF THE SEA ISLAND COTTON CROP.

Until recent. years some of the planters of Sea Island cotton in
South Carolina have been able to sell their crops direct to the Euro-
pean manufacturers. In order to be sure of having the particular
strain of fiber that the planter raised, the manufacturer often made
contracts for several years in advance and at prices well above the
ordinary market quotations. The possibility of securing these
advantageous contracts led the more intelligent planters on the Sea
Islands to use one of the most highly specialized systems of selection
that has ever been applied to cotton or to any other field crop grown
from seed. In order to provide the uniformity of fiber so much
desired by the manufacturer, the Sea Island planter raised the crop
of each year from seed derived from a single individual plant. In
order to do this, it was necessary to select a superior individual three
or four years in advance and keep its progeny separate while the
stock of seed was being increased.

As long as the planters had the prospect of securing a fair return
for these precautions, extra care was taken to protect the uniformity
of the-stocks. But now that the system of huying has been changed
and the special contracts are no longer made, the policy of strict
selection is being relaxed. A rapid deterioration of the Sea Island
crop is said to have taken place, and this is easily understood from
the diversity that exists in many of the fields. Some of the planters

1Cook,O. F. Danger in judging cotton varieties by lint percentages. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 11, 16 p., 1908.

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 18

have abandoned the Sea Island cotton altogether and are now plant-
ing Upland short staple varieties. Hybrids between the Sea Island
and Upland types are of frequent occurrence, thus adding another
factor of diversity and deterioration. ~

The manufacturers probably believed that they could secure the
same cotton at lower prices by letting it go into the open market so
that the buyers could secure it at a flat rate, and this they may be
able to do, but only for a short time. The decline of the industry
has begun, and this course is not likely to be stayed unless there can
be a return to greater discrimination in buying. If it be true, as
some of the planters believe, that the contracts were withdrawn on
the assurance of the buyers that they could furnish the same cotton
at lower prices, any such assurance was based on a misunderstanding
of the essential factors of production, and the manufacturers have
been deceived. The buyers can not continue to furnish the same
cotton at lower prices, because the growers will not continue to pro-
duce cotton of the same quality.

Tf the farmers are no longer to look for special prices for special
quality of fiber, they will no longer make quality the prime considera-
tion, but must begin to take more account of quantity, as in other
branches of the cotton industry. The planters are preferring more
prolific stocks and are abandoning the special selections formerly
grown on the basis of contracts. The buyer may send the manufac-
turer cotton from the same plantation, but it is no longer the same
cotton. The commercial interests are beginning to recognize this as
one of the causes of deterioration of the Sea Island crop, but it is
equally important to understand that the attempt to buy the cotton
at flat prices places a premium on quantity instead of on quality.
Of course, the buyer wants the cotton to have quality when he takes
it to the manufacturer, for his profits depend on this, but it is hardly
businesslike to expect the planter to provide special quality without
being paid for it.

Thus, it may be seen that the plan of buying Sea Island cotton at
flat prices without proper discrimination in favor of producers of
superior fiber is having the same effect in the Sea Island district as in
other branches of the cotton industry. The general tendency is to
discourage and cause the neglect of the special precautions that are
necessary to produce fiber of the highest quality. The next step in
deterioration is a general decline in uniformity and reduction of —
demand. If these commercial tendencies are not resisted, the ulti-
mate effect must be to discontinue the production and put an end to
the superior fiber. The present theory of the commercial world—
that larger profits can be made by refusing premiums for superior
fiber—if worked out to its logical conclusion, means that all the
higher types of cotton will be excluded, so that the cotton production

14 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the future will be limited to very short staples, three-quarters of an
inch or less.

There can be no doubt of the desirability of finding some means of
counteracting this tendency toward the planting of inferior varieties.
Indeed, some other course must be opened, or further deterioration
is inevitable. As long as the farmer accepts the lint percentage or —
ginning outturn as the sole standard of the value of a variety, the
preference for varieties with inferior lint is likely to continue. The
only effective way to change the farmer’s opinion on this point is to
pay him less for the short, inferior fiber and more for the long,
strong, and uniform fiber.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF BUYING.

A system of buying that discourages the production of the com-
modity that it handles is like a transportation line that injures its
business by charging more than the traffic will bear. Farmers will
not take more pains to grow good cotton merely for the satisfaction
of knowing that the buyer can make more money out of it. The
farmer must get at least enough advantage to induce him to grow
the cotton or the buyer loses his business; and the manufacturer
also suffers when the farmer ceases to produce the necessary raw
materials. Even if the manufacturers are able to protect them-
selves against the unskillful buyers, the agricultural damage con-
tinues. It is not what the manufacturer pays for the cotton but
what the farmer gets for the cotton that determines production.

Long-staple manufacturers have been uncertain of their future
supplies and anxious that production should be increased, but they
should understand that the remedy is in their own hands. Nothing
in the way of permanent progress is to be gained by advising or
exhorting farmers to plant better varieties or to maintain their uni-
formity by selection unless they are able to market superior fiber at
higher prices than ordinary or inferior fiber.

Some of the manufacturers have supposed that the production
of long-staple cotton could be increased and a more abundant supply
maintained by direct action of the Department of Agriculture in
urging the planters to grow long-siaple cotton. It is desirable, of
course, to have the improved varieties brought to the attention of
planters, or even urged upon them, but if it appears afterwards that
- the farmers who have planted the new varieties and taken the pains
to carry out the precautions advised by the Department of Agriculture
can get no more for their cotton than their careless neighbors, no per-
manent benefit is secured. Indeed, the reaction that comes with the
failure of such efforts often leaves a worse condition than before.
There is less inclination to make such efforts in the future or to

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 15

adopt other improvements advised by the Department of Agri-
culture.

The general underlying fact is that most of the farmers are unac-
customed to take the precautions that are necessary to preserve
uniform stocks and have no adequate conception of the need of such
precautions. Moreover, they are not likely to get such a concep-
tion, except through a long educational process, unless the issue is
made more practical and direct by greater discrimination in buying.
The work of the department is of an educational character, but the
information that the department can give the farmer is not likely
to be used when it means additional care and effort without any
corresponding advantage. When the farmer asks how much more
his long-staple crop will bring if he pulls out all of the short-staple
plants in the field, he can get no direct assurance. He can be assured
that his cotton will be worth more, but not that he can get more, for
the chances are that the buyer will be unable to detect the admixture
of short cotton. But if the farmer knew that his field was to be
inspected and that the presence of short-staple plants would be
detected and would result in his receiving a lower price for his crop,
he would not hesitate about taking the trouble to pull them out.
Farmers are willing enough to adopt easier methods or crops that
can be raised more cheaply, but the production of good cotton
requires additional attention, something beyond what the farmer
has been accustomed to give in raising short staples, and some positive
inducement becomes necessary or the extra care will not be taken.

INJUSTICE OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF BUYING.

The present system of buying without adequate discrimination
means the same average price for lots of cotton that differ greatly
in value. Doubtless it is an easier and more convenient system for .
the buyers to take their cotton at flat prices and classify it after-
wards into the different qualities required by their various customers.
But, whatever the commercial advantages of this system, it is cer-
tainly unwise and unjust in its relation to the farmer. It takes
what belongs to the good farmer and gives it to the poor farmer.’
The farmer who raises cotton above the average in quality is mulcted
to make up for the loss on cotton that is below the average. When
the nature of the system is considered, it is easy to understand that
the general tendency has been toward the growing of inferior cotton
rather than to the taking of extra pains from which no advantage
could be gained.

No individual buyer, of: course, nor any organization of buyers,
is to be held responsible for the present system. Buyers, like other

1 For specific instances of injustice and loss to farmers resulting from the present system of marketing,
see Sherman, W. A., Taylor, Fred, and Brand, C. J., already cited.

16 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

people, simply have been inclined to take the courses that seemed
to promise the easiest returns, without realizing that these courses
were so seriously at variance with the interests of both the producer
and the manufacturer. But now this divergence of interests has
become apparent, and there is no good reason why it should continue,
Buyers who wish to do so can learn how to serve their clients better
than under the present system. The skillful buyers would do a
larger proportion of business as production became more concen-
trated by community organization. The unskillful buyers, who
have been buying the cotton raised by unskillful farmers, would go
out of business.

As already stated, it is not a question of paying more for the
cotton, but of paying more to the farmers who produce good cotton
and less to those who produce poor cotton. This simple expedient
would do more than any amount of exhortation to merease the
proportion of farmers who would take the care that is necessary to
produce good cotton. Buyers who really have the powers of dis-
crimination that are needed in their business would have no serious
difficulty in learning how to determine the value of the crop in the
field much more reliably than they can determine it by drawing
samples from the bales. The risks they now take in trusting to bale
samples alone could be avoided almost entirely by learning how to
judge the cotton in the field. “In order to have a beneficial effect on
production, discrimination must be based on real differences in the
cotton. Arbitrary discrimination is naturally resented by the farmer
as a dishonest effort at buying his cotton for less than its actual
market value. When different prices are paid for bales that were
raised in the same field, gathered by the same pickers, and ginned at
the same gin, the farmer is compelled either to doubt the honesty of
the buyers or to question their ability to distinguish the quality of
cotton in the bale. Differences of 3 or 4 cents a pound in the valua-
tion of the same lots of cotton are common in long-staple markets.

UNIFORMITY BEST DETERMINED BY FIELD INSPECTION.

Uniformity in the length and strength of the fiber is one of the
most important factors in determining the value of long-staple
cotton to the spimner. One of the most serious defects of the present
system of buying on the basis of samples drawn from the bales is
that it is not adequate for the determination of uniformity. Buyers
commonly fail to detect an admixture of 5 or 10 per cent of short
cotton, and even 15 or 20 per cent often ‘‘gets by.” The buyers, of
course, are not inclined to admit this, but the fact is well known to
manufacturers. Differences in the amount of ‘‘waste’ become
apparent, of course, when the manufacturing processes are reached,
though they are not to be detected with accuracy by the methods of

| THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 17
sampling upon which the buyer relies. But by field imspection
admixtures of 1 or 2 per cent are quite as easily and definitely detected
as percentages of 10 or 20 per cent. A buyer or inspector having
sufficient familiarity with a variety could establish definite per-
centage grades of purity of stock for all of the cotton of a neighbor-
hood, and these percentages could be used as a basis for buying.
The short-staple plants or mferior individuals stand out very dis-
tinctly, so that they can be seen at a glance by those who have
sufficient familiarity with a variety, and they can be pulled out or
counted as easily as the same number of weeds that a careless farmer
might leave in his field.

Buyers are on their guard, of course, against deliberate mixing or |

“‘nlating” of bales by puttmg good cotton on the outside and poor
cotton in the middle, but when the long and the short cotton grow |
together in the same field and are picked together the chances of
detection are greatly reduced. Dishonest farmers have been known
to add a proportion of short-staple seed before planting, in order to
merease the yield and sell the crop at regular long-staple prices.
This has been done, not alone in out-of-the-way places where there
were no regular long-staple buyers, but in recognized .long-staple
markets. The buyer pulls only two or three samples from the bale,
and unless he happens upon short cotton in ‘‘pulling the sample” the
bales may be passed and paid for as long staple. Hence, the present
system of buying affords no protection against the deterioration of
varieties of long-staple cotton. The mixture is likely to go on to the
point of complete contamination of the stock before the buyer detects
the damage.

In failing to make use of the opportunity of judging cotton in the
field, the present system of buying becomes wasteful and inefficient.
Buying cotton at a flat price without discrimination of quality
means that all the different grades and qualities that a region pro-
duces are brought together, and then they are sorted out again,
though there is much less chance of correct judgment as to quality
than before they were brought together. Buying from a knowledge
of the cotton in the field would require, no doubt, more work from
the buyer than he now applies to his business, but the effort would be
worth while and might be expected to find proper remuneration.

FIELD INSPECTION IN THE INTEREST OF MANUFACTURERS.

What the long-staple manufacturers might do, and what they
undoubtedly would do if sufficiently alive to their future interests,
would be to send men into districts where long-staple cotton is
grown, in order to gain direct familiarity with the facts that deter-
mine the value of the cotton for manufacturing purposes. The
knowledge that might be gained in this way could be used either in

18 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

direct buying from the farmer or in placing orders with buyers who
would, in turn, find it to their interest to know in advance the possi-
bility of supplying the needs of their more discriminating customers.
The same amount of skill that is now used in classifying cotton in
the bale could be applied much more effectively in the field, and with
enormous advantage to agriculture in assuring the farmer a return
for the special care required to produce superior fiber. The chief
obstacle to the adoption of such methods of buying on a basis of field
inspection is that neither the manufacturers nor the buyers have, at
present, any familiarity with cotton in the field, either with the
plants as they grow or with the fiber as it comes from the bolls. A
certain amount of time is required to become familiar with the plant
and lint characters, as they have to be judged in the field, but any-
body who is able to make the fine discriminations necessary in class-
ing cotton in the bale would have no serious difficulty in learning to
distinguish the different kinds of plants in a mixed field or in recog-
nizing differences in the lint while still on the seeds. Indeed, the
recognition of such differences is really much easier than the classi-
fication of cotton in the bale, because the differences are greater and
more obyious, and because it is seldom necessary to depend upon one
character alone. Varieties differ, usually, by many characters, and
even in the same variety several characters are likely to be changed
under a different set of external conditions. If the lint is shortened
by adverse conditions, the bolls and leaves are likely to be smaller
and the whole aspect of the plants will be different. Sufficient
familiarity with the characters and behavior of a variety enables one
to tell in advance with considerable confidence the length and strength
of the lint. before taking it in hand, or even before the bolls have

opened.
OTHER CAUSES OF UNEVEN FIBER.

It is true that mixing varieties and diversity among the plants in
the field are not the only causes of inequality in the length and
strength of cotton fiber. Unless the conditions of growth are favor-
able, even the best variety may yield only inferior cotton. Adverse
conditions during a part of the crop season may render the fiber
uneven, notwithstanding the care that may have been taken to keep
the stock pure. As a result of differences in the soil, one part of a
field may grow good fiber while another part of the same field may
yield only inferior fiber. When one side of a field is allowed to grow
up in weeds, an adverse effect on the fiber is often apparent. Inequal-
ities of soil or moisture supply are often shown in a striking manner
in the growth of the plants.

Any sudden change of conditions of growth, such as checking the
plants by drought or forcing them into very rapid development by
heat and moisture, is likely to affect the quality of the fiber as well

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 19

as the yield. The crop is reduced by the shedding of floral buds and
young bolls. Bolls that are farther advanced are not so likely to be
shed, but they often fail to reach normal maturity and produce weak,
inferior fiber. Thus, long and short fiber or strong and weak fiber are
often to be found on the same plant.

Some varieties have a tendency to inequality in the length of lint,
the fiber at the base of the seed often being much shorter than that
at the top. This difference of length sometimes amounts to half an
inch or even more, giving the so-called ‘‘butterfly’”’ outline, when the
fiber is combed out from the sides of the seed. This factor of ine-
quality may be avoided by choosing varieties that do not have the
undesirable butterfly tendency. The new Durango type of long-
staple cotton is unusually free from this defect.

There are other factors of inequality in addition to the mixing
of varieties or the failure to continue selection. A farmer who has‘
planted pure seed may still have only inferior cotton if his soil is
poor or his methods careless, either in raising or picking the crop,
or if the fiber is damaged by rain during the harvest season. The
condition of the cotton must be taken into account apart from the
quality. Good cotton may be in bad condition, but poor cotton
can not be made good by careful handling at the end of the season.
The farmer who plants mixed seed can not produce uniform fiber,
no matter how favorable the conditions or how careful the methods
in other respects. Quality is best determined by field inspection,
‘for any form of inequality can be detected in the field much more
easily than in the bale.

“ECONOMIC PECULIARITIES OF THE COTTON INDUSTRY.

Cotton differs from many other crops in that it can not be used on
the farm or by retail consumers in the neighboring town. ‘There is
no possibility of the cotton grower dealing directly with an individual
consumer of cotton, unless he should return to the manufacture
of his own cloth, as in colonial times. The modern industry is organ-
ized on the basis of assembling a large quantity of fiber to supply a
vast manufacturing establishment. As economy of. production
depends on this concentration of supplies, we may say that raw
cotton has only a wholesale market. The retail market is not
reached until the manufactured goods are distributed. Thus, the
cotton crop is peculiarly dependent on its commercial environment,
because the farmer has no alternative but to sell to the manufacturer
or his representative, the cotton buyer. This absence of ordinary
retail competition may be considered as a reason for the persistent
demand for special legislation to control the marketing of cotton.

The economy and efficiency of the present system of concentration
of manufacturing processes depends on the supply of suitable mate-

20 BULLETIN 60, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rials, and a regular supply must be maintained or the whole indus-
trial and commercial structure falls. It may be too much to ask
manufacturers to understand the agricultural factors of production,
but at least the commercial factors might receive their attention, in

view of the important differences between cotton and other crops. .

Unless the buyer represents the manufacturer to the extent of dis-
criminating in favor of the fiber that the manufacturer wants, the
farmer will also fail to discriminate; that is, he will neglect the pre-

cautions that are necessary to produce longer and more uniform

fiber.
CONCLUSIONS.

The production of cotton of superior quality in the United States
is influenced by methods of buying, as well as by the prices paid for
_the crop. Failure to use proper discrimination in buying encourages
careless or dishonest mixing of varieties on the farm or at the gin and
leads to deterioration and loss of uniformity, so that the market
value of the product is soon. destroyed. Long-staple cotton of
superior quality could be grown to great advantage in many parts
of the American cotton belt if the necessary care were taken to
preserve the purity and uniformity of varieties. The natural condi-
tions are favorable for the production of such cotton, and almost
unlimited supplies.could be grown if precautions against contamina-
tion and degeneration were observed.

Manufacturers have complained for many years that supplies of
long-staple cotton were inadequate and uncertain, and the boll-weevil
invasion has been supposed to jeopardize the very existence of the
long-staple industry. But these dangers no longer threaten. New
early-maturing varieties of long-staple cotton have been developed;
also improved cultural methods that make it possible to produce good
crops of long-staple cotton m many parts of the United States
despite the presence of the boll weevil. The problem now is to
induce the farmers to take the precautions that are necessary to
maintain the uniformity of varieties, and the manufacturers who use
the long-staple cottons have the key to this problem.

The prices that have ruled for the last few years have been high
enough to stimulate the production of long-staple cotton, but the
methods of buying have been too indiscriminate to lead the farmer
to understand the necessity of maintaining the purity and uniformity
of varieties. Little of permanent benefit can come from the develop-
ment of superior varieties by the Department of Agriculture if the
farmer is not led to appreciate the necessity of preserving such
varieties after they are placed in his hands. As long as the buyers
take inferior mixed fiber and pay as much for it as for the best and
most uniform, the farmer can not be expected to observe the pre-
cautions that are necessary to maintain the purity and uniformity

THE RELATION OF COTTON BUYING TO COTTON GROWING. 21

of a variety of cotton, nor even to regard very highly the advice of
the Department of Agriculture regarding the necessity of such
precautions. More general planting of long-staple cottons can not be
advised unless marketing conditions are improved.

Greater discrimination in buying would be the most effective way
to encourage the production of long-staple cottons, by giving the
farmer a more direct interest in maintaining the purity and uniformity
of his crop as a means of securing the full market price. The present
tendency to buy long-staple cotton at flat prices like short-staple
cotton does not encourage greater care and discrimination on the
part of the farmer, but encourages the opposite tendencies to care-
lessness, loss of uniformity of fiber, and degeneration of varieties.
Accordingly, there may be urged upon manufacturers and others
who are interested in the development of the long-staple cotton
industry the importance of improving the methods of buying, so
that greater discrimination may be used, instead of paying the same
prices for mixed fiber as for fiber raised from pure stocks of seed.

Inspection of the cotton in the field affords a much better basis
of judgment regarding the essential quality of uniformity than the
present method of pulling samples from the bales. Field inspection
should precede warehouse grading, especially with long-staple cottons.
Familiarity with a variety of cotton makes it possible to recognize
much smaller percentages of admixture or degeneration than can be
detected in the bale, thus affording a greater degree of protection to
the buyer and manufacturer and at the same time offering a greater
inducement to the farmer to maintain the purity and uniformity of
his cotton.

peste wes COPIES of this publication

may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-

ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy
Arts

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914

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BULLETIN OF THE

{> USDEDARIMENT OFACRICULTURE “a

No. 61

Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief.
June 30, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE
GREATZBASIN REGION.'*

By G. J. Youna.
GEOCHEMICAL CONDITIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

The area under consideration in this bulletin embraces practically the entire State
of Nevada, the southern part of Oregon, the western part of Utah, and certain sections
of eastern and southeastern California. It is confined on the north by the watershed
of the Columbia, Snake, and Klamath Rivers, on the south and southeast by the
Colorado River, on the west by the Sierra Nevada, on the east by the Wasatch Moun-
tains, and on the southwest by the mountains bordering on the Mojave Desert. It
includes the drainage of the Humboldt, Truckee, Carson, Walker, Quinn, Bear,
Weber, Jordan, Salt, Sevier, Beaver, Amargosa, Mojave, and Owens Rivers and their
tributaries, besides numerous smaller creeksand streams. It isconsidered as a unit
because it has no surface drainage to the sea. Climatologically, it is a part of the
arid region of the West.

The total area is estimated at between 208,500 and 210,000 square miles. The term
““Great Basin” has received such widespread use and acceptance that we may consider
the designation fixed, although it must not be considered as a single basin, but rather
as a series of individual basins separated by mountain ranges. These basins are
roughly of north-and-south trend. Five major systems may be separated and desig-
nated as the Bonneville; the Lahontan; the Amargosa and Death Valley; the Owens,
Searles, and Panamint system; and the Oregon Lake system. Of the other lake basins
not included in these systems the following may be named: Rhodes Marsh, Teels
Marsh, Columbus and Fish Lake Valley, Clayton Valley, ‘Alkali Lake (Paradise Val-
ley, Cal.), Big Smoky Valley, White River, Mono, Saline Valley, Ivanpah,
Bristol, Cadiz, and Danby. A complete list of the individual basins making up the
Great Basin has been prepared by E. E. Free, and the following table is taken from
his ae (The Present and Past Topography of the Undrained Areas of the United
States):

Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description. Area.
Square \ Square

miles. : miles.
To eilaveraly ewe) = eee Wk en eet ep 47,600 || Humboldt-Carson.-| Part of Lahontan...| 27,575
Blacks Rocks <2: -- Partof Lahontan= oie 105500) Hemleym sass 22 sels ee GOr ee oeetes 215
LEG viea hye ee Se ie een Oise pepe ieee 445 || Allan Springs_.......|..-.-. COs Beet ase 235
Gr AMILe) SEIN esau |e ne AO see ere 890 || Sand Springs......- Sioslen 6 LO eeeseies sais ae 200
LIVE OF ree Be Te a ies CORE SEL eye 340 || Buena Vista........ Part of Humboidt 4,000

LOMO putes! \5 122. Se a 32 GORA 270 drainage.

Honey Lake........|...-- OS Seg ne a gn 2,660 || Buffalo Springs.....]....- Gone seo ah sis 500
PHC HCG ws fp ke San C6 Koya ar 2U9 75. \\) GDSOMier : ease eee ee ee GOS pee sees 1,150
, Lemmon Valley....|-.-..- ORE ae een mae 90 || Clover (snow water) |... .- do. See aa 1,075
Warm Springs......|..... GO Ea SS) CUTS 201! | WHA C ras Seer ae Part of Lahontan...| 3,850

* This bulletin embodies the results of investigations carried on in cooperation with the United States
feological Survey and the Mackay School of Mines, Reno, Ney., with a view to determining the existence
_ “or nonexistence of sources of potash salts in the basin region.

BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Basin. Description.
Bonneville. ........ Once tributary to

Z Columbia River.
Stepioc. .2..-e=s-~. Part of Bonneville. .
LT ges = seas seyan Banas Ono ens a Nase
Butte WVallpys.2ccssi=s55= GGor en scceostmes
Murray..-2::-...-2/ 4222.2 dozen ss- aeeet
White Valley....-..|..-.- MOvinskisssceccoe
Rush Valley........|.-..- de pid ccaneecebe
HevViels...- = -cs2s0--|22---00-..- a -s-cscee
Christmas Lake. ... Probably landlocked
Silver Lake......... Part of Christmas

Lake Basin.

Chewaucan........- Landlocked .........

Summer Lake......

(Abert Lake).
Part of Chewaucan

asin
Alkali Lake.......-. -Landlocked.........
Warner) 22.-4-22-—-}oec5= doo 53-5 a eeee
Harmnoyses 7-5 ace Tributary to Colum-
bia River.
Watlow =~ -2-==----- Probably tributary
to Harney.
GHANO! een sete Probably tributary
to Catlow.
DUTPTISe <2. --s-<5-- Landlocked (maxi-
mum area).
Long Valley.....-.-- Probably tributary
to Surprise.
Prick.4at-= 2-223. Tributary to Sur-

Klamath Lakes.....

Dixie Valley. --..-.-.
WATEVIOW 2.25 a/.=<\= 22
Edward’s Creek....
Gabbs Valley.......
MACHO. is 3o5. cco

MINS oo cect esses

Clayion':-o2se-psn-=
Big Smoky......-.-

Smiths Creek.......
Kempston ios sjecae
Goldfield...........
Diamond yee
Railroad Valley. ..

KawWiICOs 222 5c acose

The areas given 1n this table are understood to be approximate.

prise.

Probably landlocked

TUNA to Alvord.

Provably landlocked

Tributary to Pitt
River. ~

Tributary to Kla-
math River.

Probably tributary
to Walker.

Probably tributary
to puedes:

Probably landlocked
(maximum area).
Probably landlocked
Landlocked .........

Landlocked (includ-
ing Big Smoky).
Landlocked .........
Probably tributary

to Columbus.
Probably tributary
to Big Smoky.
Tributary to Big
Smoky
Probably landlocked

Teapot (maxi-
mum area).

Probably tributary
to Railroad.

Area.

Square
miles.
57, 960

6, 590
1, 200

Basin. Description. Area.
Square
miles.

Penoyers.. cee oeeee Probably tributary 1,000
to Railroad.
Gold Plat... 22422 Probably landlocked 640.
Mimiprant. ssa pee Probably landlocked} 1,000
(maximum area).
WAU COS 2s eee sees Probably tributary 300
to Frenchman
Flat.
Frenchman Flat....| Probably landlocked 740
Indian Spring...... Tributary to Colo- 650
rado River.
Pint Water .-2-e|secee Oey setae sae: 730
Lee Canyon........|..... GO} Se paseeces cnc 300
Sheep Range.......| Probably landlocked 300
Spring Valley. -....| Doubtful._.......... 1,550
Gannetts/..eess-oe Tributary to Colo- 150
rado River.
Opal Mountain..... Probably landlocked 580
Mono. 232-2 sesceates Landlocked ...---..-..- 770
AUT OL alse cee ee nee Part of Mono.....-.-. 100
OWwensee eee eseeeoee Once tributary to 2, 825
Searles.
Searles. jie 5o sees Almost always land- 4, 850
locked (maximum
area).
Panamint.........- Landlocked (area 1,950
does not include
Searles or Owens).
Saline Valley......-. Landlocked........- 825
Eureka Valley...... Probably landlocked 550
Deep Springs Landlocked........- 190
Kamien = seen Be Probably landlocked 900
Willard#22. Aves | |e on sees ues eee 250
ee am Mountains -|..... do EE ea Seine oe 150
sc smebiiy siid= teen | Rtas OO. Qoeae semadeers 60
Death Valley....... Tandtoceed (includ-| 23,160
ing Mojave and
Amargosa).
Ralston ss see Part of Amargosa 1, 756
drainage
stonewall lates. c| see eOO- ee ae eee 343
Sarcobatus Blat- 2. |. Soeidossse 5. see eee 755
Pahrump Valley. ..| Tributary to Amar- 1, 400
ee (maximum
Mesquite Valley....| Probably tributary 350
to the Amargosa.
Soda Lake.......... Part of Mojave |........
drainage.
Rodriguez Lake.-...}....- GOMER eae seca saliote soon
Harper Lake <= 22s] see ee Copa see tee leete sec
Coyote Lake-...-...|..-.. (6 CSREES eek Ye | ee
Cronese Lake... SOLO pA ME sta, ee a Ca hp
Langford Lake.....|...-. GOt RIGS Eee
Lvanpah.-eeeeeeceee Landlocked.........|...-...-
Bristol Lake........ Probably tributary |........
to Colorado River.
Cadiz Lake......... Tributary either to |........
Danby Lake or to
the Colorado
River.
Danby Lake........| Probably tributary 4,150
to Colorado River
(maximum area).
Mesquite Lake....- Tributary to Colo- |........
rado River.
Dale Lakes. s2eceeee|seaes (6 (ce es etary aes 4

For a description

of the basins given the reader is referred to the bulletin already cited.

Recent interest in the development of the potash resources of the United States
has directed considerable attention to the possibilities of the Great Basin as a source
of thiscompound. The Bureau of Soils and the United States Geological Survey have

maintained investigators in this region for some time.

Under the direction of the

United States Geological Survey a bore has been sunk in the Carson Sink area to a

depth of 985 feet.

bores.

Many of the smaller basins have also been explored by shallow
Through the Bureau of Soils a study of the general conditions in these basins,

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 3

and particularly dealing with the geochemical features, has been made. In order to
widen out the field and stimulate prospectors and others to direct their attention to
this mineral, the Bureau of Soils, the United States Geological Survey, and the Mackay
School of Mines established a joint laboratory for the examination of mineral and other
naturally occurring substances suspected to contain potash. The results of the United
States Geological Survey investigators have been presented from time to time in
bulletins.!

The results of the work of the Bureau of Soils are, in part, presented in a paper by
EK. E. Free (The Present and Past Topography of the Undrained Areas of the United
States).2_ The purpose of the present paper is to present a review of the information
now available on the subject of the occurrence and origin of the salines of the Great
Basin region, as well as the chemical data which have been accumulated by the
Bureau of Soils and the Cooperative Laboratory. Naturally a review of the geo-
chemical features of a region of this extent will not be complete, but it is belicved
that such a review will be of value at this time and will indicate quite clearly the
lines along which future investigation should be directed.

For an adequate conception of the geochemistry of a region it is necessary to know
the principal facts concerning climatology, topography, geology, the surface and under-
ground waters, the evaporation from ground and surface waters, and the distribution
and pal character of the rocks. These subjects will be treated in the order
stated.

CLIMATOLOGY.

The Great Basin is spoken of as an arid region, and just what is the significance of
this term may be gathered from the tables in the Appendix. These tables have been
compiled from Weather Bureau reports on precipitation and temperature. They are
grouped in four divisions: Weather stations in Nevada, weather stations in western
Utah, weather stations in the part of the basin region included in Oregon, and weather
stations in that part of the basin region included in California. The altitude and
mean annual rainfall of each station isgiven. (See Appendix, TableI.) The average
(arithmetical mean) annual rainfall of the stations in each group is, for the Oregon
group, 13.59 inches; for the Utah group, 12.8 inches; for the Nevada group, 10.34
inches; and for the California group, 4.43 inches. The mean annual precipitation
for the entire basin region is 10.31 inches. In arriving at this average the mean for
each of the above groups and the area occupied by each group were taken into consid-
eration. The variation of the mean annual rainfall with latitude in the basin region
may be approximated from Table II. (See Appendix.) Latitude is less a factor in
controlling precipitation than altitude. The basins of the Great Basin in general are
characterized by a small rainfall. The higher mountains receive a much greater
rainfall. An area of high aridity may be marked out, and this includes the Mojave Des-
ert, the Amargosa Basin, the Owens, Walker, Mono, Pyramid, Carson, and Black Rock
Desert regions. In this area the mean annual precipitation 1s less than 6 inches.

An inspection of the weather reports for the basin region shows that some precipi-
tation takes place in each month of the year. December, January, February, and
March are the usual months of maximum precipitation; while June, July, August,
and September are the months of minimum precipitation. There is, however, much
irregularity in the monthly distribution of the rainfall, and the weather charts do
not give an entirely clear conception of the situation. Rainfall may be divided into
two classes—the normal winter precipitation and the precipitation which usually
occurs in August and September. The latter is in the nature of torrential rains and
cloudbursts and is conspicuous in the more arid portions of the region. The normal
winter precipitation contributes but little run-off im the arid portions, but the August
and September precipitations often result in heavy local run-offs which are important
agents in the movement of detrital material from the mountains to the plains. As
might be expected, precipitation of this nature is very irregular. Several years may
elapse without sufficient rain to even moisten the desert watercourses. Then a
period of heavy rains results in turning such watercourses into torrents. Stream
flows of this nature are of short duration, but the local work of erosion and transpor-
tation may be very great. Were it not for these rains, erosion and deposition in the
more arid portions of the basin region would be somewhat inconspicuous and limited
principally to the action of wind. The influence of these torrential rains extends
over the whole arid region described above. But little study has been made of these

1 Bul. No. 523, Nitrate Deposits. Bul. No. 530-A, The Search for Potash in the United States; Potash
Salts—Summary for 1911. Bul. No. 511, Potash Saits—Their Uses and Occurrence in the United States;
Alunite. Bul. No. 530-R, Exploration of Salines in Silver Peak Marsh, Nevada; Press Notice No. 97,
Feb. 10, 1913; Prospecting for Potash in Death Valley.

2 Cire. No. 61, Bureau of Soils, An Investigation of the Otero Basin, New Mexico, for Potash Salts; Cire.
No. 62, Bureau of Soils, Report of a Reconnoissance of the Lyon Nitrate Deposit near Queen, New Mexico.

4 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

storms, their distribution, and frequency of occurrence. As might be inferred, the
weather reports would not reflect this phase of the precipitation to any marked extent.

The mean annual temperature and the highest and lowest temperatures are given
in Table III (See Appendix). It is worthy of note that the temperature range in the
basin region is great. Extreme cold often prevails in the northern part and extends
well down to the south. Extreme summer heats are characteristic of the southern
portions and extend well up to the north. Asa consequence of this, rock disintegra-
tion would be a not inconspicuous feature of the higher mountains.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The dominant bounding ranges of the basin region are the Sierra Nevadas on the
west and the Wasatch on the east. The area between these ranges may be considered
as a plain intersected by mountain ranges of a predominantly north and south trend.
The plain, which is really a great system of more or less connected intermountain
valleys, maintains its elevation of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet altitude over practi-
cally the entire northern half of the region. The northern half contains three of the
main drainage basins—the Bonneville, the Lahontan, and the Oregon Lake basins.
These basins are’all close to or within the 4,000-foot contour. The south-central half
of the plain slopes gradually to the south, reaching two points of maximum depres-
sion—Death Valley on the southwest and Las Vegas Valley on the southeast. If we
consider the Salton Lake area as a portion of the Great Basin, we have another point
of low depression in the Salton Sink. The principal river within the basin is the
Humboldt. This river flows across Nevada and feeds Humboldt Lake, in the Lahon-
tan basin. Of minor importance are the Quinn, Amargosa, Reese, and White Rivers.
From the Sierras and the Wasatch Mountains many important streams feed the lakes
lying in the Bonneville and Lahontan basins and along the base of the Sierras. Many
minor streams flow from the short, steep canyons of the higher mountain ranges of the
basin.

The mountains of the basin region are in many instances characterized by steep
scarps on either or both sides. Short, steep canyons cut to the summits are the rule.
Only in a few instances are gently rising slopes to the higher summits to be found.
The topography of the mountains belongs to an intermediate rather than a mature or
juvenile type. ;

The valleys are wide and often of great north and south extent. Fringing the
valleys are alluvial fans or cones. They are less noticeable in the north, but become
conspicuous in the south, where they reach enormous proportions in the Death Valley
region.

FAs attempt has been made to determine the proportion of mountain and inter-
mountain area. The Sierra Valley, Reno, Wadsworth, and Carson topographical
sheets were measured and the areas occupied by mountain, outwash slope, silt, playa,
and lake determined by planimeter measurements. A more or less arbitrary division
was made between mountain and outwash areas, and between outwash and silt areas.
Outwash areas include the alluvial fans or cones fringing the steep slopes of the moun-
tains. Where the contours indicated a 2° to 4° slope, the beginning of the silt area
was assumed, while the blue dotted line upon the topographic sheets surrounding the ~
lowest area of an intermountain space was taken as the playa area. Similar measure-
ments were made upon the topographic sheets of the Amargosa River. The results
of these measurements, as well as those made in the Owens River Valley, are given
in Table IV (Appendix). Figure 1 graphically illustrates the comparison of the
areas measured, with the exception of the Owens Valley area. The measurements
given may be taken to represent a close approximation to the conditions within the
basin region. The mean of the measurements of the Carson and the Amargosa region
is: Mountain area, 48.3; outwash slopes, 19.1; silt area, 26.8; playa and water area,
5.5 per cent. The mean may be taken to represent approximately the basin region.
The figures may be interpreted to mean that over approximately one-half of the basin
region erosion is active, while on the remaining half deposition is taking place, greatest
in amount on the outwash slopes and least in the playa and flat portions of the inter-
mountain areas. The material constituting the outwash slopes is, in the main,
coarse and angular. It is itself more or less subject to erosion. The fine silt and sand
coming from the mountain areas, as well as the eroded material of the outwash slopes,
finds its way into the playa areas.

GEOLOGY.

An extensive review of the geology of the basin region would he out of place here.
Briefly, all of the geological divisions, with the exception of the pre-Cambrian, Per-
mian, and Cretaceous, are to he found. For our purpose we may consider these geo-
logical time divisions in three groups—pre-Tertiary, Tertiary, and post-Tertiary.

ee ee eS ee en ee ee

,
!

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 5

Pre-Tertiary rocks embrace a comparatively large area of the basin region. The chief
formations are: Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic, and Jurassic.
Pre-Cambrian formations have been described by King, Spurr, and Ball, but are rela-
tively unimportant. The eastern and southeastern part of Nevada is characterized
by Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks. These rocks are quartz-

M7OUN TALN

Qe eee ee]
oes Sei

SIEFRPRA VALLEY

———

WADSWORTH GARSON

H /IOUNTAIN AREA

TUM ras ane
alia kn - Ss SILT AREA

PLAYA ANO.
WATER ARLA

AMARGOSA REGION

Fig. 1.—Diagrams showing the proportion of mountain and intermountain area in the several districts.

ites, slates, limestones, and sandstones. Triassic and Jurassic formations are rela-
tively less abundant and occur in widely distributed patches in the west-central and
southwest portions of the basin region. They consist of limestones, slates, shales,
and thin beds of quartzite. In the Triassic are also found beds of gypsum.
Post-Jurassic orogenic movement, accompanied by granitic intrusions, ushered in
a period of land elevation and erosion, which continued throughout Cretaceous time.

6 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The conspicuous absence of Cretaceous formations in the basin region, excepting in
the Wasatch Mountains and the Iron Spring district of southern Utah,! has been noted
by many geologists and confirms the conclusion that the basin region was a land mass
in Cretaceous time.

The pre-Tertiary was ended and the Tertiary begun by orogenic movement, accom-
es by volcanic eruptions. Evidence is not conclusive as to the exact geologic

ivision, but opinion seems to predominate that the beginning of the Eocene marked
the beginning of Tertiary volcanic activity, which extended through the Tertiary
and into the Quaternary. Following the early volcanic activity of this period, na
no doubt, preceded by crustal movements, was the Tertiary lake period (Miocene)—
King’s Pahute Lake. During this period the western half of the basin region was
occupied by one or more lakes of great extent and irregular outline. Some parts of
this lake were, no doubt, of great depth, and the lake period was of long duration,
as is shown by the great thickness of sediments exposed in many places (notable
examples: Furnace Creek and the Silver Peak quadrangle). The period of lake
formation was also a period of vulcanism.
A period of great orogenic movement succeeded the late Tertiary, and during this
eriod the basin ranges were formed and the present topography took its main outlines.
he Miocene lakes disappeared. The late-Tertiary is obscure and has yet to be worked
out in detail for the region. King was of the opinion that the Miocene lake period
was succeeded by another lake period, Pliocene, but Russell has shown that, in so far
as the Pliocene sediments (Humboldt formation) mapped by King are concerned, they
belong to the Lahontan Lake period. Russell’s conclusion is confined to the western
portion (Map 5, Geological Atlas, Fortieth Parallel Survey) and does not necessarily
include the eastern half of the basin region. Succeeding the late-Tertiary was a
period of erosion and continued uplift. The Pleistocene fresh-water lakes were
formed. The detailed study of these lakes has shown during this time at least two

eriods of flooding and an intermediate desiccation. Fluctuations of the Pleistocene
ake elevations have been noted also as a conspicuous feature in the history of these
lakes. Glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Mountains coincide with the
period of the Pleistocene lakes. In recent time desiccation of the Pleistocene lakes

taken place and minor crustal movements have continued.

Our inquiry has for its object. the study of saline segregates—their nature, occur-
rence, extent, genesis, and probable commercial utilization. The basin region has
always been considered a favorable place in which to look for saline deposits. The
a eae of volcanic and eruptive rocks indicates a source from which salines might

e expected to come. The decomposition of these rocks, the solution of the salts
resulting, and the fact that this region possesses no outside drainage have caused _geolo-

ists to conclude that saline segregates would be found in many of the basins. There
is much evidence, which will be discussed in a later part of this paper, to justify this
conclusion.

Turrentine has summarized the geological formations and principal localities in
which saline segregates have been found. The following table indicates these:

Geological formations and principal localities in which saline segregates have been. found.?

Geologic period. Locality.
HLOCORG 2: cat jtececie «cin cae eee Kirghiz steppes; Arabia; South America; Dead Sea; Great Salt Lake,
and numerous other ancient lakes in western United States.
DOraly sone sa ecans eae see Cardona, Spain; Wieliczka and Bochnia, Galicia; Siebenbiirgen; Asia
oe Armenia; Rimini, Italy; Petit Anse, La.; California, Utah, and
Nevada.
Cretaceous: 4 cq ceases. ote e | Westphalia brines; Algiers.
PNM oer eweeee epee acces Rodenberg on the Deister; Bex in Canton of Waadt, Switzerland.
K:BUBOL ssn tu sae secre | Lorraine; Hall, Tyrol; Hallein and Berchtesgaden (near Salzburg).
Trias { Muschelkalk...........- Wurttemberg; in Thuringia, Ernstthall, Stottenheim. ,
Buntersandstein.-....... Hanover, Schoeningen near Brunswick, Salzderhelden; Cheshire, Eng-
land; Kansas and Texas.
POrvIMIAUoe- ooo esc aor Leena =e Gera, Artern (Thuringia); Staasfurt, Halle, Sperenberg; Segeberg (Hol-
| stein); Kirghiz steppes on the River Ileck; Kansas.‘
Carboniferous. 22-0... --/.. Kanawha and New River, W. Va.; Durham and Bristol, England.
BBV ONT es ee ore icro inna Winchell, Mich.
Wpper siliivian 2c oscecss ss tee New York; West Virginia; Saginaw, Mich.; Goderich, Canada.

1 Bul. No. 338, U. S. Geological Survey, Iron Spring District of Southern Utah.

2 Turrentine, J. W. The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States, Bul. No.
94, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. of Agr., 1913.

4 Haworth, Geol. Survey, Kansas; Ann. Bul., 1897, p. 56. Harris, La. Geol. Survey, Bul. 7, p. 94.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. vt

In pre-Tertiary formations salines have been reported from the upper Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. These for-
mations, excepting Permian and Cretaceous, are represented to a greater or less
extent in the Great Basin. In spite of extensive search on the part of geologists and

rospectors, no beds of salines of commercial importance other than gypsum have
hea discovered. Louderback! notes the occurrence of gypsum beds in the Triassic
at Mound House and Lovelock. Spurr? notes the occurrence of massive gypsum
in lenticular masses in the upper Carboniferous at Cottonwood Springs. Rowe ? notes
shales and gypsum beds overlying the upper Carboniferous in the hills north of Cot-
tonwood Springs. A review of the literature leads one to conclude that in the pre-
Tertiary formations, excepting the gypsum deposits and minor occurrences of salinif-
erous layers, the prospects of finding salines of commercial importance are not good.

In the Tertiary formations of the basin region saline segregates have been found.
The most important occur in Miocene lake beds. Borates, gypsum, and salt are
the important minerals that have been noted. Of these, the borates have been
commercially exploited and produce the borax supply of the United States. Up
to the present there has been little utilization of the gypsum beds. Concerning the
salt beds our information is scanty. G.E. Bailey * describes a bed of rock salt 12
to 16 feet thick in the Saratoga district, San Bernardino County, Cal. He also
describes saline beds occurring on the north slope of Avawatz Mountains in the same
county. These beds are, without much doubt, in the Tertiary lake series. So far
as known no potash salts, at least in commercial quantities, have been reported from
the Tertiary. The Tertiary beds are not looked upon by the writer as of any great
importance as a source of supply for potash salts. It must be said, however, that
comparatively little systematic work has been done upon them. The Tertiary lake
beds, as a whole, have contributed by their erosion a large amount of salt and other
salines to their tributary basins.

The Quaternary lake beds and the lakes accompanying the Quaternary lake basins
hold the most important supplies of salines and are the most promising fields for
prospecting. Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary formations have supplied the salts which
we find as accumulations in the recent drainage basins and lakes.

Quaternary and recent geologic history has been studied in detail in several of the
more important lake basins, and we have in the monographs of Russell and Gilbert
ample information of the changes in conditions which have resulted in the formation
of saline deposits in these basins. The complete list of the Quaternary lake basins
has perhaps not yet been made. From the literature and from personal notes I have
compiled the following table:

List of Quaternary lakes.

Name. Elevation. Remarks.
Bonneville: 5
Present lakes— Feet.

Great Salt Lake....... 4,200 | Maximum depth 1,050 feet.

Witahelialkes tek ae tee ee oe Overflowed.

SKN GIP A Dp eee Se | eee Peer ae
Lahontan: 6

Present lakes.............. 4,405 to 4,414
Honey and Eagle 3,949 | 326 feet deep.
Lakes.

Pyramid Lake...._... 3,880 | 886 feet deep; 525 feet above 1882 level.

Walker Lake........-_- 4,083 | 435 feet deep.

Winnemucca Lake. ... 3,875 | 530 feet deep.

Humboldt Lake....._. 3,929 | 500 feet deep.

Carson Sink........_.. 3,900 | 526 feet deep.

South Carson Lake.... 3,916 | 510 feet deep.
Owens Lake?7._................ 3,569 | Old beach 190 feet above present level.
BeEABlesib ae Wasa ko So xy ae oe 1,700 | Shore line 600 feet above flat.
ananmning) 99s. oes 5 Slo 1,046 | 1,000 feet above valley floor are wave-cut terraces.
Mono L0e es AE eed oot ete 6, 426 euate any area 316 square miles; beach 670 feet above

ake level.

1 Bul. No. 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, Gypsum Beds of the United States, p. 118,

2U. 8. Geological Surveys West of 100th Meridian, vol. 3, p. 166; and Bul. No. 208, U. S. Geol. Survey,
Geology of Nevada south of fortieth parallel survey.

2 Bul. No. 208, U.S. Geol. Survey, Geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel, p. 170.

4 Bul. No. 24, California State Mining Bureau, p. 126.

5 Monograph I, Lake Bonneville. Gilbert.

§ 11th Annual Report, Lake Lahontan. Russell.

7 Bul. No. 24, Cal. State Mining Bureau.

810th Annual Report, Cal. State Mineralogist.

® Bul. No. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey. Campbell.

10 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey.

8 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of Quaternary lakes—Continued.

Name. Elevation. Remarks.
Feet.

Columbus!....... Spay eee 4,559 | Shallow lake 50 to 60 feet deep.
Railroad Valley 2............-. 4,700 | Highest shore line 300 feet above flat.
gE 0.a (cy eas Be Ee ads 3,500 | Highest beach line 150 feet above floor.
Surprise Valley: 8

Upper, lower, and middle 5,190 | Highest beach line 550 feet above present level. Two

alkali lakes. high-water lines.
Hake 'Alvord’#2.5 272-5.) -- = 4,200 ee beach line 100 feet. Four well-marked and 2 faint
ines.

Catlow Valley 4 .........----- 4,600 | Highest beach 75 feet. Three well-marked beach lines.
Warmer Uake's (eto oe soctemee 4,600 | Highest beach line 225 feet. :
Abert, Lake: 3

Chewaucan Marsh......-- 4,400 | Beach line 260 feet above Chewaucan Marsh.

Summer Lake..........-- 4,300 | Beach line 300 feet above Summer Lake.
wamper Wakes see een cee acne e 4,400 | Two shore lines 30 and 60 feet above present lake.
mong Valley sc act bees 5,945 | Shore line 250 feet above present level.
Silverdale . J5-: Eps - 4,340 | Beach line 100 feet above present level.
Christmas Make, 58235 3<c.5 See aes eee ae se ee
Madeline Plains..............- 5,400 | Overflowed.

Ruby and Franklin Lakes, Nev.; Danby and Bristol Lakes, Cal.; and Diamond Valley, Nev., doubtful.
pauoe Coe he by Diller to show old shore lines above the present lake level.

1H.S. Gale (? .

2. H. Free.

3 4th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey. Russell.

4 Water Supply Paper 231. :

Ratios of basin area to lake area, and of Quaternary lake area to present lake area.

Ratio of Ratio of

« Quater- basin area’ Quater-
Lake. ’ . peat ie to Quater- apes nary area

: 5 peel nary lake *| to pres-

area. ent area.

Bonneville Yar a. Sep mea teases einen eee ne eee 52,000 19, 750 2.63 | 2,498 7.9
Wahonpan: Al 622 5 eee ah Ce eee abe eee eae 47,600 8, 422 5. 65 734. 6 11.4
OTA ears ee re a Sick Seen ere ene eR SI ore 99, 600 28,172 3.53 | 3,232.6 8. 71

Total present area of all the lakes in the Great Basin, 4,196 square miles.
Total area of all the Quaternary lakes, estimated, 36,547 square miles.

Ratio of total area of Great Basin to total Quaternary lake area, coe =5.74; to total present lake
210000
area as
ee 4196 =50.

The present lakes, occupying in many instances the lowest depressions in the
Quaternary lake basins, are given in the next section. The chemical data con-
cerning both the Quaternary and the recent lakes and their basins will be given in
another section of this report.

SURFACE WATERS.

Complete data are not available for the determination of the total run-off in the
basin region. From the Water Supply Papers of the United States Geological Survey
it is possible to secure data for the principal streams, but many small streams of local
importance are to be found in the mountains of the Great Basin, and for these we have
practically no data. These streams contribute to the underground-water supply, but
seldom do their waters reach the surface of the playas except in periods of unusual
rainfall. The ponds and shallow lakes resulting are quickly evaporated.

The principal streams are: In western Utah, the Weber, Bear, Logan, Spanish Fork,
Sevier, and Provo; in Nevada, the Humboldt, Truckee, Carson, Walker, Reese,
Quinn, and Amargosa; in California, Susan River, Owens River and tributaries,
Leevining Creek, Mill Creek, and Mojave River; in Oregon, small creeks and streams
which contribute to the lakes in southern Oregon. Such data as are available for
the above streams are given in Tables V, VI, VII (Appendix).

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 9

Basin river streams may be divided into three types:

(1) Streams characteristic of the higher mountains. These are short streams which
take care of the winter precipitation “and carry their waters to the outwash slopes to
be distributed by the porous detrital fans.

(2) Streams, such as the Amargosa, Reese, and Quinn Rivers, which reach main
basins but do not carry sufficient water to make a continuous flow, or which reach basins
of such magnitude that they can not form permanent lakes.

(3) Streams which supply permanent lakes. The drainage of the Sierra Nevada
and Wasatch Mountains supplies practically all of these lakes. Owens, Mono, Carson,
Walker, Pyramid, Honey, and the lakes of southern Oregon are typical examples of
such lakes in the west; while Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake are in the
east and are ep paee by the drainage of the Wasatch Mountains.

A list of these lakes, together with elevations and drainage area of basins, is given in
Table VIII (Appendix).

The proportion of the annual precipitation which appears as run-off varies in different
basins. The length of the stream and the character of the watershed, as well as local
climatic conditions, determine thisfactor. The following table summarizes the run-off
factor for the Carson, Walker, Truckee, and Humboldt Rivers.

Proportion of rainfall distributed in the run-off.

Avelaee ate in
A A rainfa: i percentage
River basin. manne Run-off. of average
annual. rainfall,
Inches. Inches.
(CRY Onae Lo a 55 Bis CO NTE 2 od k poe Peds pe eR nae BASE Dh gre ey Ee 11.5 6. 25 54.3
IBIAS pH OG Ke VV AKO Tee ote see ee Mo Mp INS cea eet estat oc Ye hh La ano 11.5 2.63 22.8
ADT ETB CHEE os St llc ea Ne of it i a 23. 82 9.18 38.9
PERTAIN TO Cimeepe eam ieee tte NINERS sh Wiens. Fb RAS ee hi Bee 8.12 ro 2 ; 3.07
: 4 La 6. 80
ANUP OIS MD SIMPTCCIOT ace oe Senta st neck Meee cre cheer nT, INE WN Pee et 10.31 { 21.19 211.50

1 By calculation based upon the total mean annual stream flow, plus an additional amount estimated
at one-half the known amount for the flow of the streams upon which no data are available.

2By parton based on an assumed rate of evaporation of the water from the lakes into which the
Trivers flow.

In addition, an attempt has been made to calculate the probable total run-off for
the whole basin region. The first calculation is based upon the total mean annual
stream flow plus an arbitrary amount for the flow of the streams upon which no data
are available. The additional amount has been estimated as one-half of the known
amount. This gives a run-off equivalent to 0.71 inch, or 6.8 per cent of the total
precipitation. The second calculation is based on an assumed rate of evaporation
of the water from the lakes. The total area of lake surface is 4,196 square miles.
Assuming an annual evaporation of 60 inches gives an annual run-off of 1.19 inches,
or 11.5 per cent of the average annual precipitation. The latter figure is un-
doubtedly high, as in the southern half of the Great Basin the run-off is practically
zero. For instance, the Amargosa River is a typical desert stream and flows only
at rare intervals and during periods of excessive precipitation. At other times water
occasionally rises in springs from the dry bed, flows a short distance, and then
sinks. The run-off for this whole southern area must be less than 1 per cent.

As more than 50 per cent of the area of the Great Basin is flat, or characterized by
slopes of low angles (0 to 5°), it may be assumed that for areas of this nature, receiv-
ing 10 inches or less mean annual rainfall, the run-off is practically zero. For the
basin ranges themselves the run-off can not be in excess of 50 per cent, and it is prob-
ably much less. Much of this run-off is absorbed by the outwash slopes. We may
take the Humboldt River as an example to illustrate this point. This stream rises
in the Ruby Range, upon which there is considerable precipitation. At Oreana the
mean annual flow gives a run-off of 0.25 inch (drainage area, 13,800 square miles), or
3.07 per cent of a mean annual rainfall of 8.12 inches. This means that most of the rain-
fall in the mountains along the course of the Humboldt is absorbed before it can reach
the main river.

The basin region may be divided into mountain area, outwash area, and combined
silt and playa areas. These approximate 50, 20, and 30 per cent, respectively, of the
total area. An inspection of the precipitation tables given on a preceding page shows

10 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that the lowest part of a basin often receives less than 5 inches of annual rainfall and
the surrounding mountains a much larger amount. The disposal of the rainfall is
illustrated in the following summary:

Distribution of rainfall.

iz i
pare Me excaulane
oi age o annua
Region. whole precipita- Evapora-
area. tion. cana Seepage. | Run-off.
Inches.
Mountain dreate Gu ae ose ee ces i je ee 50 13 50 10 40
Ouitwaskareaa-64 22 oc esos oaescice ween 20 10 50 40 10
Bilfand playa area 8.5 .-- oases once cc eckces 30 5 LOO | Fescecciccee|oescesa-

Of the run-off from the mountain area given in the above table probably more than
one-half is lost by seepage in the outwash area. This would leave only 20 per cent
of the mountain rainfall as run-off, and of the 10 per cent run-off of the outwash area
we might well say that all is lost py seepage. Twenty per cent of 13 inches is 2.6
inches. This comes from one-half of the entire area and would be equivalent to 1.3
inches over the whole area. A large part of the seepage water is brought to the sur-
face by capillarity and lost by evaporation. It is admitted that the proportions esti-
mated for evaporation and seepage in the above table are more or less arbitrary.
Still, we may qualify some of these figures by comparison. The run-off factors for
streams in the Sierra Nevada Mountains vary considerably. The average for the
Kings, Merced, Tuolumne, Tule, Kern, Carson, Walker, and Truckee is 42.7 per
cent. This would justify the 50 per cent run-off figure estimated. For the outwash
slopes a percolation figure of 80 per cent is not unreasonable and for the silt areas
100 per cent.

From three lines of inquiry are obtained 0.71, 1.19, and 1.30 inches as the run-off
for the basin region. The mean of these is 1.06 "inches, or 10.3 per cent of the mean
annual precipitation of the Great Basin.

It should be noted, however, that the southern portion of the basin region is char-
acterized by a scanty and irregular run-off, only a fraction of that indicated above,
while the run-off for the area contiguous to the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Moun-
tains is, no doubt, much higher than the above.

EVAPORATION.

Practically all of the rainfall of the basin region is lost by evaporation. During
periods of excessive precipitation there is undoubtedly an increase and during periods
of aridity a decrease in the amount of ground water. Evaporation from the surface
of lakes, from the surface of the ground, and the transpiration of plants are the three
ways by which the water is taken back into the atmosphere. How important each
of these factors is in the basin region is the subject of our inquiry.

Many experiments to determine the amount of evaporation from surface waters
have been made and variable results have been obtained. Some of these results,
such as more particularly apply to this region, are given in the following table:

Evaporation from water surfaces.

Annual
Locality. Conditions. evapora-
tion.
Inches.
Owens Valley region, Cal.t............. Evaporation from pan in water, 1909 and 1910...... { Sea
Owens Valley region, Cal., Owens Lake.| Deep tank in soil, 1910. ................-.---------- { en
PASUOWS so 2. pts = oe eee eae Se eee cn Pann irrigation Gitch). <5 2---pe.eeee eee eee 60. 00
HALON NOV Acttoes sen soece nescence 4inch pan floating in canal. sc ites. eee eeeeieee 53.65
Wake Tahoe, Calne. auceenecee coos «6 4-inch pan 2 inches above water.........-..-------- 42.21
Salton) Sea, i\Calso- owen! tacks. cee aes 4-inch pan 7,500 feet from sea...........-.-..-.-.-.- 106. 45
Pyramids Wake Nevie 2. ks ensues Estimated from mean flow of Truckee.............- 60. 00
MATOGE BAIL LAK 4. ooo oe oes amen eae lle ead aida oe eae cen tebe cach ee none Ee EEE eee | 90. 00

1 Bul. No.! 294, Wateecipniy Bape 3 Bul. No. 52, Nevada Exp. Sta.
2 American Civil Engineering Pocket Book. 4U.S. Geol. Survey Report No. 11.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. l1

Evaporation from water surfaces varies with the seasons. It is greatest in the
summer and fall months. In the Owens River region 73 per cent of the annual evapo-
ration takes place in the six summer and fall months, and the remaining 27 per cent
in the winter and spring months. We have not sufficient data to strike an average
for the whole basin region, but it is believed that an annual evaporation of 60 inches
would fairly represent that which takes place from the surface of the lakes in the
basin region.

From an intensive study made of conditions in the Owens River basin ! the follow-
ing figures for the evaporation of water from ground surfaces are taken. The annual
ground-surface evaporation depends largely upon the depth of ground water. Where
the ground water exceeds 10 feet in depth practically no water is lost from the surface.
Where ground water and ground surface coincide the maximum of 42.3 inches per
year isfound; with ground water at a depth of 1.34 feet from the surface 39.95 inches
is found; and with ground water 4.98 feet below the surface 7.9 inches is found. Of
the anes evaporation the summer and fall months account for 79 per cent of the
total.

Observations in the same locality established the fact that even in a wet season
percolating water does not penetrate to depths exceeding 24 feet unless more than 1
inch falls within a short period on moist soil. Even then it does not appear to reach
depths greater than 4 feet. We would conclude from these observations that on
detrital fills, on levels, or on low slopes, much of the rainfall is retained close to the
surface and seldom penetrates to depths reaching 10 feet. It can not, therefore, form
any permanent addition to the ground water, but must be lost by capillarity and
evaporation. On steeper slopes the water penetrates slowly downward and in the
lower portions of such slopes may be expected to accumulate sufficiently to reach
the 10-foot level, and thus a part escapes loss by joining the permanent ground water.
Streams debouching upon outwash slopes raise a ridge in the ground-water level and
contribute a part of their seepage loss to permanent ground water. We would also
conclude that ground water 10 feet or more from the surface would be permanent,
and that ground water reaching the 10-foot level or less would be reduced in amount
by evaporation. It should be noted that this limit of 10 feet can not be applied to all
conditions, for in very fine silts capillarity would no doubt extend to a greater depth
than 10 feet. It does, however, establish a limit under what we might term average
conditions within which capillarity becomes effective. We would expect in all
regions of the basin where ground water reached within the 10-foot level that a slow
upward movement of moisture would follow. In this manner soluble salts would be
brought to the surface or close to it and would appear as incrustations or be deposited
within the surface soil. We should be safe in concluding that where surface incrusta-
tions are found in quantity ground-water levels are apt to be within the 10-foot limit.
This is, of course, not an entirely accurate criterion, for surface waters may penetrate
to depths of several feet and be returned by capillarity, carrying with them dissolved
salts to the surface, where they would crystallize and form efflorescences.

Still another fact should not escape our attention. If we assume a soil void space
of 25 per cent of volume, a depth of 30 inches of water would be necessary in order to
saturate the soil to a depth of 10 feet. In a loose coarse soil but a small fraction of
these 30 inches would be required for water to penetrate and reach to a depth of 10
feet. Ina mixed soil with much fine silt and clay probably a large proportion of this
would be retained, if it penetrated at all, in the upper 10 feet. The low average rain-
fall of the desert region, together with the observed facts concerning the penetrations
of soil by rainfall in the Owens region and the fact noted above, would lead us to con-

clude that were it not for the concentration of part of the rainfall into stream flows
the ground water of the basin region would be a negligible quantity and would be
present only in those places where subterranean supplies could act as feeders or in
places occupying the lowest depressions of the surface. While these conclusions may
be accurate for present climatic conditions it must be kept in mind that the basin
region has been subjected to many climatic changes. Humid periods have alternated
with arid. We may be not greatly in error when we say that the underground water
supply of the basin region is perhaps consequent upon the greater rainfall of the
Quaternary period and not upon present climatic conditions. .

The surface of the Great Basin is covered with sparse vegetation. One is apt to get
the idea from reading maps that vegetation is extremely scarce in the basin region,
but we find some kind of vegetation over the whole area, with the exception of the
playas and areas occupied by alkali incrustations. Many of the mountain ranges of
the basin are thickly covered with grass, and sagebrush dominates over vast areas of
pin and mountain slope. We have no accurate determinations of the transpiration

oss of desert plants. Such work as has been done on this question has concerned

1 Water-Supply Paper No. 294.

12 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

itself usually with farm crops. On the whole this question has no very important
bearing upon our problem and may consequently be dropped.

In the section on surface waters it is shown that approximately 10 per cent of the
mean annual rainfall occurs as run-off in the basin region. The evaporation from lakes,
rivers, and transient ponds would be measured by this run-off. The remaining 90 per
cent of the mean annual precipitation would be a measure of the evaporation from the
surface of the ground, by transpiration of plants, and additions by seepage to perma-.
manent ground water. It is believed that the addition to permanent ground water
is relatively small.

GROUND WATER.

A comprehensive study of ground-water conditions in the Great Basin has yet to be
made. Some important information pertinent to our subject is available. I have sum-
marized the data under the following heads: Ground water in valleys and sinks; in
outwash slopes; deep supplies of water; artesian water; springs; and fissure and rock
water.

VALLEYS AND SINKS.

Ground water is encountered in the Lovelock Valley at depths of 15 to 25 feet.
In this valley, after a considerable period of irrigation, ground water has been found
at depths of 3 to6 feet. The figures given in the first statement would represent
original conditions, before irrigation took place. This valley is a ‘silt-filled valley on
the lower stretches of the Humboldt River.

In the Truckee meadows ground water is found at 10 to 12 feet from the surface in the
vicinity of Reno, and on the eastern edge of the Truckee Meadows it stands practically
at the surface. In south-central Oregon and the Harney Basin much detailed infor-
mation is available. In Christmas and Silver Lake Valleys 46 wells and bores have
been reported.? Most of these wells are located in the valley and lake silts. The
depth to ground water varies from 5 to 49 feet. The average depth of water in all the
wells reported is 18 feet. In the Harney Basin 46 wells have been reported.2 The
average depth of water in these wells is 21 feet.

In the Owens River Valley, Cal.,a survey of underground waters was made by the
United States Geological Survey,‘ and these were found to stand at 2 to 3 feet below
the surface over considerable areas. Over the comparatively level valley floor west of
Owens River and included within the 8-foot contour above the river (67 square miles
of surface) ‘‘the average depth to ground water between 4 and 8 feet extended over 40
per cent of this area, and between 3 and 4 feet over 28 per cent. It extends 8 feet in
depth over 14 per cent of the area and is 3 feet or less over 18 per cent.”’

In the Silver Peak Marsh borings showed ground water at 2 to 12 feet depth and, in
the case of many of the bores, water was encountered at 4 feet.° In the sink in Death
Valley water is found a few inches below the salt crust and potholes in the rough salt
areas indicate that ground water stands within 1 or 2 feet of the surface over a consid-
erable area. On Searles Marsh Dolbear® reports the brine (over the salt area) to be
within one-half inch of the surface.

At Millers, Nev., wells have been sunk in the desert sands of Big Smoky Valley and
water sufficient to supply 160 stamps has been tapped at a depth of 65feet. The ground
water in Big Smoky Valley undoubtedly comes much closer to the surface in the
playa southwest of Millers.

Mina is situated in the valley which forms the south extension of the basin occupied
by Walker Lake. Itis atypical desert valley. Two wells struck water at 112 and 118
feet from the surface.

Other examples could be cited, but these are sufficient to show that in the playa
areas and the low areas generally we may expect to find ground water at no incon-
siderable depth from the surface. The area within which the ground water would
collect would depend upon the extent of the tributary basin and the rainfall within
the basin.

OUTWASH SLOPES.

The ground-water conditions in the outwash slopes may best be illustrated by the
following quotation’ describing the conditions in the Owens River Valley:

“‘The ground-water surface as it approaches the valley floor from the west has an
average slope of 90 feet to the mile. The corresponding slope of the ground surface

1 Bul. No. 52, Agr. Expt. Sta., University of Nevada.

2 Water-Supply Paper No. 220, U.S: Geol. Survey.

8 Water-Supply Paper No. 231, U.S. Geol. Survey.

4 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, U.S. Geol. Survey.

5 Bul. No. 530R, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, pp. 7-11.

6 Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260.
7 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, p. 76.

q POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 13

is steeper, varying from 150 to 110 feet to the mile. At the upper edge of the grass-
land the two surfaces are about 8 feet apart and a short distance beneath they inter-
sect in the spring belt. From this belt to Owens River the distance to ground water
varies from 4 to 12 feet beneath the gently sloping or level valley floor. This sudden
break in the slope of the ground-water surface at the spring belt is caused by the
change from coarse to fine material in the region of the late lake. The fine material
acts somewhat like a dam, raising a portion of the ground water to the surface in
springs and retarding the lateral movement of the remainder.”’

The above quotation indicates a condition which must be common in basins char-
acterized by surrounding alluvial cones. The ground-water level assumes a sloping
surface, and, as we ascend the cone from the valley, we find this ground-water surface
at greaterand greater depths. Wewould expect that in every case at the toe of the allu-
vial fan the ground-water level would be closest to the surface and deepest in the
vicinity of the bordering mountains. The amount of seepage water that would col-
lect from the contiguous watersheds, together with the rainfall, would determine
whether the upper surface of this ground water would be close to or at considerable
depth from the surface.

. DEEP SUPPLIES OF WATER AND ARTESIAN WATER.

The bore hole put down by the United States Geological Survey in the Carson Sink
region encountered surface waters at a depth of 4 feet, and at depths greater than 150
feet a number of artesian flows were encountered. The well which was put down
some 985 feet flowed water.

The Railroad Valley Saline Co. sunk a 1,200-foot bore in Railroad Valley. They
discovered many flows of artesian water from the 128-foot depth downward. Twenty-
nine separate flows are noted in the log of their well within the first thousand feet.
At greater depth the formations were dry.

Artesian areas are known in Smith Valley, Nev.; the Truckee Meadows south of
Reno; the Carson Valley, Nev.; the Las Vegas Valley, Nev.; the Salt Lake Valley,
Utah; and in southern Oregon. These instances lead us to conclude that water-
bearing strata exist in many of the inclosed basins and at depth, and in many cases
that they are capable of supplying artesian water.

SPRINGS.

Many springs exist in the Great Basin region. A complete list of these springs
can not be given at thistime. Russell, in his study of the Quaternary lakes of western
Nevada, mapped the springs occurring in this area. He shows 93 springs in an area
of approximately 38,000 square miles. Of these 23 are hot springs. Outside of this
area hot springs are encountered in many places. South of Beowawe some 6 miles
are a number of hot springs and geysers. Just west of Elko isa large hot spring.
Sixty miles north of Elko is an area in which several hot springs of considerable size
occur. At Rhyolite, Nev., several small hot springs are to be found. Some 12 miles
northwest of Goldfield is a hot spring of moderate size. In Railroad Valley a large
hot spring has been found. The prevalence of hot springs in the basin region may be
assumed to indicate the presence of deep-seated waters. Hydrothermal activity has
long been noted as an important feature of the basin region. In earlier geological
periods undoubtedly much greater activity existed than at the present.

FISSURE AND ROCK WATER.

That much water may be expected in fissure and brecciated zones in the mountain
ranges is shown by the volumes of water encountered in mining operations. Virginia
City is perhaps the most conspicuous example. In these mines hot springs have been
encountered at depths below 1,000 feet, and a water flow approximating 8,000 gallons
per minute represents the drainage from the rock masses of Mount Davidson within
the area tapped by the mines. In the Eureka district in central Nevada water was
encountered in the mines. In many of the other mining districts water in greater or
less amounts has been encountered with depth.

EXTENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND CHARACTER OF THE ROCKS OF THE BASIN REGION.

Volcanic rocks distinguish the basin region from other regions of the West. In
order to get some idea of the distribution of the different rocks in the basin region,
measurements were made upon the geological map of the Truckee folio, upon maps
Nos. 4 and 5 of the Fortieth Parallel Survey atlas, and upon Ball’s map of southwestern

14 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Nevada and eastern California. The areas represented by each formation were
measured by a planimeter and the proportion of the whole area determined. The
results of these measurements are givenin Table IX. (See Appendix.) In the follow-
ing summary the various volcanic and Plutonic rocks have been grouped: Rhyolites
and granites; andesite basalts, diabases, and diorites; metamorphics, »limestones,
and sedimentary and water areas.

Areal distribution of rocks in the Great Basin region.

J,
Fortieth Parallel | men cf

ete Survey Atlas. south-

Rock. quad- ee .
rangle mea ad east-

os. 4 | ern Cali-

No. 5. and 5. fornia.
Rhyolite and granite BEES OSS Has O ASP ORAS LAB eeniSes Soe S i eascboon 22.0 18.8 122.5 . 21.5
Basalt, diabase, and diorite-...... Sccabanciccasrmecasmeat aera 45.1 14.2 25.5 11.5
Metamorphic 24h 32) 7se 332i see eee, eee (OR SE ees enbes Bo-oan a cl ase
DIMEOSCONE _ 5. 2\= 2) ew Se lee inlass an Peano de Sinateae Seng sateeeee sees | See eee eaee EE Re ee eee eee eee : 12.1
Sedimentary and waters...) s2. ent ce seaeee oan eee 26.8 67.0 53 54.9

1 Assuming area of rhyolite and trachyte is one-half rhyolite and one-half andesite.

The total areas occupied by igneous rocks are as follows: For the Truckee sheet, 67
per cent; for map No. 5 of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, 33 per cent; for maps Nos.
4 and 5 together, 48 per cent; for Ball’s map, 33 per cent. The Truckee sheet may
be considered as descriptive of an area in which igneous rocks dominate. This area
would not be a fair representation of the whole basin region. The results obtained
from the other three measurements indicate a range of 33 to 48 percent. Which of
these two measurements could be taken as representative of the basin region as a
whole is a matter of doubt. Probably 40 per cent would be a fair figure to indicate
areal distribution of igneous rocks in the basin region. This would leave 60 per cent
for sedimentary and alluvial formations. On this basis some 84,000 square miles of
the basin region is occupied by igneous rocks. We may assume that acid rocks take
somewhat less than one-half of this area and basic rocks somewhat more than one-half.

The chemical composition of the rocks of the basin region has been determined by
averaging the reported analyses of the various rocks. Table X (Appendix) gives the
results of this study.

SOURCES OF SALINES.

The salines of the basin region consist of mixtures of chlorides, sulphates, carbonates,
bicarbonates, nitrates, and borates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
Lithium, alumina, ferric oxide, silica, bromine, iodine, phosphoric and arsenious
acids have been detected in small amounts in the brines and waters of the basin.
Alumina, ferric oxide, and silica are almost invariably found in small amount in river
and lake waters and associated with saline crusts. Spectroscopic examination shows
lithium in small quantity to be widely associated with saline material.

Salines result from the disintegration and decomposition of igneous and sedimentary
rocks, from the decomposition of alluvial and detrital fills, and from the waters of
springs of deep-seated origin. During Quaternary times the basin region was the
scene of numerous volcanic eruptions. How important these were as contributors to
the salines can not now be told, but they must have been not unimportant sources of
saline material.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

In a previous section it has been shown that approximately 40 per cent of the basin
area is covered by igneous rocks, and that somewhat less than one-half of this area is
represented by rocks of an acid type, while somewhat more than one-half is repre-
sented by rocks of a basic type. The composition of the more important types of
igneous rocks is given in Table X (Appendix). From the figures in this table the
following table has been calculated:

j POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 15

}

Chemical composition of the more important basic and acidic rocks.

. Type, Type, * Type Type
Constituents. Beat Seats, Constituents. ae rape
Base: Per cent.| Percent. || Acid: Per cent. | Per cent.
Due) VA Se Wi a a 1.05 4.52 Bi Seng oh 0.370 0.066
CAO Pee eee etic 2.15 6.33 Ce eae ee ted ae od -015 - 068
TNO) Ee a eee a 3.35 3.29 (OL 0) pa ets Sees Se Foret eee - 160 -326
K20.....- SN ae ea Dae She 4.10 2.09 SOnsAstdvcdee on ese pecans OS 5m he arsiienrs
$$ | —_—______ gO grate Macatnvs ey site soe esas ~ 145 240
Potala Is ey eek S28 10.65 16. 23

RIDGE Ly Ae a NE oY Ee 735 700

The table gives the average percentage composition of acid and basic divisions of
the igneous rocks. Only those constituents have been included which might be
expected to contribute to the bases and acids of salines.

Hydration and carbonation are the two important processes by which igneous
rocks are decomposed. The rate at which decomposition proceeds is dependent
upon the rate of disintegration, as well as upon the intensity of hydration and car-
bonation. Hydration and carbonation are dependent for their intensity upon cli-
matic conditions. Disintegration depends upon extremes of temperature, the physi-
cal nature of the rock, the activity of erosion, and the rate of decomposition of the
rock constituents. Disintegration and decomposition proceed simultaneously.
Under arid climatic conditions, such as pertain in the basin region, disintegration is
dominant and decomposition is measurably less than under humid climatic condi-
tions. This fact has been pointed out by a number of investigators—Van Hise
Merrill, Hilgard, Clarke. Further confirmation of this fact may be easily obtained
by petrographic examination of the alluvial material taken from the aprons bordering
the basin ranges. Comparatively fresh particles of feldspar may be found even in
the finer silts of the central parts of the basin.

The extent to which the igneous rocks of the basin region have been decomposed,
and the constituents and proportion of each which might be expected to form acces-
sions to the salines, have not been made the subject of special study. In a general
way it might be said that the amount of rock decomposition in this region is nominal.
Pre-Tertiary igneous rocks (in the main granites and diorites), where exposed, are
noticeably decomposed. The older Tertiary volcanics (andesites) are also decom-

osed to a considerable extent. This is particularly noticeable in the areas in which

ydrothermal activity was once dominant. In such areas decomposition extends
locally to comparatively great depths and the rock alteration is in many cases, pro-
found. In the basin region there are some 350 mining districts. Each of these may
be considered to have been in the past the locus of more or less hydrothermal action.
The ageregate altered rock area of these districts is not known, but it must constitute
an extremely small part of the total basin area and be therefore relatively unim-
portant as a source of saline material. Late Tertiary rhyolites and Quaternary igneous
rocks are often only superficially decomposed, except in those regions where hot
springs have continued their activities to comparatively recent times.

Humid conditions exist only on the highest mountain ranges and consequently the
areas exposed to weathering under the most favorable conditions for decomposition
must constitute a relatively small part of the total. Over a large part of the area
exposed to weathering influences the conditions in the Great Basin are such as to
produce decomposition at a comparatively slow rate at the present time. That this
was not always the case has been shown by the investigations of Gilbert and Russell.
It is to be particularly noted that in Quaternary times climatic changes were numer-
ous and humid conditions alternated with arid conditions. During the period of
Quaternary lake development the rock decomposition must have proceeded at a
very much more rapid rate than under present conditions. Consequently a greater
amount of saline material must have been contributed and have been deposited in
the basins.

The minerals constituting igneous rocks are attacked at differentrates. Clarkestates;

“The pyroxenes and amphiboles yield most readily to waters; then follow the
plagioclase feldspars, then orthoclase and the micas, with muscovite the most resistant
of all. Even quartz is not quite insoluble, and the corrosion of quartz pebbles in
conglomerates has been noted by several observers. Among the common accesso-
ries, apatite and pyrite are most easily decomposed, magnetite is less attacked, and
such minerals as zircon, corundum, chromite, ilmenite, etc., tend to accumulate with
little alteration in the sandy rock residues.”

This conclusion no doubt applies to conditions more nearly approaching humid
than arid. We should expect under arid conditions, that the more insoluble minerals

16 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

would be relatively less affected than the more soluble. Orthoclase and muscovite
are the two chief potash-bearing minerals. They are also the most resistant to weath-
ering. This, together with the fact that the acid rocks which contain these minerals
are relatively less abundant than the basic rocks which contain the plagioclase feld-
spars, would lead one to conclude that potash would be found in the salines in much
smaller quantities than soda. Van Hise, in discussing the decomposition of ortho-
clase, shows that this mineral may be altered into kaolin with the liberation of all of
the potash in the form of potassium carbonate, or into muscovite with the liberation of.-
only two-thirds of the total potash as potassium carbonate. His reactions are:

2KAI1Si,0,+2H,O + CO,=H,Al1,Si,0, +48i0,+ K,CO3.
2KAlSi,0,+H,0+C0,=KH,Al,8i,0,.+69i0,+ K,CO,.

The relative importance of these two reactions can not, for obvious reasons, be stated.
Both take place in nature. Probably in regions of hydrothermal activity the altera-
tion to kaolin is more often found, while in regions of simple weathering the reverse
is more often the case.

From the foregoing table it is seen that the soda content of basic is only slightly less
than for acidic rocks. While the potash content of basic is about one-half that of
the acidic rocks, the greater susceptibility to weathering of the basic rocks would lead
us to conclude that the larger proportion of soda would be liberated from these rocks
rather than from acidic rocks.

Lime and magnesia are liberated by decomposition but tend to pass into insoluble
compounds more quickly than either potash or soda; consequently, we should expect
to find them less abundant in salines.

The acid constituents of igneous rocks are relatively less abundant than the basic.
Weathering would liberate these, and the abundance of oxygen present in the zone of
weathering would convert the sulphur into sulphuric anhydride. This is also indi-
cated by the comparative absence of reducing substances shown by the scanty vege-
tation of the basin. The chlorine, carbonic acid, and sulphuric acid would combine
with whatever bases were present to form chlorides, carbonates, and sulphates.

The phosphoric acid, if liberated as soluble phosphate, would quickly pass into one
of the many insoluble phosphates. Phosphoric acid is found in the salines only in
small quantities and can not be considered as an important constituent of these sub-
stances. :

Merrill, in discussing the decomposition of igneous rocks, presents the results of a
number of studies and has endeavored to show what proportion of the original rock
has been lost in the form of soluble compounds. It is evident that a mere compari-
son of analyses of weathered versus fresh rocks is inadequate. While it is generally
true that the percentage of alkalies present in material resulting from weathering is
less than the percentage in the undecomposed rock, still we have many examples
where apparently the percentage composition has been unchanged, or the percentage
of the alkalies has been increased. ‘This is due to the fact that as the rock weathers its
volume and weight change. If it were possible to determine the weight of fresh rock
and the weight of residual material (soil) resulting from weathering, we could deter-
mine the proportionate loss of the constituents. This, for obvious reasons, can not be
done. By assuming one constituent as constant, and that the most insoluble one,
Merrill! has calculated the proportional loss of constituents due to weathering. From
10 examples of igneous rocks given by this author I have calculated the average per-
centage losses. The following table gives these for alumina, ferric oxide, lime, mag-
nesia, potash, and soda:

Percentage loss of constituents from igneous rocks caused by decomposition.

Mean loss Estimated * .
Constituent. humid for aria ean
region. regions, z
Per cent. Per cent.
14.17 7.8 1.8
32. 84 18.2 1.8
66.9 5.3 12.6
64.7 10.4 6.2
62.1 19.0 343
72.0 24.8 2.9

1 Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 188. Merrill.

2 Calculated averages from examples of igneous rock decomposition given by Merrill. Merrill’s examples
include granites, phonolites, syenite, diabases, basalts, diorites, and andesites. Rocks, Rock Weathering,
and Soils, pp. 185-208, Merrill.

2 Calculated by dividing percentages of first column by ratios given in last column.

4 Calculated from data given by Clarke of average analyses of soils of humid and arid regions (Bul. 491,
U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 467). Ratio is percentage of constituent in acid-soluble portion of soils from arid
region divided by percentage of constituents in acid-soluble portion of soils from humid regions.

' POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 17

The results given are for humid conditions. We have no examples of a similar
nature for arid conditions. A rough approximation may be made from the comparison
of soils of arid regions with those of humid. Clarke! gives average analyses of a number
of soils for both climatic conditions. From these we can obtain the ratio of one
constituent in the average of soils from arid regions to the same constituent in average
of soils from humid regions. These ratios are given in the foregoing table. If we
assume that the proportional loss of a constituent from rocks in arid regions is the
product of the proportional loss in humid regions and the reciprocal of the ratio, the
results in second column of above table are obtained. No high degree of accuracy
can be vouched for these results.

The following table has been calculated from the tables immediately preceding,
and gives, perhaps, a better idea of the measure of igneous rock decomposition and the
liberation of soluble constituents. The unit is taken as 100 pounds and only the more
important bases and acids have been calculated. The acid constituents, with the
exception of phosphoric acid, have been assumed to be entirely liberated.

Contribution from 100 pounds of original rock.

Acid type. Basic type. Acid type. Basic type.
}

Pounds | Pounds | Pounds | Pounds Pounds |} Pounds | Pounds | Pounds

uent jutedby} uent | uted by uent |uted by} uent | uted by

in 100 | weath- | in 100 | weath- in i00 | weath- | in 100 | weath-

pounds.| ering. |pounds.| ering. pounds | ering. |pounds.} ering.

MgO 10. 50 0. 156 4.52 ONATONI tome sacc ec ese 0.370 0. 370 0. 066 0. 066
CAOEW He. 2.15 114 6. 33 BBE Ole pe oaeeeae 015 015 068 068
Nao On Seesen 3.35 831 3. 29 RESIGN (CLONE Se eee 160 160 32 326
K20......... 4.10 779 2. 09 Bey Ill SOsseosce los . 035 OS Tas ease ee) ee Se
LEC eee an py Ws SY ee AQ eas epee
Total. - 10. 65 1. 880 16. 23 2.018 Total. . 725 OCU a beater ate - 460

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

The pre-Tertiary sedimentaries of the basin region are not important sources of
saline material. Limestones are abundant and contribute to the lime compounds
associated with salines. The gypsum deposits of the Triassic are and have been an
important source of this compound. From Table X (Appendix), giving the average
analyses of Great Basin rocks, it is seen that limestones contain 0.51 per cent alkalies.
Merrill ? shows that for weathering under humid conditions a limestone loses 63 per cent
of the alkalies. If we take one-third of this as representing the conditions for an arid
climate, we would have 21 per cent of 0.51, or about one-tenth of a pound of alkali
per 100 pounds of fresh rock. The slates and quartzites contain small quantities of
alkalies, but weather much less rapidly than either igneous or calcareous rocks. By
their decomposition small amounts of bases are contributed to salines, but, on the
whole, we must consider them far less important as a source of salines than other rocks.

The Tertiary lake beds constitute one of the most important sources of saline materials
outside of the igneous rocks. They consist of limestones, shales, diatomaceous beds,
slates, and sandstones. Interbedded and often commingled are salines of which
common salt, sodium sulphate, gypsum, and boric minerals predominate. The dis-
integration of these beds liberates saline material, while the decomposition of the
residual portion contributes an additional amount. As these beds are comparatively
soit, they would erode rapidly, and, no doubt, in late Tertiary and Quaternary times
they contributed a large proportion of the detrital filling of the present basins. The
table following, showing partial analyses of lake-bed material, will give some idea of
its chemical nature.

1 Bul. No. 491, U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 467.
2 Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, Merrill, pp. 217-19; Mean of Percentages for K20 and Na2O.

20814—14—2

i 8 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Analyses of material from lake beds northeast of Mina.
Sample No.—
Constituents.
= 3 4 5 7 8 9 12
: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
Insoluble residue...-....---- 14.70 | 56.40] 10.00} 24.70) 69.70} 79.60! 77.90} 39.20 46.00
CaO ee ee ort cee eee 44.06 | 17.24] 45.80] 38.42 4,55 2.33 1.95 | 29.92 26. 67
MeO iy2 es. Senet gaaes -58 ~75 1.12 - 40 24 SP .79 16 .94 .54
KKsO' (total). =. 2.22 Aes 24 1.12 .38 46 1.81 3.08 1.91 - 90 1. 46
Nat0) (lotal) 5. cn as epee ~25 1.47 1523 1.28 2.50 3.00 5. 47 2.05 1.54
BL Sete ppd tig PS pce) per ee . 29 -18 Tr. .19 - 90 49 .33 ai vA 14

1 Alkalies determined by Cullen; others determined by Young.
All except sample No. 1 contain traces of P; all contain acid-soluble AlgOs and Fe2O3.

The samples were taken from different beds. My examination failed to show
water-soluble carbonates and sulphates, and I found only traces of water-soluble
potash. The principal soluble salt was sodium chloride. Other analyses of these
lake beds have been reported and sodium chloride noted. The material other than
that of a calcareous nature consisted of volcanic glass and tuffaceous particles of a
volcanic nature. Microscopic examination showed much volcanic glass. The
examination also indicated that most of the material, excepting calcium and magne-
slum carbonates, was of a wind-blown nature and had been deposited in shallow,
brackish lakes in which calcium and magnesium carbonates were being laid down.

The Quaternary lake beds are of considerably less importance than the Tertiary.
They contribute some saline material to the present drainage system, but as these
beds are in the main sands and silts with little visible saline material, they may be
regarded as of minor importance. [ussell! reports lacustra! material containing as
much as 1.17 per cent sodium chloride. In this connection it should be noted that
the material obtained from the 985-foot bere, sunk by the Geological Survey in Car-
son Sink through recent and Lahontan formations, failed to show any brines or solu-
tions of marked saline content. Petrographic examination of Lahontan Lake bed
sedimentaries shows comparatively little decomposition of the feldspars,

ALLUVIAL AND DETRITAL MATERIAL.

The heterogeneous material constituting the valley fills comprises more than 50
per cent of the whole basin area. As this material isin a more or less finely divided
condition and is subject to the action of percolating waters, decomposition must be
more or less active and a not unimportant amount of salines contributed to the present
stream systems through the agency of underground and surface waters.

SPRINGS.

As has been shown in a previous chapter, numerous hot springs occur in the basin
region. No very complete studies of these have been made, and comparatively few
analyses have been reported. In the table which follows, I have summarized the
analyses of some 16 such springs.

Analyses of hot spring waters.

Constituent. A. B. Cc. D. E. F.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.
OUR A OER RRC ae 58. 84 56. 72 58.79 35.00 38.79 20.27
coe Wace? Dae os Be Ree Ee 1.41 2.87 .94 4.58 14.25 34.19
Se Se bn see 3 en ree earn 2 Se Mak ER Le a BP elel 8 peel SES. | ae ee

E10 yaalaedile. Sash E actenenet, seh A pele e Ree 90 1.05 61 5.08 None Trace
Bs0O7.. Se eT SSE Ee ae ee ee SI9D. (Stee ES SO
War 235-b Gas58 eee Bees |. oo 33.15 34.78 30.38 30.35 31.04 29.78
1 TERRE CONE SE NAN FS OED 3.19 3.33 3.76 3.79 | 2.69 - 92
17) OO SRE Oe See eee eer eel a Sear | Neaa LS Sst Ake eRe eis “nha 6 |e ices
Cavey 4 hema ee er err prt) 3 1.99 91 4.90 325 1.23 1.18
Bi ped Pees ee ee ae 24 17 40 OL | 04 04
0 a ar Re ge re ee en SM So |S wr PY apr (hI I By 7 (Bee ee ie cael eet ae ee
TAR g sete he eee eS ge ie oie ok | hg 82 01 BO Bs ee er aria fe cane
BIO aie trees Smee ee er .28 17 -20 11.41 111.92 213.62
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total solids on evaporation

(parts per 100,000)............. 3, 067 2, 443 2, 330 285 249.5 102.1

1 Quaternary History of Mono Valley, 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 307.
2 Calculated as SiOsg.

4
i

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 19

Analyses of hot spring waters—Continued.

Constituent. G. H. Tl J. Ki Li M1

(hisn d's eee eRe plea el el ea a 20.25 10.98 2.63 9.74 Trace, 47.93 47.53
SO eee eee Eds 32.97 15.13 4.04 6.96 8.21 11. 25 8.15
eee |, . Trace.|\. 27.97 | 23.84 | IPOS: Bee bo) vd Cal eae 1.36
Oy a Pal ee a xe el afapn Sin isictates | sence Cecais Bi Sia: sie eins atari lose aces wee bie @aeee s clbcs sabe ome facemeeeee
Gh) ee ee Se er ee ee 30.03 29.56 12. 83 10. 67 2.25 32.63 31.92
1k Dye Ua Se Se 1.41 3.05 2.12 5.33 Del5 2.70 2.80
lu se bode oe CO EE eee ERAGE, | Meee s Ne |e ee ee ches Se Sa semee cuillawece aah mena seacee
(CH 228 42 eR es a eee 3.10 2.84 5.96 5.34 11.11 2.48 2.10
JWT 2a) freer Aes a a ae 29 2.92 2.02 5B Trace Trace. Traces.
JSS tain eae fenic hei SEN SES a pa a) Pa SE Mees ae A Me a | ee am be ee md Deg a
JATAO fo U3 UE eS ies eee ee as [Pe OS) Reise rhe eres ea ERs eve en aies Fv ne ere adl ee cya So
SHO. 3 so SOE Se ee eee 211.75 DT AON la ee His eey cos | Seal ec lho parmr Sf eeu seo Sr kc Fe vorans sree |e mie geal

i} —
100.00 LOOROOH Es See ke ee es |e le ye i =e eee | (ee
Total solids on evaporation

(parts per 100,000) -_.......--- 118.3 206.9 99.2 43.2 | 62.0 44,40 428. 0

1 Analyses not complete. Percentages based on solids on evaporation.

2 Calculated as Si03.

A. Water from hot salt spring near bathhouse, Silver Peak, Nev. R. Dole, Bul. No. 530,U.S. Geol. Sur-
vey, p. 16.

B. Water from hot salt spring at northeast end of marsh, Silver Peak, Nev. R. Dole, Bul. No. 530, U.S.
Geol. Survey, p. 16. .

C. Utah Hot Springs, 8 miles north of Ogden, Utah. Analysis by F. W. Clarke. Clarke, Bul. No. 491,
U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 172.

a Steamboat Springs, Ney. Analysis by W. H. Melville Clarke. Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey,
p.175

E. Hot Springs, Hot Spring Station, Central Pacific Railway. Analysis by T.M. Chatard, Russell,
Monograph U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 11, p. 49.

F. Schaffer’s Spring, Honey Lake, Nev. Analysis by T. M. Chartard, Russell, Monograph No. 11,U.S.
Geol. Survey, p. 51.

G. Hot spring, near Granite Mountain, Nev. Analysis by T. M. Chatard, Russell, Monograph No. 11,
U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 53.
2 H. Warm spring, Mono Lake. Analysis by T. M. Chatard, Russell, 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol.

urvey, p. 288.

I. Paradise Valley Spring, Nev. AnalysisbyJ.A.Cullen. Thisspring contains hydrogen sulphide.

J. X Lspring, Oregon Lake Region. Analysis by J. A. Cullen.

K. Hot springs, in Thousand Springs Valley, 30 miles northeast of Wells, Nev. AnalysisbyJ.A.Cullen.
a i Boiling spring, 0.75 mile northwest of Gerlach, Nev. Sampleby W.S. Palmer. Analysis by J. A.

ullen.

M. Mean analyses of 4 spring waters taken one-fourth mile northeast of Gerlach, Ney. Temperature of
waters from 61° to 90° F. Samplesby W.S. Palmer. Analyses by S. C. Dinsmore.

In three of these spring waters the total solids exceed 1,000 parts per 100,000 of
water, or over 1 per cent. The highest of these contains some 3 per cent total solids.
The remainder contain from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent total solids. In seven of these waters
chlorides predominate, while in the others chlorides and sulphates are about equally
divided. In three of the waters only are carbonates conspicuous. Bicarbonates are
present in seven cases. The average ratio of sodium to potassium is 10.9. In three
cases the sodium-potassium ratio is notably low. The lime, magnesia, and silica are
generally low. In the case of the Utah Hot Springs and the warm springs of the Silver
Peak district the lime content is high, while in the case of the Steamboat Springs and
hot springs of the Central Pacific Railroad the silica is high. In only one case has
boric anhydride been noted.

Hot springs contribute to the salines of the basin, but it is believed that their total
contribution must be small, as the flow from such springs is in the aggregate not very
large, while the saline content is usually quite small. Perhaps all the hot springs of
the basin would not contribute an amount of saline material equal to that from
a fair-sized stream. How important the contributions to saline material in past
geological ages from this source were we can not conjecture,

QUATERNARY AND RECENT VOLCANIC ACTIVITY.

Extinct craters are not uncommon in the basin region. The centers in which these
cones are to be found are Lassen County, in the vicinity of Mono Lake, and in the
vicinity of Great Salt Lake. In these three localities many cones have been described.
In the Carson Sink, Big and Little Alkali Lakes have been determined to be the
craters of extinct volcanoes. Northeast of Blair, in the Silver Peak district, Nev.,
is a large cone. East of milepost 48 on the road between Goldfield and Rhyo-
lite are two cones, while southeast of Rhyolite in Crater Flat is another. In Death
Valley are evidences which point to the possible existence of recent vents. In
Owens River Valley is also a cone. In addition to the volcanic cones many recent

20 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

See rnary) lava flows, which undoubtedly originated from fissures, are to be
noted.

While we have no evidence at present as to the amount and kind of saline material
in the ejecta of these cones and fissures, from our knowledge of volcanic eruptions at
present taking place we must conclude that a considerable part at least of the saline
material at present in the basin came from volcanic sources. Chlorine, sulphuric acid,
chlorides, and sulphur compounds are conspicuous in the gaseous and solid ejecta
of volcanoes. Much of the chlorine that we find compounded with sodium undoubtedly
originated from volcanic activity.

ATMOSPHERE.

From the atmosphere, important contributions of carbonic acid gas and, to some
extent, chlorine, chlorides, and nitrogen compounds are being made. Wind erosion
is undoubtedly responsible for the return of some of the saline material from the playas
to the mountain ranges.

REACTIONS IN THE ZONE OF WEATHERING.
REACTIONS OF SOLUTION.

The products of disintegration and decomposition in the zone of weathering may be
divided into three groups—undecomposed rock fragments, partially decomposed
rock fragments, and products of complete’ rock decomposition. The last group may
be divided into soluble and insoluble.products. Of these the former would consist
of alkalies and alkaline earths, together with acid radicals, chlorine, sulphuric anhy-
dride, carbonic and bicarbonic, nitric, boric, and phosphoric; the latter would
consist of kaolinite, muscovite, quartz, talc, zeolitic minerals, limonite, calcite, and
chlorite. Between the alkalies and alkaline earths and the acid radicals certain
important reactions would take place. The relative abundance and kind of bases
and acid material would determine these reactions. The solubilities of the more
important constituents are given in-the following table:

Solubility of important constituents of decomposition product.

/ slight solu-
extent. ble.
Magnesinm. 225.5232: 2 - do: -2| Soluble: 2} s2tdo.- 4s. -, Ado se =: doled Sas Do.
; le.

It is evident that in a system consisting of all chlorides and nitrates of the bases
named all of the compounds would be soluble and only in the case of their concen-
trated solution would any salts separate out. It is apparent that the latter condition
would rarely be present in the zone of weathering. In asystem of chlorides, sulphates,
carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates, borates, and phosphates of sodium and potassium
no reactions resulting in insoluble compounds could take place. In a system of
chlorides and sulphates, lime would be the only base precipitated as a sulphate.
This is indicated by the fact that gypsum is not an infrequent mineral in the zone
of weathering, and its presence is no doubt due in part to reactions of this nature.
The most common system that we find includes the chlorides, sulphates, carbonates,
and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. In this system
calcium and magnesium would be thrown down as comparatively insoluble carbonates
and calcium also as gypsum. We would expect the solution resulting to contain
chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium. In a
system in which calcium and magnesium predominate we would expect to find
mainly soluble chlorides, as all carbonic acid and sulphuric acid, except that required
to saturate the system, would be thrown down by calcium and magnesium.

The analyses of waters coming from the zone of weathering invariably show small
quantities of silica, ferric oxide, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and alumina.

1 The word ‘‘complete”’ is used in a restricted sense.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 21]

These are. all compounds of very low solubility, and, as practically all are present
abundantly in the zone of weathering, we may consider the solution as being saturated,
or nearly saturated, with respect to these compounds. With the more soluble com-
pounds it is unusual, except very locally, to have conditions in the zone of weathering
which would lead to saturation.

Wind and water are the two agents concerned in the movement of the products
of the zone of weathering. Even though the basin region has a scanty rainfall, water
is by far the more important agent. Water dissolves the soluble constituents and car-
ries away in suspension the finely comminuted products of disintegration and decom-
position. Heavy rainstorms and cloudbursts carry down from the mountains quan-
tities of comparatively coarse material to be deposited upon apron slopes or even in
the central portions of the playas. One has but to walk over the detrital fans in
Death Valley to appreciate the prodigious erosion that has been accomplished by
cloudbursts. Ravines and gullies are choked with coarse débris, which spreads
out in fan-like masses at their mouths and resembles more than anything else the
piles of débris resulting from hydraulic mining. One has but to experience a dust
storm in Death Valley, or any portion of the basin region for that matter, to appre-
ciate the importance of wind as an agent of erosion and deposition.

ABSORPTION PHENOMENA.

In a previous section has been pointed out the importance of the seepage water and
the fact that only a small part of the rainfall is collected in streams and reaches the sinks
and lakes. This fact would indicate that under present climatic conditions only a
fraction, of the soluble salts is collected by the run-off, while the greater part is carried
away by the seepage water to be in part permanently retained by the soil and in part
to be removed by underground waters. Certain reactions take place within the soil
and alluvial material and the soluble salts which are carried into the seepage zone
by percolating waters. These reactions are to a greater extent chemical and to
a less extent physicalin nature. The net result is to withdraw a portion of the saline
material permanently. The reacting substances are silicates and the colloidal material
of soils, and in the solution, soluble salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magne-
sium. A solution of salts carrying more or less suspended material percolates into
alluvial material. The suspended material is quickly removed and is concentrated
in the upper layers of the soil. The phenomena attending the reaction between
soil constituents and solutions are much more complex. Cameron’ shows that absorp-
tion accounts for the removal of a part, at least, of the soluble salts. He groups
under the term absorption the mechanical inclusion of solutions, the formation of
new compounds by double decomposition, and the condensation of dissolved sub-
stances on or about the surface of the absorbing medium. To the last the term absorp-
tion is given. E. C. Sullivan has summarized the literature dealing with adsorption,
and from this summary the facts of special interest to this inquiry are taken.

The principal conclusions are embodied in the following quotations:

“So far as the evidence goes the action of silicates, clay, and other constituents of
the earth’s crust in solutions of such salts as do not dissolve in water with alkaline
reaction consists in an equivalent exchange of bases. The salt is uniformly dis-
tributed between the water of colloid silica and silicates and the water of the solution.
Any absorption of the salt as a whole by the solids mentioned is so slight as to have
escaped positive detection. As bearing upon the latter point, it should be said that
certain colloid substances, analogues to which are present in the earth’s crust, do
take from solution both the acid and base of the salts mentioned. Ferric and alumi-
num oxides and metastannic and stannic acids, for instance, take potassium sulphate
from solution, while hydrated manganese dioxide takes up sulphate, chloride, or
nitrate of potassium.?

“Tt may be observed that the base enters into reaction to approximately the same
extent, whether it is combined as sulphate, chloride, or nitrate. So far as there isa
difference, more of the base is removed from sulphate solution than from the others.
On comparing chemically equivalent quantities, it is seen that ammonium is taken
from solution in greatest degree, followed in order by potassium, magnesium, sodium,
and calcium. As to the bases dissolved from the soil, Kiillenberg’s conclusion is that
for the absorbed base nearly equivalent quantities of other bases, already present in
the soil, have been carried over into the solution.?

“When the solution is alkaline in reaction, containing a soluble hydroxide diz-
solved as such or a salt made up of a strong base and a weak acid (as the carbonates,
silicates, and phosphates of sodium and potassium), which is hydrolyzed by water
with resulting formation of free alkali, its behavior with clay, soils, etc., is due largely

1 The Soil Solution: Cameron, p. 59. 2 Bul. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 27. 3 Thid., p. 16,

22 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to the presence of colloid silica or alumino-silicate, and consists primarily in the direct
addition of alkali to these solids, without substitution, insoluble silicates or alumino-
silicates being formed.

is. “‘ The loss of an acid radical of a dissolved salt to clay, soil, etc., appears, like the
loss of the base, to be due usually to the formation of an ordinary insoluble salt, such

KIN DISINTEGRATED
NWAIATEFUAL— SOUL-DETAL TOS

ZONE OF RETAINED
WEATHEAING BY PLANTS

GROWVD

CARAIED DOWN
AND DISTAIBUTED '

DAA/NAGE FREOVA CIOUNTAIN
70 SIN-AT
FOUN - OFF
SLEPAGE
FETURNED
EY WIND
FETAINED 43-7
PLANTS
BSPROUGHT BY
CAFPILLAFR/T
70 SUPFACE :
RETURNED a F
2, . ‘ \
ABSORFTION BY JO SINIC
CLAKS-SILTS
WELLS-—SPAINGS
FETAINED BY FLANTS
AETAINED BY ABSORPTION
IN CLAKS- SILTS
WIND SINC
BAINES
QEPOHTION {Sao

Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the factors of loss during the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering
zone to the sink.

as the phosphate, carbonate, or silicate of calcium, iron, ete. Such precipitation
takes place primarily from alkaline solution, because the acids that have the greatest
tendency to form insoluble compounds are weak acids, whose salts are hydrolyzed
by water.?

* * * “Sodium silicates and alumino-silicates are less stable in contact with
water solutions than the corresponding potassium compounds. Evidence of this is

1 Bul. 312, U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 28. 2 Tbid., p. 30.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 23

found not only in the laboratory, but also under natural conditions. The replace-
ment of sodium in silicates by the potassium of a dissolved salt takes place far more
readily than the reverse reaction. A similar reaction, although perhaps not quite so
marked, exists between magnesium and calcium silicates. The transformation of a
magnesium silicate by calcium chloride into calcium silicate is more difficult than
the reverse change.’’!

The most significant fact of absorption phenomenon is the greater susceptibility of
potassium to be absorbed than any of the bases and the greater resistance of potassium
compounds to the action of percolating waters. The acid radicals, with the excep-
tion of carbonic, bicarbonic, and phosphoric, are unaffected in quantity.

The restricted and irregular rainfall of tne basin region would result in more con-
centrated solutions being received by the seepage zone, and would result, therefore,
in a greater relative amount of absorption than with the less concentrated solutions
of humid regions.

A further fact must be kept in mind, and that is that a considerable part of the
basin area receives such a scanty rainfall that only on comparatively steep slopes
do the percolating waters reach ground-water levels and add their quota of soluble
material to underground circulating waters. The greater part of the intermountain
area acts like a sponge and receives and retains the waters and their dissolved salts.
Capillarity raises a part of the water, together with such soluble material as escapes
absorption.

Vegetation also plays an important part. It is a well-known fact that plants absorb
potassium salts from the soil and seepage water. The amount of potassium removed
annually in this way from ground waters must be large.

We are justified in the conclusions that in the basin region a large part of the soluble
salts is retained in the interstitial or pore spaces of the soil; a part of the soluble
material is changed to insoluble, and potassium is more likely to be retained and
in greater relative amount than any of the other bases; a precipitation of the
more insoluble carbonates, such as lime and magnesia, takes place in the upper part
of the soil; that the stronger acids, such as chlorine, sulphuric anhydride, nitric,
and boric (excepting sulphuric and boric in the presence of soluble lime salts) are ©
practically undiminished by absorption phenomena. Combined with various bases
they either remain in the soil or are leached away in the ground water.

Soluble salts reach the sinks or lowest parts of the intermountain areas in two ways—
by underground waters which gravitate to the low points and by the rtn-off waters
which accumulate in the same places. It is evident that in the passage of the seepage
water to the sink absorption continues and only a final residuum, which may be only
a small part of the original total of soluble salts, reaches the sink. The run-off waters
are diminished on their way to the sink by seepage waters with consequent loss of a
part of the dissolved salts. Figure 2 illustrates the various losses which we may
expect in the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering zone to the sink. I
have taken potassium as the base to best illustrate the point. The quantitative side
of the problem can not be determined and consequently the figure does not involve
this feature.

The case for sodium would be simpler than for potassium. Little or none of this
base would be retained by plants or by chemical absorption, and the only loss would
be that portion retained and brought by capillarity to the surface or retained simply
by the soil. The greater part of the sodium, either as sulphate or chloride, would
eventually reach the sink.

The case for lime and magnesia isalsoa simple one. Only that portion in the run-off
waters would reach the sink. The remainder would be found distributed from and
within the zone of weathering to the sink. The greatest part would be nearest the
belt of weathering. A nominal amount would reach the sink through the agency of
ground waters.”

1 Bul. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 22.

2 Calcareous hardpans are not infrequently found in the Great Basin. In the vicinity of Las Vegas, Nev.,
there is an especially good illustration of the development of a thick layer of calcareous material. This
in some places forms the surface and in other places is covered by a thin soil. The rocks of the neighboring
mountains are sandstones and limestones. An analysis of this hardpan shows the following (analysis by
J. A. Cullen, Bureau of Soils): .

Per cent.
TASTES GO) Ve Re cis eR ac al a cee ce A PS aegis ts 34 RU ae ae, Cs 2 lee pete Se ent ee ee 7.6
LAist @ropxito Vena valle ibbeabbaysiee ete oe oe ee eee oe eens oe Mer ee or een Raeeree ETE DS ee - 46
SE LETT CRN OUL Daas oh Pe Sh Ee ee MRE 2 ET A at aly nt bel ea net Sc aes eee Wey Cee 37.20
J ALI rT (SISTENT Fe es eg i at Lace ec a a aE Eo a IE 12.65
BING Ui O GAS TI Ste aoe eer eA ie tare sere Sites seine crete atc te eS SINT reciente x SOLE aregeie -30
ROU ANSO GaN e heh eyt rey sere ea ee Rds aie A ale ee leaned (A Se ee aR .39

HHA be MAGIC Sac SUE pe eae See cae ee Gen ei oe, eel oa oe eae - 03
I have also noted many instances where the material of gulch dumps in the basin mountains has been.
cemented together by calcium carbonate. y E
In the alluvial fans it is not uncommon to find the material removed by the burrowing of smallanimals
to be coated by calcium carbonate.

24 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The factors influencing absorption are the rate of movement of underground waters,
the concentration of solutions, the chemical nature of salines and salts, the distances
to be traversed to outlet if spring, or to sink if there is no surface outlet. In the case
of saline solutions retained locally the time factor is greatly increased and, conse-
quently, absorption may proceed to practical completion. The conditions in any
one case are so variable and the difficulty of definitely determining the quantities
involved so great that we can not determine the extent of absorption. Evidence
goes to show that potassium in some cases is almost completely retained. The com-

arison of underground waters with surface waters and the comparison of soils from
fea and arid regions can, in a measure, be relied upon to show the character of
the changes. The two succeeding sections deal with these subjects.

UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE WATERS.

In Table XI (Appendix) are given a number of analyses of well and spring waters
from the Nevada experiment station records, obtained through the courtesy of S. C.
Dinsmore. Accompanying are two tables, Nos. XII and XIII (Appendix), giving
analyses of waters in Death Valley and Amargosa regions. The average ratios of
sodium to potassium are as follows:

Ratio
Well and spring waters in western Nevada...............---...- 43.1
Waters from. Death) Valleys 2:22.20 22a ty oye ee Ese 47. 4
Watersitrom: thie Aimancosae. = eee ee cee epee eee gee ee 9.9
The Truckee, Humboldt, and Weber Rivers..-.............--.. 3. 6
The basunlaikkes . ob ae eas, pean e e ae e 20. 0

Seepage originates in part from run-off waters. The absorption of potassium would
be indicated by a greater ratio of sodium to potassium in underground waters as com-
ared to the run-off waters. This is indicated by the above ratios. The ratio for the
asin lakes is intermediate between these for ground and surface waters. This is
to be expected, since the lakes receive seepage as well as run-off waters.

SOILS OF HUMID AND ARID REGIONS.

Clarke! gives the average analyses of a number of soils from humid and arid regions.
From these analyses the sodium-potassium ratio has been obtained and for purposes
of comparison the same ratio for the igneous rocks of the basin is given.

Ratio of sodium to potassium in soils and rocks.

Ratio of potassium in—

GbR cuba letsronH {= eemiay = Nap aMOn a: CSISREMNR SITE Teealih a Oh Si a ease 0. 39
A id Sodas so cre icPh spice ap Wisse ea a ae weil
IA CIGETO CIES Se) cat aso ee ae fe WEE tee a eee iS
Basie rocks!) 2-82 <6 See ot ee eee 1. 50
Mean, acid and basic... -..s26cs soda ee Se ee eee 1.14

The figures obtained do not give a fair basis for comparison. In the case of the soils
the sodium and potassium are determined in the solutions obtained by decomposition
with hydrochloric acid. In the case of the analyses of the rocks the sodium and
potassium represent the total percentage of each in the rock. If we assume that the
insoluble residue obtained from the humid or arid soil would be of practically the same
constitution the ratios would be of some value in indicating absorption. The arid
soils show a greater proportion of potassium than the humid. If our assumption is
correct, this is due to absorption. It may also be due to differences in the degree of
decomposition. Comparing the soils withthe rocks indicates the removal of sodium
at a much greater rate in the weathering process than potassium. If we compare the
percentage composition of the mean arid with the mean humid soil, we find the fol-
lowing interesting ratios:

Ratio arid to humid percentages of constituents soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Acid soluble:

1 Bul. No. 491 U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 467.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 25

Acid soluble—Continued.

BQacos setts bade sceeecen sdeut éoader dba todeasebiaccnansues 12. 6
JAG bal £1 oe a a re a ane Re a ae aA Ba)
Dies beagle be-all SSD AT Ol, A lial ly I eae de 1.0
De ede ei ug eae RNS Vere AUN eR ae tae) oye cueio ns Se oe ae, Svabe 8

Total acid soluble:
Arid (per cent)......-- NEUSE ET ATA a ionic BE eee eer nA 29. 5
1 Ebr yams Rarer FA sen a IN eI oe ip eae 16. 0

These ratios indicate a much greater proportion of soluble material on the whole
in the arid than in the humid soils. The greater proportion of soluble silica and acid
soluble alumina would indicate more favorable conditions for the absorption of alkalies
in the case of arid soils. The greater proportion of alkalies and alkaline earths indi-
cates that absorption either by chemical reaction or by simple retention of soluble
salts is a marked feature of arid soils.

While absorption by chemical reaction is of undoubted importance, absorption
by retention of soluble salts is of much greater importance and is characteristic
of the soils of the basin region. Whitney and Means state! that the soluble salts
for soils of a sandy nature “approximate 50 pounds per acre-foot (0.0015 per cent),
for heavy soils from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per acre-foot (0.09 to 0.12 per cent), and
the average amount for soils of humid areas somewhat less than 1,000 pounds per
acre-foot (0.03 per cent). Hilgard ? states that very few of the upland soils in the
arid regions of California contain less than 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of soluble salt per
acre in the first 4 feet. In the soils of the lowlands the content of soluble salt must
be considerably greater. No general numerical statement can be made for the soils
of the basin region, but we know that in many cases the amount of soluble salts
must be many times greater than that contained in the soils of humid regions. Table
XIV (Appendix) gives the content and chemical composition of the soluble salts for
a number of soils in the basin region. I have taken most of these from three widely
separated localities. The first set are from soils in the vicinity of Fallon, Nev.; the
second from soils in the vicinity of Salt Lake, Utah; and the third from southern
Oregon. The average content of soluble salts for the Fallon soils is 1.23 per cent and
for the Utah soils 1.8 per cent. It should be noted that the examples given are un-
doubtedly from localities more or less heavily impregnated with soluble salts. The
average for the Fallon area can be obtained from figures presented in the advance
sheets of the field operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1909.2 The content of alkali
and the acres affected in each instance are given:

82,624 acres contain less than 0.2 per cent alkali.
38,784 acres contain from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent alkali.
8,768 acres contain from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent alkali.
8,128 acres contain from 0.6 to 1.0 per cent alkali.
12,096 acres contain over 1 per cent. The average content for 150,400
acres is ().4 per cent.

- While the results for the Fallon section can not be taken as representative of the
basin region, still it can be said that they show the results for one important area.
The conditions in other portions of the basin, and particularly south of the Fallon area,
can not be much different. In fact, as we proceed south the evidences of soluble
salts become more and more common. Many of the flat valleys which characterize
southern and central Nevada show that the conditions are very favorable for the
retention of the soluble salts. The physical conditions influencing the retention of
salts by and their movement in soils merit some discussion and the succeeding section
covers this subject.

RETENTION AND MOVEMENT OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY SOILS OF ARID REGIONS.

The factors controlling the retention of soluble salts are underground drainage,
character of the soil, slope of soil surface, and rainfall. With good underground
drainage, even under arid conditions, there is a gradual movement downward of the
soluble salts. Underground drainage i is dependent upon the character of the soil and
the slope of the soil surface. With compact, heavy soils much seepage water is retained
and drains away very slowly, or not at all. Capillarity acts in fine-textured soils to
return the ground water, in some cases back to the surface, or in others to some interme-
diate level. With porous, open, and coarse-textured soils capillarity may act to a small

1 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 22.
2 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13.
3 Soil Survey of the Fallon Area, Nevada, p. 43.

26 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

extent, but only very locally, and the seepage water drains speedily away. Where
impervious layers occur, ground water may be retained and by evaporation leave its
burden of salts within the soil at varying depths. Where soil surfaces are sloped,
underground drainage is facilitated, and, if the soils are not too coarse textured, or
capillarity not an important factor, the soluble salts are drained away and deposited
in the level portions of the valleys.

With moderate rainfall salines are distributed in sandy soils with the least propor-
tion at the surface and greater amounts or accumulations at intermediate points:
Under arid conditions these accumulations would be nearer the surface, and in regions
of extreme aridity would be very close to and even at the surface. With heavy soils
(slow movement of ground water) the accumulations of salines would be nearer the sur-
face for moderate rainfalls and much closer to the surface for small rainfalls than for the
porous soils.

Means ! discusses the conditions under which alkali salts move within the soil and
his conclusions are pertinent here. He states that—

(1) ‘‘Movement of alkali salts is caused by diffusion of the salt mixture;
(2) “‘By the force of gravity in moving the salt mixture downward;
(3) “‘By surface tension or capillary action which moves the salt mixture in

j any direction.”’

Means considers that the effects of the diffusion are practicably negligible. The
second and third causes may best be placed in his words:

(2) ‘‘ Force of gravity —When water is applied to the surface of the soil the force of

avity, assisted by surface tension, pulls the water down into the capillary spaces.
Soils will hold a certain percentage of water by capillary forces alone, and any excess
over this percentage will drain away. This excess is called gravity water. When the
surface of the ground is flooded, both surface tension and gravity act in pulling the
water downward. Since the rate of flow of water through capillary spaces depends
upon the size of the space, the flow through the large capillary spaces, root holes, worm
borings, and animal burrows is very much greater than that through the true capillary
spaces. When water is applied, the downward movement by gravity is almost
entirely through the larger noncapillary spaces, while the true capillary spaces are
filled by surface tension from the noncapillary spaces. In this way the salt which is
dissolved by the descending water is probably to some extent drawn back into the
capillary spaces, where there is very little downward movement, and remains there,
only escaping out into the channels of downward movement by diffusion. The
amount of salt which is washed downward by a heavy flooding is therefore not so great
as would be expected.

(3) ‘‘The greatest movement of alkali salts is due to capillarity which operates
through surface tension. When water moves by surface tension, the films around the
soil grains move. As soon as the gravity water has drained away, the movements
become entirely by surface tension. A loss of water due to evaporation changes the
curvature of the water films and starts a capillary movement toward the point where
the evaporation takes place. But when water moves by capillary action it is the
water in the smaller spaces that moves, and not the water which is in the larger non-
capillary spaces. Therefore the water which was drawn back into the capillary spaces
and which carried some of the alkali salts as it flowed down into the soil starts upward
and carries with it the salts in solution. The evaporation of an inch of water on the
surface of the soil accumulates on the surface all alkali salts which were contained in
that inch of water, while, on the other hand, the same volume of water leached down
through the soil would probably not leach out an equal amount of the salts. From
this it will be seen that the tendency of the alkali salts under irrigation is to move
upward perhaps more rapidly than downward.

‘‘From the above discussion it appears that surface tension or capillary attraction,
as it is commonly called, is the most important agent in the movement of alkali salts
toward the surface of the soil. Therefore, a soil which would permit the most rapid
movements would be the most likely to accumulate alkali salts upon the surface. If
two soils with different capillary powers were placed side by side, with the level of
standing water the same, the soil which raised the water to the surface the more
rapidly would the sooner accumulate an alkali crust.”

THE POSITION OF MAXIMUM SOLUBLE SALT CONTAINED IN THE SOIL.

The following table summarizes certain observations which have been made con-
cerning the depth at which soluble salts form accumulations.

1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

Depth of accumulations of soluble salts in soils.

3-inch rainfall, Imperial Val-
ley, Cal

In virgin soils greater part of
soluble salts at a depth of 18
inches.

8-inch rainfall,
Fresno district.

Sandy loams 3 to
4 feet; coarse
sands 4 to 8
feet.1

12-inch rainfall,
Yellowstone
Park.

15-inch rainfall,
Ventura County,
Cal.

20-inch rainfall,
cee ee pals,

Heavy soils 4 to
6 feet; sandy
soils 7 to 11
feet.2

Bulk of soluble
salts at 5 feet.1

Greater part of
soluble salts
below 3 feet.1

1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 15. 2 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 27.

Two important actions take place in the movement of saline material in soils.
Rainfall penetrates the surface soil and percolates down to certain depths. In its
passage downward it dissolves a portion of whatever soluble salts may be present and
thus leaches the material at the immediate surface. The extent to which this leach-
ing would take place would be determined by the proportion of gravity water to water
of capillarity and the penetration of the water. This is determined largely by the
texture of the soil. With a porous soil this leaching action would be especially notice-
able. In the leaching of a soil in the manner described above, it is evident that the ~
more soluble constituents would be first dissolved and carried to the greatest depths.
Underground water soon reaches a position of equilibrium which may be within the
permanent ground-water level or within the zone close to the surface. Capillarity
begins to act. The ground water moves toward the point at which evaporation takes
place. It should be noted that when this water reaches its equilibrium position it
has dissolved a large amount of salt. When the solution is returned by capillarity
these salts are carried with it and deposited at the point where evaporation takes place.
Capillarity may not return these salts to the surface, for evaporation may take place
below the immediate surface, and the capillary water column may terminate at vary-
ing distances from the surface. The height to which the water is raised by capillarity
would determine the position of accumulated salts. It has been shown in another
place that where ground waters are deeper than 10 feet from the surface little or no
evaporation from them takes place. This would indicate that ground waters at depths
greater than 10 feet could not be concentrated by evaporation, and consequently there
would be little or no opportunity for the separation of salines under such conditions.

NATURE OF SALINES IN SOILS.

Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium are the bases almost invariably present.
Sodium in almost every instance is the dominating base, while calcium and magnesium
are usually the smallest in amount. Potassium is much less than sodium. In the
Fallon soils sodium is 12.6 times potassium, while in the Utah soils it is 5.6 times. The
acid radicals of chlorine, sulphur, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorus are inva-
riably present. Chlorides and sulphates usually predominate, although in some soils
carbonates and bicarbonates are in greater abundance. The Fallon soils contain sul-
phates in greatest amount, while in the Utah soils chlorides are in greatest amount.
Bicarbonates are usually present in greater amounts than carbonates. Phosphates
and nitrates are present in most cases in traces, although in some exceptional cases
nitrates may be present in appreciable amounts. Two Fallon soils showed over 2 per
cent nitrate in the total solids. The basin soils would present many variations from
the examples given. Borates, for instance, are common in many playas.

COLLECTION OF SALINES BY SURFACE WATERS.
RIVER AND LAKE WATERS.

Rivers being the main collecting agents for gathering salines from a given area and
transferring them to the lakes and lake basins, the content and nature of the salines
as well as the amount collected can be determined from the analyses of the river
waters. It should be noted that the rivers receive a certain proportion of seepage
water and consequently the chemical analysis reflects not only the nature of the salts
collected from the weathering zone, but also the salts received from underground
waters. It is to be regretted that analyses of composite samples taken from basin
rivers over long intervals of time are not available. What analyses are given represent
single samples. The results must be used with caution.

The lake waters represent the saline accumulations during present times. It should
be noted that certain compounds are precipitating out continuously and consequently
the composition of the waters represents an approach to equilibrium conditions for
the particular time. Variation in climatic conditions results in the raising and lower-
ing of lake levels. The fluctuation in lake levels, together with the continual acces-

ee ee ee ee ee

28 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sion of saline material, accounts for the variation in the analytical results often noted
in the reports of analyses of lake waters of the basin. The fluctuations of lake levels
would also produce a change in concentration and, consequently, the equilibrium
conditions would be changed also. The more soluble salts are accumulating in these
lakes while the more insoluble are precipitating out. The principal data concerning
the chemical content of river and lake waters of the basin are given in Table XV
(Appendix).

Much detailed chemical work has been done upon the California rivers by Van
Winkle and Eaton,! and on account of the close proximity of this State to the basin
region the results of their analyses are of importance. They are given in the table
which follows:

Mean analyses, California rivers.

[Per cent of anhydrous residue.]

Humid (22 Semiarid (16
Constituent. rivers); rain- | rivers); rain-
fall, 15-+-+inches. | fall, 15— inches.

Per cent. Per cent.
8.95

14. 91 37.02
31.27 18. 87
12.53 12.34
15. 52 12. 83

5.37 5. 76

0.12 0. 02
11.33 5.27
100. 00 100.00
16.5 62.7

From the study of the results the following conclusions are of importance to the
present inquiry: The total soluble salts in a river water under normal conditions
varies with the stream flow. They are a minimum for a maximum flow and a
maximum for a minimum flow. .Normal conditions may be assumed to be those for a
humid region. The components of the total salts also follow the above rule. If we
take the Yuba River as an example and apply this rule to the various soluble con-
stituents, we find that chlorine, the sulphate radical, carbonic acid, sodium, and
calcium follow this rule. Potassium fluctuates; magnesium shows little fluctuation;
silica remains practically constant. In an arid or semiarid region soluble salts tend
to accumulate during periods of low water. When the first floods come the river
water gains in total solids and sometimes to a very marked extent, due to the washing
out of these accumulated salts. Certain rivers, such as the Santa Ynez and the Owens
River, maintain the amount of total salts at practically a constant figure. Concerning
the comparison of the mineral content of waters in semiarid and humid regions Van
Winkle and Eaton state:

First. “The average mineral content of waters in semiarid regions is, roughly,
four times that of waters in humid regions.

Second. “Difference in percentage composition of the anhydrous residues shows
that the waters in semiarid regions contain about two-thirds the proportionate amount
of silica, less calcium; four-fifths as much carbonates, and twice as much sulphates as
the waters of the humid regions. Their constituents are similar in amount. In
regions of abundant rainfall disintegration of rock material can not keep pace with
solution, erosion, and chemical decomposition. The more soluble constituents of
the rocks are rapidly removed as they become exposed to the action of water, and
their total amount in a given quantity of the solvent water is seldom great. In arid
or semiarid regions, however, chemical action is frequently less marked than physical
disintegration. The soluble materials of the disintegrated rock masses accumulate

through periods of drought, allowing the water from subsequent rainfalls to take into —

solution a greater relative amount than is found in waters from more humid regions.

“In the waters studied the average amount of mineral in streams from the semiarid
regions was 627 parts per million; in rivers of the humid regions it was 165 parts per
million. The greatest average mineral content, 2,412 parts per million, occurred,in
Santa Maria River, which flows through a sandstone country receiving barely 10
inches of rain a year. The smallest amount of mineral matter was found in Merced
River, 65 parts per million, or about one-fortieth of the amount for Santa Maria River.

“As the silica content is apparently unaffected by the amount of the other dissolved
constituents, it may be expected that the percentage of silica in rivers of high dis-

' Water-Supply Paper 237, U. S. Geol. Survey.

|
:

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 29

solved solids will be correspondingly low. This is true in California waters, the
average silica for the humid-region rivers being 13.4 per cent and for the semiarid-
region waters 8 per cent of the total mineral matter in solution. The principal effect,
then, of climatic condition on silica content is a negative one and it is apparently
due merely to change in total mineral content.

“By the decay of the abundant organic material in humid regions carbonic acid
is set free, being dissolved in the surface waters or entering the air as carbonic dioxide.
This carbonic acid, uniting with the carbonic acid of the alkaline-earth carbonates,
produces the bicarbonates which are readily dissolved, so that surface waters in
regions of abundant rainfall carry large amounts of the bicarbonate radical and of the
alkaline earths. In regions of deficient rainfall, on the other hand, carbonic rocks are
attacked to less extent and the gypsum and alkaline sulphates that are present are
brought more largely into solution.”’

The conclusions of Van Winkle and Eaton may be applied to basin conditions.
A somewhat different grouping of the basin rivers 1s desirable, and I have attempted
this in the following. This grouping is not accurate, for the reason that some of the
basin streams rise in the higher mountains and under conditions similar to many
of the streams upon the western slope of the Sierras, while the lower courses of these
see are in the valleys and under semiarid or arid conditions. Three groups are
made:

(1) Streams which have watersheds under humid conditions. These are Mill Creek,
Leevining Creek, Rush Creek, the mountain streams tributary to Owens River,
and the short streams of the higher ranges of the basin.

(2) Streams which have watersheds partly under humid conditions and partly under
arid. These are the Truckee, Carson, Walker, streams tributary to Great Salt Lake,
and streams tributary to the southern Oregon lakes.

(3) Streams which have watersheds under arid conditions. These are the Quinn,
Armagosa, Humboldt, Reese, and Owens Rivers.

Streams of the first group are comparable to such rivers as the Yuba and the Tuo-
lumne, and the California streams for humid conditions generally. Streams of the
second group are comparable with the California streams under semiarid conditions.
Streams of the third group are in a class by themselves, and, in the absence of detailed
studies, can not be properly characterized.

The streams tributary to Great Salt Lake are characterized by high chlorine content,
while the streams of the Lahontan Basin have a high sulphate content. Owens River
is the only stream in which a noticeable amount of nitrates has been reported.

Lake waters are similar in composition to the river waters. There are some differ-
ences, and in order to show this I have worked out certain ratios which are given in
the accompanying table.

Ratios between certain soluble constituents in lake and river waters.

: i Na Ca Cl H CO3+CO3
Source of sample. iv Mg SO; C1480,
Rivers:
Oy eT Crepes se pete DE ay a Bie tos Aiea tical ey eA Rv ig ope eeellos atc se 2.6 4.12 1.16
WME erie sees 2 2.8 1.50 1.74
Calo els aes 2.1 3.97 -93
Jordan’ syPs Se. 8.1 DES | Sees ee ae
Humboldt 3.9 15 2. 45
PRETAT COSA et eee oss ee se cent to ee et TQ Ye 52 30
ARES eae reine Pl eri hr eta a ae pal ine eC 6.0 1.11 1. 28
Ue or en es ey SVS EIS Le ees err ner Se aE 3.2 58 1. 63
3.5 56 2.35
A ce OER CIEL ans eee Cr ase Mm catctt, cy tua ny 2.6 -61 2. 42
Lakes:
14 9:20) | 5 =< URS
1.10 12.73 -18
beef aS rE ehh ee = Sa etn eo ape 10 7.81 - 30
7 9.73 61
- 56 Lstih -38
- 40 1.81 . 64
2.00 2.50 . 70
Saas ipa 3.50 -73
mike Ces ep ae sie Ee ee te at are pene | bce 47S | Nl Peat eee 18.9 54
EA ape Ses BSS Sea E ESE ED SOC OS HORT ACEO pees a5 bel Saas ee ance - 04 4 Oi | etacteer eee
CALIFORNIA RIVERS.
|
MEATROMILVEIS AM Semiarid Lesion 222.522 feo. 8 se | 2.51 0. 21 0. 83
Me inieOGi yell NUM FeMOMY a2 seem ese eee eso er | 2.88 | . 69 2. 64

30 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The sodium-potassium ratio has been discussed in another section. The calcium-
magnesium ratio shows a marked decrease for the lake waters as compared with river
waters. This can be explained by the fact that calcium readily precipitates as car-
bonate or sulphate, or may be removed by the agency of vegetable organisms+. The
removal of calcium would leave the magnesium In greater relative amount. There is
no doubt that magnesium is also precipitated as a carbonate, but is not eliminated at
as great a rate as calcium. Chlorides are more abundant than sulphates in the lake
waters as compared with river waters. This is undoubtedly due to the precipitation -
of the sulphate radical by lime. Carbonates and bicarbonates are in less relative
proportion in lake waters than in river waters. This is accounted for by the precipita-
tion of calcium and magnesium as insoluble carbonates. :

Borates are conspicuous in Owens, Mono, and the lakes of southern Oregon. The
waters of Owens Lake are noteworthy on account of the content of nitrates and arsenic
compounds.

Certain regional characteristics become noticeable in a comparison of the chemical
content of lake waters. The lakes of the Bonneville Basin are conspicuous for their
lack of carbonates and bicarbonates and their high content of chlorides. Sulphates
are present, but in moderate amount. The high content of these lakes in salines is
to be noted also. The regional rocks of the Bonneville Basin are, for the greater part,
sedimentaries. Limestones are common.

The lakes of the Lahontan Basin have a much lower saline content, and contain
chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates. Chlorides usually dominate, but in Pyramid,
Winnemucca, and Humboldt Lakes carbonates are somewhat greater in amount than
chlorides. The regional rocks are characterized by a greater area of igneous rocks
than the Bonneville Basin.

Owens and Mono Lakes contain chlorides and carbonates in greatest amount. Chlo-
rides are greater in amount than carbonates and sulphates are least. These lakes are
characterized by a high saline content. The regional rocks are predominatingly
igneous. The southern Oregon lakes are low in sulphates and have about equal
amounts of chlorides and carbonates. In the case of only one lake are the chlorides
exceeded by the sulphates. The regional rocks are igneous.

ANNUAL SALINE. CONTENT OF RIVER DISCHARGES.

The rate at which salines are accumulating at present in the basin lakes can be
calculated approximately from the mean annual flow of the principal rivers and their
saline content. As has been mentioned before, the chemical data are insufficient,
and, consequently, the conclusions give only approximate results. It is believed
that the figures are conservative and rather under than overestimates. In Table XVI
(Appendix) are given the tons of salines discharged by the Owens, Humboldt, Truckee,
Walker, and Bear Rivers. The total salines discharged by these five rivers into their
lake basins is-1,692,153 tons per annum.

An approximate determination has been made for four basins and is given in the
accompanying table:

Discharge of salines into four important lake basins.

cars eet eae of Salines fuel
Trun-o . . annual | totalrun-| ,- salines
Basin. per Peyets aca ofrun-| ow of | off to Spr oa discharged
annum & Me these | flow of oe avers, | Per annum
for basin. rivers. Trivers. y * | into basin.
Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Tons. Tons.
ONUCVING = 5. seated: S42 3,080 | BeSie reese seas eee 1, 860 1.9] 1,259,235 2,392,546
ahontart ss. 2) gas as on sea 2,406 | Walker, Humbolt, 1,504 1.6 286, 019 457, 630
and Truckee
OWENS soon os ne peed eee Bp i| CXWERSE «pico sock oe 306 1.0 102, 228 102, 228
Southern Oregon lakes. ... a24)\ TTUCKCC > on. cccn sce 1,030 ay A 155, 335 108, 734

1 Bul. No. 108, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, p. 94. s

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 31

The total salines collected by the rivers of these four basins approximate 3,061,138
tons perannum. ‘The contribution per square mile is given in the following table:

Quantity of salines collected by rivers tributary to four important lake basins.

: Quantity
Basin. Area. per equate
mile.

Sq. miles. | Pownds.
orm elle tapers eis seis aoe Shes et ese eee Qe MEN OL ON ee awn hi ee Aen oh 49, 500 96, 600

SLND GVAERD 6 oo hes DA a eT i 1 an I VS OE Reo a a a 40, 000 22, 880
ONICDS 5 on doash 6 CEHOSOE NEES SES CATS HS CSE Sto Ra A aE tll LRU ales sn SS Oe 3, 200 | 63, 800
HOuUlMerneOneronual<es tales Sky EE LU eT SES EE Wen eee Ob ea 12,000 108, 720
PACT Cras CHOniOUT DaSINS:, 22.1 ine an nik. SOUR VIR tana INRA Ceo MND i ail e Me, Lal allies, 64, 800

1 Estimated.

These figures represent the most active basins, excepting the one in which Mono
Lake is situated. They may be taken as representing the northern and western parts
of the Great Basin. The southern half of the basin must contribute a very much
smaller amount of saline material to the sinks.

While the above figures appear large and may be large, still when compared wit!
estimates from humid regions they do not appear unreasonable. Van Hise quotes
the estimate of T. Mellard Reade! for the amount of salts per square mile per annum
for the whole globe as follows:

Total, 192,000 pounds. Of this total, calcium carbonate is 10,000 pounds; calcium
sulphate, 40,000; sodium chloride, 16,000; silica, 14,000; magnesium carbonate, 8,000;
. iron oxide, 2,000. Clarke? quotes the figures of Dole and Stabler? for chemical denuda-
tion in the United States as 87 tons per annum per square mile. This would be
174,000 pounds and would apply to humid conditions. The figures given show that
the chemical denudation in the more active parts of the basin region is equivalent
to 37 per cent of this figure.

Table XVII (Appendix) gives the salines in pounds for each square mile of water-
shed for the Truckee, Walker, Humboldt, and Owens Rivers. For purposes of com-
parison I have added the figures for five rivers in California. The figures show the
close relation between run-off and salines removed per square mile. While the
saline content of the waters of a river in the semiarid region may be much higher than
for a river under humid conditions, the total salines collected in a given time from
a unit area is usually much less. This is easily explained by the fact that the greater
proportion of the surface waters is absorbed by alluvial material and their salts are
retained. The low yield of the Humboldt River is noteworthy. The very small
run-off is sufficient explanation. In general, the figures presented show that the
greater the run-off the greater the ‘“‘crop”’ of salines from a unit area. Exception of
the Kern River and the San Ysabel Creek may be made. The character of the water-
shed and the rate of decomposition of the regional rocks enter asa factor. The greater
relative “‘crop” of these two streams is undoubtedly due to a greater rate of decom-
position of the rocks, or a greater amount of salines in the disintegrated rock upon
their watersheds. The water-duty factor, pounds of salines per square mile per
second-foot per annum, gives a better basis of comparison between rivers under arid
and rivers under humid conditions. Omitting the Kern and San Ysabel, since these
streams have exceptional conditions upon their watersheds, the streams of the basin
region show a anion higher duty than those of the humid region in the near neighbor-
hood. ‘To put it in another way, the same quantity of water on the Owens River
watershed would gather 4.5 times as much saline material as upon the Tuolumne,
and 3.2 times as much as upon the Truckee.

The figures given can not be taken as the annual rate of chemical denudation for
the basin, for 1t must be kept in mind that the basin streams gather only a part of
the run-off waters, the remainder being absorbed in the sinks and basins. Expressed
as an equation—Pounds of salines liberated per square mile=pounds of salines
retained in soil and sinks+pounds gathered by rivers and discharged into lakes.
No data upon the amount of salts absorbed are available and, consequently, the sec-
ond number of this equation can not be quantitatively stated. The third number

1 Treatise on Metamorphism, p. 486.
2 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 103.

32 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the equation is the only one which admits of approximate quantitative statement,
and figures for this have already been given.’

Of the ions, sodium and potassium are of most interest. These constitute 19.4
per cent of the saline material. Potassium may be taken as 20 per cent of the com-
bined weight of sodium and potassium. Applying these proportions to the 3,061,138
tons of salines for the four basins gives 593,860 tons of sodium and potassium, and
118,772 tons of potassium as the annual “‘crop” for approximately 95,000 square miles
of the basin. :

The figures given in the preceding represent the rate of accumulation under present
conditions. The humid conditions of the Quaternary must have produced a much
greater rate of accumulation than at present. The greater area of lake surface during
Quarternary times would give less land surface for chemical denudation. For the
Lahontan and Bonneville Basins it has been shown that for one unit of lake area there
were 3.5 units of basin area. For the 95,000 square miles under consideration this
ratio would give 74,027 square miles of land and 20,973 square miles of lake surface.
If we assume that the rate of accumulation equaled the present rate for the Tuolumne
River watershed, the above area of land surface would yield a ‘‘crop” of 13,650,000
tons per annum, or about four times the present rate of accumulation. While these
results are no doubt crude, they at least give us some idea of the enormous amounts
of salines that must have been discharged by the rivers of Quaternary times into the
Quaternary lakes.

SALINE DEPOSITS.

To avoid repetition, this subject is presented under the following heads: Nitrates;
Borates; Alum; Alunite; Crusts and Efflorescences; Playa Deposits; Deposits Result-
ing from Desiccation of Lakes; Buried Deposits of Salines; Salines in Present Lakes;
Calcareous Deposits about the Shores of Present Lakes; Potash-rich Minerals; and
Gypsum. ;

NITRATES.

Gale? has summarized the occurrence of nitrates in the Great Basin region. From
his work I give below some of the principal facts.

Nitrates have been reported in Utah, in the vicinity of Marysvale, Monroe, and
Greenwich Canyon, and Grass Valley; in Nevada, in the vicinity of Lovelock, in north-
western Washoe County near Leadville, and in the canyons bordering the west side
of Railroad Valley; in California, in the vicinity of the Calico Mountains, in the
region northeast of Salton, along the Amargosa River near Tecopa, and in the vicinity
of Death Valley, Searles Lake, and Danby Lake. The compounds reported are
potassium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium nitrates. Potassium nitrate is the com-
pound most often found. The deposits are of three types—cave, playa, and as efflo-
rescences. Most of the Nevada deposits are of the cave type. They occur as veins,
stalactites, and crusts in deposits protected from the action of surface waters. In
playas, the nitrates are mixed with other salines. Occasional efflorescences of nitrates
are found. The deposit occurring south of Tecopa, Cal., and along the Amargosa
is of this type. The nitrates of the basin region are either leached from the soils or
originate from the decaying organic matter accumulating in the caves. Gale is of the
opinion that probably a majority of the nitrate deposits result from the decomposition
of bat or similar guano in caves, or crevices in the rocks.

Nitrates have been reported in small amounts in river and lake waters. Van
Winkle and Eaton report the nitrate radical in 18 river waters out of some 30 examined
in California. Theaverage content for the Owens River is 1.7 parts per million. This
is equivalent to 0.5 per cent of the anhydrous residue. A more extended search for
this radical would, no doubt, show it present in small amounts in most of the river
waters of the basin. The origin of nitrate in river water is due to the leaching action
of rain water on soils. Owens Lake contains 948 parts per million of nitrate radical.?
J.G. Smith reports traces of nitrates in all the waters from the southern Oregon lakes
which he examined. ! have no doubt that this radical, in small amounts, could be
found in other basin lakes. In the analysis of the soluble material of basin soils

1 The mean annual run-off for the basin region was approximately determined to be 1.06 inches of rainfall
If we assume the saline content to be 62.7 parts per 100,000 (the mean saline content of California rivers for
semiarid conditions), the saline content in the run-off from 1 square mile is 96,251 pounds. This approxi-
mates the figure obtained for the Bonneville basin. On this basis the annual crop of salines for the whole
basin would be 10,105,200 tons. The playa, silt and lake area is about 30 per cent of the basin area or 63,000
square miles. The concentration of the annual crop of salines on this area would give 164 tons per square
toile or a surface crust 0.0012 of an inch thick.

2 Bul. No. 523, U. S. Geol. Survey.

’ Water-Supply Paper No. 237, p. 122.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Fic. 1.—TEELS MarsH, NEV. VIEW LOOKING SOUTHWEST. TYPICAL SMALL BASIN.

Fia. 2. Pi VALLEY, CAL. EROSION OF TERTIARY BEDS SOUTH OF FURNACE CREEK
AND EAST OF THE VALLEY. BLACK MOUNTAINS. i

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II.

FIG. 1.—ROUGH SALT AREA, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

Fic. 2.—SMOOTH SALT AREA, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 383

nitrate from traces to appreciable amounts has been shown. No deposits of economic
importance have as yet been discovered in the basin region and the outlook for any
important discovery in the future is not promising.

BORATES.

Borates occur in many localities in the basin region; in fact, they may be said to be
found in the western half of the basin region from Oregon to the Mojave Desert. There
is a conspicuous lack of borates in the eastern half of the basin, although traces of boric
acid have been reported in the analyses of the waters of Great Salt Lake.1_ While the
borate radical has not been reported in river waters, there is no doubt that it exists
in most of the basin streams in minute quantities. The borate radical has been
reported in Harney, Mono, Large Soda, Summer, Fossil, Christmas, North Alkali,
Middle Alkali, South Alkali, and Abert Lakes. In most of these lakes it is present
in very small amounts, but in Mono, Owens, and Large Soda Lakes it is present in
quantities ranging from 16.37 in Mono to 29.91 parts per hundred thousand in Owens
Lake. It has been reported in the waters of hot springs. The water of Steamboat
Springs, Nev., contains 21.7 parts per hundred thousand boric anhydride. A more
detailed examination of the waters of hot springs in the basin region would undoubt-
edly show many other examples of the presence of borate minerals. Borates are dis-
charged into lakes by river and seepage waters.

The workable deposits of borax are of two types—the marsh, playa, or dry-lake
type, and the bedded deposits. The former occur in Rhodes, Teels, and Columbus
Marshes, Nev.;in basins along the Amargosa River, in Death Valley, Saline Valley, and

Searles Lake, Cal.; at Sand Springs and Fish Lake Valley, Nev.; and in the district
immediately south of Alvord Lake, Harney County, Oreg. The latter occurs at
Furnace Creek, Ryan, and at Borate, in the vicinity of Dagget, Cal. The bedded
deposits are found in Tertiary lake beds.

The playa deposits have many featuresin common. They occur usually as periph-

eral deposits about the sink of an inclosed basin. They are formed by the action
of drainage waters dissolving the borate minerals from the alluvial material surround-
ing the sink. Where the drainage water strikes the more or less impervious silts of
the central part of the basin, it is deflected toward the surface and if it accumulates
sufficiently to reach the zone of surface capillarity it is drawn to the surface and by
evaporation leaves the soluble salts as surface incrustations and efflorescences. These
salts accumulate and in time form workable deposits. The crusts are scraped up and
hauled to treatment plants in which the crude borax is separated from mechanical
impurities and associated salts. The deposits are slowly renewed. This fact is well
illustrated by a series of analyses of crusts taken from Searles Marsh and given in the
following table:

Analyses of renewed efflorescences of borax at Searles Lake.1

Constituents. 6 months.| 2 years. | 3 years. | 4 years.

Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.

SHINGL 55H e Rte ates Me) SOR 13s 5 RS pd es ae ieee Bee ae ae eee Ale 58.0 55.4 52.4 53.3
INEXOO A 2 Sa SESS 2 Re Beas eee ae eee gee dearer eames k ae 5.2 5.0 8.1 * 8.0
Net SO) eee ne re ee pe ae Fee enucn ome soe 11.7 6.7 16.6 16.0
INFO) ceo SSUES BS Se aes SANE Pa cen tl Or ee ie allele alr el Raabe 10.9 10.0 11.1 11.8
ES OICURE PS Pets tate aeceh eee SE REREE UES Mesos Sd Ee BA 14.2 12.9 11.8 10.9

110th Annual Report, Cal. State Mineralogist. Analyses by C. W. Hake.

Deposits of this character derive their borate minerals from alluvial material. The
disintegration and erosion of the Tertiary lake beds account for a part, at least, of
-the borate in the alluvial material of a number of the deposits mentioned above.
The general prevalence of volcanic rocks and evidences of late volcanic activity
may well account for the remainder.

Recent deposits of borax at depth are shown by the borings in Searles Marsh. The
borate minerals are associated with other salines. They have been found not only
in the marginal portions of the sink, but also in the central part. OC. E. Dolbear? pre-
sents analyses of the material taken from two borings—the first, within the central

1 Bul. No. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 144.
3 Eng. and Min. Jour., Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260.

20814—143

34 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

area of the sink; the second, on the outside margin. In the first boring borax is
shown in percentages ranging from 1 to 5.5, and at depths extending from 18 to 50
feet. Below this depth traces of borax occur, while in the material extending from
the surface to 18 feet practically no borax, or only a trace, was found. In the second,
borax was reported in percentages ranging from 5.56 to 6.57 and extending from a
depth of 30 to 45 feet. Above and below these depths only traces of borax were
reported. The results of these borings would indicate that in some of the playas, at
least, might be expected concentration of borax minerals at depth.

The minerals reported from deposits of the playa type are borax (sodium borate),
ulexite (sodium calcium borate), and colemanite (calcium borate). The content of
the crude material ranges from 5 to 20 per cent boric acid. Deposits of this type
are no longer of economic importance.

Deposits of the second type are the important sources of borate minerals. In the
basin region they are worked at Ryan and in the vicinity of Furnace Creek (Mount
Blanco). For a description of these deposits the reader is referred to Campbell!
and to Keyes.”

These deposits are of importance in that they account for the source of a part, and
perhaps the principal part, of the borate material in certain playa deposits, notably
those in Death Valley and along the Amargosa River. Of the bedded deposits Keyes
describes two general types. The one is illustrated by the mines northwest of Dag-
get, Cal. In this locality the borate minerals are found in a finely divided state in
beds of blue clay. The workable beds contain from 10 to 12 per cent boric acid.
The other type is characterized by nodules and masses of almost pure colemanite in
clays and shales of Tertiary age. Respecting the origin of these deposits, Charles
Laurence Baker,’ after discussing the possible formation of the deposits by the evapo-
ration of a body of water of considerable depth, presents the following:

‘““The alternative hypothesis that these minerals had their immediate origin in hot

rings and solfataras opening directly into shallow lakes, perhaps only of seasonal

uration, or in playas, has much to commend it, especially when considered in
connection with the numerous evidences of shallow water deposition. These evi-
dences comprise ripple marks, sun cracks, and rain prints, which are found on the
finer as well as the coarser beds, and the layers of finer breccia and conglomerates
interbedded with the fine shales and tuffs. Shallow lakes or ponds probably existed
at times during the deposition of the fossiliferous tuff member, for they seem to be
necessary to account for the presence of the gasteropods. The paucity or absence of
fossils in the borate and the fine ashy and shaly tuff members, as well as the presence
of the colemanite, limestone, and gypsum layers, apparently indicates the salinity
of the waters. .

‘There was great volcanic activity before and during the deposition of the Rosa-
mond. The larger fragments of lava were most probably derived from flows subject
to erosion somewhere in the area tributary to the basin of deposition. Interbedded
flows of both acidic and basic lavas make up a part of the Rosamond. But the fine
volcanic ash was probably blown in by the wind or settled during explosive volcanic
outbursts and need not have come from the immediate vicinity. The common view
of the origin of calcium borate from solfataras and hot springs associated with the
abundant contemporaneous vulcanism is likely to prove to be the correct explanation
for the borax beds in this region.’’

I am in accord with the main points in Baker’s view. It must be noted, however,
that in the colemanite deposits of the type exemplified by Mount Blanco a consider-
able amount of secondary action is noticeablee There are many distinct veins of
colemanite associated with the layer beds. One gets the impression that these are any-
thing but bedded deposits. I am inclined to the view that the Mount Blanco deposits
represent the solution of the borate minerals from beds and their concentration in more
or less open fissures in close proximity as veins.

ALUM.

Spurr‘ reports a deposit of alum and sulphur 10 miles north of Silver Peak, Nev.
The area in which this mineral occurs is about 200 feet in diameter. The alum is asso-
ciated with sulphur in rhyolite. It forms a network of small veins in the broken
rhyolite. The rhyolite is intrusive in Tertiary sedimentaries. The mineral is a pure
potash alum, kalinite. Spurr considers that the alum results from the action of
steam and sulphuric acid emitted from solfataras. The acid attacks the potash and
alumina of the rhyolite and forms kalinite.

1 Bul. No. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey.

2 Borax deposits of the U. S., Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 40, p. 674.
2 Bulletin of the Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Cal., 6, p. 358.

4 Professional Paper No. 55, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 157.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 35

G. I. Adams?! describes a similar deposit at the Rabbit Hole Sulphur Mines, Nevada.
Instead of kalinite, alunite is the mineral formed in association with sulphur. Sol-
fataric action is considered the cause of the formation.

Several samples were submitted to the cooperative laboratory from what was
called a hot-spring deposit occurring 30 miles northeast of Wells, Nev., in Thousand
Springs Valley. The mineral contained crystals of kalinite, sulphur, and gypsum.
The two samples showed the following analyses:

K2S804, a
Number. Alg(SO4)p. Ca SO4. |Fee(SO,)s3. S. NazSO4. | NaCl. Insol. H20.
BLOM ee set ST a os 40. 06 18.20 Tr. | Present. Tr. Tr. 8.94 33.50

SHG SN NS aes eS 2.35 | 15. 74 Tr. | Present. Tr. Tr. 75. 28 5.10

The determination was made upon the water-soluble material in both samples.
A test for alunite gave negative results. The richer material contains 57.14 per cent
kalinite. The sample of water from the hot springs in the near vicinity gave the
following results:

Analysis of water from hot spring.

Per cent. Per cent

CES Ee ey ae Pane ae 0 Let) er = me ge pe 8. 2

OS ee aE PN aie a oe ee Praeer, Weer soe. slut kn ae 2S a 52. 2
12 ae ees PRA eR ae ae 5.1 | Total solids on evaporation (parts
Ne nce: Seat) eens ae nc. 0) eS - Dod Der LOO OO) een croke sterner:

The evaporation of a water of this composition would account for the potassium
and alum in the surface deposit of the spring.

Undoubtedly there are other occurrences of alum. No attempt has been made to
exploit deposits of this nature. Systematic sampling to determine the average alum
content and the total tonnage available has not been made in any one case and,
consequently, the value of such deposits is an open question.

ALUNITE.

Gale has described the occurrence of alunite in the Great Basin, and for a detailed
presentation the reader is referred to his bulletin.2 This mineral has been reported
from the following localities:

Goldfield, Nev.; associated in soft, massive form in ores, and occurs also as a con-
stituent of altered volcanic rocks. Kalinite is conspicuously associated with it.?

Cactus Range, south of the Goldfield-Cactus Road; associated with silicified rhyolite.*

Cuprite, 12 miles south of Goldfield; associated with an altered rhyolite pumice.®

Rabbit Hole Sulphur Mines, 35 miles northwest of Humboldt House, Nev.; asso-
ciated with sulphur in Tertiary sedimentaries. The rocks are much silicified in the

neighborhood of the sulphur deposits.®

Camp Alunite, 22 miles southeast of Las Vegas, Nev.; associated with altered ande-
sites and monzonites.”

Las Vegas, locality 15 miles south of Las Vegas, Nev.; sample of alunite submitted
by J. A. Delameter, who reports no name for the district, and states that there is
apparently a considerable quantity of the mineral. The mineral submitted is mas-
sive alunite and contains 8.98 per cent potash.®

Marysvale, Utah, Little Cottonwood Canyon, 7 miles southwest of Marysvale. The
alunite occurs in veins. The main vein has been traced for a distance of 3,000 to
3,500 feet, and reaches a thickness of 20 feet in the widest portion. The potash content
is from 10 to 12 per cent. A parallel vein 6 feet wide occurs close to the main vein.

A review of the conclusions of Ransome, Butler, Adams, and Hill concerning the
genesis of this mineral has resulted in the following summation: The occurrences of
alunite may be grouped in two general types—those in which alunite was formed from
the action of solfataric waters or vapors carrying sulphuric acid upon igneous rocks

1 Bul. No. 225, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 497.
2 Bul. No. 511, U. S. Geol. Survey. :
3 Professional Paper No. 66, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 108, Ransome.
4 Bul. No. 308, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 48, Ball.
5 Professional Paper No. 66, U. S. Geol. Survey, Ransome.
6 Bul. No. 225, U. S. Geol. Survey, Contributions to Economic Geology, p. 500.
7 Kng. and Mng. Jour., Dec. 19, 1998, p. 1293.
- 8 Records of the Cooperative Laboratory, Reno, Nev.

36 ' BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rich in potash, and those in which solutions rich in sulphates and coming from deep-
seated sources rose through fissures and deposited their mineral content where tem-

erature and pressure conditions favored deposition. In the first type the alunite
i been deposited more or less in situ. In the second, the alunite originated at
depth and was deposited close to the surface. Deposits of the first class are dissemi-
nated, while in the case of the second type the deposits are concentrated. To the
first type belong the Goldfield, Camp Alunite, Rabbit Hole Spring, Cactus Range,
and Cuprite occurrences. To the second belong the Marysvale occurrences. Alunite:
is a possible source of potash.1_ Of the known occurrences of this mineral in the
basin region, the Marysvale deposit is the only one which shows possibilities of com-
mercial exploitation. The results of work upon this-deposit will be looked forward
to with interest. In view of the widespread solfataric action, in past as well as present
geologic periods, it is not improbable that other deposits of alunite will be discovered
in this region.

ALKALI CRUSTS AND EFFLORESCENCES.

It is difficult to draw a sharp line between deposits of this type, playa deposits,
and deposits resulting from the desiccation of lakes. I have included under this
head, however, all surface deposits which have originated during present times and
which are of inconsequential thickness. These deposits have their origin in the
evaporation of shallow bodies of rain water, or in the action of seepage waters in bring-
ing dissolved salts to the surface, either by springs or capillarity. Hot springs are
also responsible for crusts in their immediate vicinity.

These occurrences are usually characteristic of the playas or sinks. In Table
XVIII (Appendix) are presented analyses of crusts taken from a number of locali-
ties. The average of these analyses shows the ions in the following order: Na, 30.23;
Ca, 2.29; K, 1.68; Mg, 1.38; and the acid radicals SO,, 30.39; Cl, 21.64; HCO, 6.22;
CO,, 6.13. The average analysis shows the predominance of sodium. The ratio of
sodium to potassium is 19.1 to1. The sulphate radical is in excess of the chlorine.
Carbonates and bicarbonates are usually present and in a few cases are in large excess
of chlorides and sulphates. Sodium chloride and sulphate are the two compounds
most abundant. Potassium is usually small in amount, although in a few of the
Utah crusts this element is present in percentages ranging from 3 to 6.

In Table XIX (Appendix) are given a number of analyses of salt crusts and waters
from Railroad Valley, Nev. The samples were taken by E. E. Free and J. Hance.
They were analyzed by A. R. Merz for the percentages of soluble salts and the potash
content of the soluble salts. The samples represent a general survey of this area.
They show, on the whole, a high content of potash. Six crusts and one brine were
analyzed by J. A. Cullen, and his results are given in Table XX (Appendix). They
show that sodium chloride is the compound most abundant, with potassium chloride
usually next, followed in order of abundance by sodium sulphate, sodium bicarbonate,
sodium carbonate. The average ratio of sodium to potassium is 5.7 tol. The presence
of potassium compounds in these crusts first attracted attention to this area and led
to the exploratory work done by the Railroad Valley Saline Co.

The origin of salines of this nature is simple. They may be said to be derived from
the weathering of rocks and the liberation of contained salines in the drainage area
of the tributary basin. Through the agency of surface and underground waters they
are collected in low places.

Such deposits, excepting the borates, which have been discussed previously, have
no commercial value. The complex mixture of salts and the superficial nature of
the deposits are the reasons for nonexploitation. In a few local cases salt has been
gathered from crusts of this nature and marketed. No serious proposal has been made,
as far as I am aware, for the exploitation of alkaline crusts rich in potash, although
the aggregate amount of potash in an area like that of Railroad Valley must be very
large. The chief interest in these deposits lies in the insight which they give into
the chemical nature of the salines at present accumulating in the arid basins of the
Great Basin.

PLAYA DEPOSITS.

Perhaps one of the most common topographical features is the desert basin. The
basin may be circular, elliptical, or greatly elongated on one axis, forming a long,
narrow valley. Such basins usually have in their lowest part a level area devoid of
vegetation, sometimes covered with saline crusts, but more often simply consisting
of a rain-puddled sheet of clay. To this central portion the term ‘‘sink” or ‘‘playa”

1 For the conditions under which potash is made available in alunite see Cir. No. 70, Alunite as a source
of Potash, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agr. For use of alunite as a fertilizer see Cir. No. 76, Alunite and
Kelp as Potash Fertilizers, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 37

isapplied. The sink serves as a reservoir for the basin which it occupies. Naturally,
it also serves to receive whatever soluble material is brought to it by surface or under-
ground waters. As a consequence, playas may be looked upon as favorable places
for the accumulation of salines. In order to present more clearly the nature of playa
deposits, I have sketched the structural development of a desert basin.

STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF A DESERT BASIN.

The adjustment of the fault blocks of the Great Basin initiated a period of erosion,
with its consequent deposition of detrital material in the intermountain areas. Flank-
ing the mountains first appeared steep sloping aprons, or talus slopes. The finer
sands and gravels were deposited in a wider zone at the foot of the apron area, and
in the central portions the finest silts and clays were deposited. During this period
shallow lakes no doubt occupied many of the basins. As erosion proceeded finer
material was brought down and the mountain aprons assumed a less taluslike appear-
ance. The sand and gravel aprons extended out and encroached upon the silt area
and sufficient silt was brought down to fill the central basin and in some cases to
obliterate the shallow lakes occupying them. Were lateral streams the only agents of
transport, we should have a very definite structure revealed by the basin. A cross
section of such an ideal basin would show a wide, level, and relatively thin body of
fine silts and clays, flanked on either side with masses of detrital material rising in
long, sweeping grades to the steeper slopes of the mountains. A gradation from fine
sands to coarse angular débris mixed with material of all sizes would be noticed in
passing from the central portions of the playa to the steeper mountain slopes. Figure
3 illustrates the section described. Under the conditions indicated above we should
expect the central mass A to be characterized by little movement of ground water
while the flanking masses B and B would be zones in which ground waters could

Fic. 3.—Ideal cross section of a desert basin.

actively circulate. With the progress of time, we should expect the apron slopes to
flatten and the silt and clay area to extend laterally until a shallow, panlike basin
would result. Surface waters would accumulate and shallow lakes ‘would form in
the rainy season. The impervious bottom of this lake would protect the waters from
loss by seepage. The evaporation of these lakes would leave surface accumulations
of salts which would receive fresh accessions each year until deposits of appreciable
thickness would make their appearance.

Water is not the only agent which acts. Wind erosion and deposition also plays an
important part. Under the influence of this agent the central portion A of the basin
would not be composed of a homogeneous mass of clay and silts, but we should
expect to find its homogeneity disturbed by layers of sand, voleanic ash, or other
wind-blown material. Such beds would be continuous in a large measure over basin
areas occupied by shallow lakes, but in the case of the ordinary playas conditions would
not be favorable for the deposition of wind-blown material in thin beds. Upon the
dry playas we should expect to find the fine silts of the central portion more or less
eroded by the wind and deposited over the outwash slopes, or in certain portions of
the basin as dunes. It is not an uncommon thing to find in a playa area one or more
portions occupied by sand dunes of considerable extent. Another point should be
mentioned, and that is that in periods of excessive rainfall or during cloud-bursts the
streams would be so increased in volume as to carry out upon the central silt area
sand and gravel. In this way tongues of coarse material would-be formed in the silt
portions and would form beds in which ground water could circulate. A perennial
stream entering one end of a basin would effect a somewhat similar structure, but
on a much oreater scale.

The width of the intermountain spaces and the height of the inclosing mountain
ranges would determine the proportion between the silt and detrital masses. With
narrow valleys and high mountain ranges we should expect the outwash slopes to meet
or even overlap at the center. As the valley filled a mass of silt of triangular section
would be sougnee in the central part. Figure 4 illustrates this structure.

38 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Some basins are characterized by having the silt area on one side of the intermoun-
tain space. This is caused by a difference in elevation of the mountain ranges and a
difference in climatic conditions. The higher mountain ranges command a greater
rainfall. We would therefore expect that greater erosion would result from the higher
mountains than from the lower. This would result in apron slopes of greater extent
from the sides of the higher mountains than from the lower. This would place the
silt area close to the lower mountain range. Figure 5 illustrates the structure.

The ground-water conditions in basins of the types illustrated are worthy of further
comment. In the case of figure 3, and assuming a region of inconsiderable rainfall, we
should expect that the ground-water accumulations in B portions would be smaller
and found at relatively great depths. The silt mass would retain its moisture close to
the surface and lose it by evaporation. Capillarity would draw up the moisture to-
gether with any soluble salts for a depth of 10 or possibly more feet from the surface.
At the central mass, built up by silt, or wind deposition, we would expect the soluble

Fig. 4.—Cross section of a basin occupying a narrow valley between high mountains.

salts to be drawn upward and to remain as a conspicuous surface feature. Only on the
edges of the silt portions would we expect to find any buried salt crusts and these would
be distributed irregularly and be comparatively thin. In the case of a moderate rain-
fall we should expect an accumulation of ground water in B portions and the level of
this ground water would reach the surface on the periphery of the silt mass. It would
appear as spring water in the coarser material and as seepage water in the finer and more
compact marginal portions: _ Under conditions of this kind we should expect the
marginal portions of the silt mass, if not the entire silt mass, to be saturated with mois-
ture. Ifthe amount of this water, plus the rainfall on the playa area, would be suffi-
cient to replace the evaporation losses, a lake might be expected to form and to remain
as a more or less permanent feature. If insufficient, we should expect a lake to form
during part of the year, and in the summer months the standing water would evaporate,
leaving a mud flat. Another case might be mentioned, and that is where the ground
water plus the rainfall would be insufficient to form standing water and only just suffi-
cient to maintain a mud flat during a part of the year.

Fic. 5.—Cross section of a basin having higher mountains on one side than on the side opposite.

In the case of figure 4 ground water would be present beneath the entire basin and
this would be in some cases artesian water. If the silt portion A maintained its homo-
geneity ground-water accessions could come only from the marginal portions of the
playa area. That this is not an ideal condition may be concluded from the fact that a
spring, or springs, is not infrequently found in the central portion of the playa. In
some cases this spring is sufficient to supply a small pond aint in others the water flows
out and evaporates. An excellent example of this kind is found in Rhodes Marsh. In
almost the center a spring makes its appearance and a flow of some magnitude runs out
and meanders on the flat to be lost by seepage and evaporation. During some years
the rainfall plus this flow is sufficient to form a shallow lake.

A conspicuous feature of many of the playas is the marginal rim of mud about the
relatively dry central portion. Silver Peak, Rhodes, Death Valley, and Teels Marsh
are examples.

Another condition merits mention here. Often a playa will be in the focus of some
dominant surface drainage or ground-water drainage. These combined are sufficient

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 39

to feed a stream for a portion of the year and the basin receives sufficient water to form
@ permanent lake. The Jakes occupying the Quaternary basins are of this character.

Respecting the movement of salines in solution, it will not be out of place to mention
the following: Assuming the ideal basin, and considering such a basin supplied by
rainfall and not receiving the discharge of any stream, the run-off ground water reaches
the central playa and brings with it more or less soluble salts. The ground water which
seeps in from the margins brings in considerable salts. This is shown by the crusts and
efflorescences which are continually forming on the marginal portions. The water
which comes from springs in the central part of the playa is comparatively free from
salts. We would expect that the deeper water would be comparatively free from
salines and only in the case where it flowed up through saline beds would we expect to
find much evidence of soluble salts. A not unimportant conclusion may be drawn
here and that is that artesian flows in the central portion of a playa, if free from more
than nominal amounts of soluble salts, indicate the absence of deposits of salt at depth.

PLAYAS.

Desert basins not occupied by perennial lakes may be divided into two groups—
mud playas and marshes. The former are playas which are dry and without any great
accumulation of underground waters; the marshes are playas noteworthy on account
of the accumulation of considerable bodies of underground water and in which the
water can be found comparatively close to the surface. For convenience in presenta-
tion, I have divided the marshes into two types—marshes in which there is no evidence
to show of the existence of a former lake having a level higher than the present surface
of the playa, and marshes in which there is evidence of a former lake with surface
higher than the present level of the playa. Examples of these are as follows:

layas.—Most of the smaller desert basins having small drainage area fall into this
class. The small playas north of Reno; the Alkali Flat in Gabbs Valley; Sarcobatus
Flat, Amargosa region; Big Smoky playa; and the playas near Mina and Luning.

Marshes (first type).—Rhodes, Teels, Silver Peak, Saline Valley, Fish Lake Valley,
Death Valley.

Marshes (second type).—Columbus, Panamint, Sand Springs Flat, Searles, Railroad
Valley, Black Rock Desert, Dixie Valley, Alvord Marsh.

The list is not complete and it is evident that the line of demarcation is not a sharp
one. Changing climatic conditions might be expected to alter the classification.

MUD PLAYAS.

Playas of this type can not be looked upon as the locus of important accumulations
of salines. The small drainage area and the arid climatic conditions would result in
little accumulation of ground water and that would be at considerable depth, well
without the zone of possible concentration by evaporation. For example, the playa
just east of Mina, Nev., contains two wells close to the western edge of the silt area.
One well shows water at 112 feet and the other at 114 feet. The water from these wells
is used for railroad and town purposes. This example is, perhaps, not as good a one to
illustrate the point as could be desired on account of the fact that the underground
water ebay drains into Rhodes Marsh some 6 miles south and 152 feet lower.
Ground water may be looked for at varying depths in almost all playas of this type.
What salines are present are, however, at the surface, in thin crusts and efflorescences
or concentrated within the upper portion of the silt area in much the same way as was
described under the subject of the accumulations of salts in soils.

Desiccation products at depth in playas of this type are more than otherwise apt to
be of slight thickness and dubious value. While it can not be said that lakes did not
occupy the playas under the humid conditions of the Quaternary, still it can be said
that such lakes must have been very shallow and their saline content left by evapora-
tion consequently small in amount. The absence of beach lines and their accumula-
tion of gravel about the playa is, in my judgment, sufficient to warrant the assumption
that a lake was either not present or was a shallow one of periodic occurrence.

MARSHES.

The conditions which pertain to marshes of the first type can best be described
by examples. R.B. Dole! examined the Silver Peak Marsh, Nev. From his account
I have taken the main facts. The area is due east of Blair, Nev. The marsh is 32
square miles in extent and isin a basin having an area of 550 square miles. Tertiary
volcanics and sedimentaries, limestones, slates, and quartzites of Paleozoic age, and

1 Bul. No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey.

40 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

granite and Quaternary and recent alluvium surround the marsh.! The climatic
conditions are arid. As a result of the examination of the material obtained from
bores placed at a number of points on the marsh, Dole describes the structure in the
following words:

“‘Brown mud 5 to 20 feet deep forms the upper layer of the marsh. Because of the
intense heat the surface of this mud is usually baked dry and hard enough to support
the weight of teams. Small scattered tracts have become dry enough to be pulver-
ulent for a depth of 1 to 2 feet, but over the greater part of the playa 4-foot holes are
sufficiently deep to strike soft mud. As this layer is composed of very small particles
and contains a large proportion of clay, the strong salt waters in it circulate very
slowly. The mud contains a great quantity of salt, though the crystals are small.
The brines obtained from it are very strong, and the surface is generally covered toa
depth of one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch by a white crust of salt that has crys-
tallized from solutions drawn to the surface by capillarity.

‘The upper mud along the west shore of the playa, particularly west of the ‘islands,’
contains nodules of calcareous tufa, which apparently have been formed by deposition
of calcium carbonate from the hard waters percolating into the marsh from Mineral
Ridge. The record of boring No. 13 shows that clay under the mud west of the
‘islands’ is underlain by white tufaceous materials, but no salt occurs at a depth less
than 41 feet except that in the abundant weak brines.

‘‘Well-defined beds of clay containing crystals of gypsum were penetrated east of
Goat ‘Island’ in borings Nos. 3 and 6, and these are underlain by beds of crystallized
salt containing saturated brine. Very stiff black, blue, red, gray, and brown clays
underlie the beds of salt or mixed salt and clay in boring No. 3 to a depth of 55 feet,
but in boring No. 6 the clays are interrupted by a stratum of gypsum-bearing clay
below the salt and a 6-inch stratum of salt at 47 feet, below which clay was again
encountered.

“Except a shallow bed of light-gray calcareous material at 16 feet nothing but clay
containing weak brine was struck to a depth of 40 feet in boring No. 14, at the south
end of the playa. ;

‘‘Borings Nos. 11 and 12 indicate that the beds of salt in the northeastern part of the
marsh are denser than those farther south. The mud is underlain by clay and that
in turn by crystallized salt so hard that it has to be drilled. A much harder formation,
peobarly calcareous tufa, was struck below the salt in both borings at a depth of about

6 feet. rer,

‘“The data afforded by the six deeper borings lead to the conclusion that the north-
eastern two-thirds of the playa is underlain at a depth of about 20 feet by beds of
crystallized salt, 5 to 15 feet thick, mixed with more or less clay. It is doubtful if
deposits of so great extent occur west of Goat ‘Island’ or south of Alcatraz ‘Island.’
Besides these beds practically all other strata to a depth of 50 feet contain appreciable
proportions of salt that readily dissolves in water percolating through them.”

It is to be regretted that a greater number of borings were not made and the structure
of the marsh more accurately determined at greater see over the northern half of the
basin. Ina crude way the structure indicates the following cycle of events:

1. The formation of a lake of unknown depth, but with a surface level below the
present level of the marsh. Salines accumulated in this lake, and a general silting up
took place. The area of this lake could not have extended much over two-thirds of
the area of the present marsh.

2. A period of desiccation in which a thin bed of salt was deposited at a depth of
about 48 feet below the present surface. Complete desiccation may not have taken
place but concentration sufficient to produce a saturated solution and the crystalliza-
tion of some of the sodium chloride (bore hole No. 6 shows one-half foot jof crystals of
salt at 47.5 feet depth). Silts and clays were deposited and covered the layer of salt
crystals. Increased rainfall prevented further deposition of salt by diluting the lake
waters.

3. The silting up of the lake continued to a level within 38 feet of the present surface.
Through the latter part of this period desiccation and consequent concentration of the
lake water proceeded simultaneously with the silting up.

4. At this time the concentration of the lake was sufficient to precipitate gypsum
ihure hole No. 6, 38 feet, shows gray clay containing gypsum crystals). A period of

esiccation followed, and a salt bed was gradually built up reaching a position from
29 to 31 feet below the present level and a thickness of 6 to7 feet. A period of
interruption followed, and then further deposition of salt took place, the extent and
thickness of the salt bed increasing. This second layer of salt reached a thickness of
6.5 to 7.5 feet, forming, with the lower layer, a bed in the lowest part of the basin

1 For areal Geology see Professional Paper No. 55, Ore Deposits of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, J. E. Spurr. ~

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 41

about 12 feet thick and thinning out on the edges to 6.5 feet. Almost complete
‘desiccation must have marked the end of the period.

5. A greater rainfall changed conditions, and a shallow lake formed. More or less
silting and deposition of clay sealed over the salt beds. Desiccation succeeded this
comparatively brief interval, and the lake shrunk and deposited a thin layer of salt
over a restricted area (2.5 feet of salt in boring No. 12) at a depth of 18 feet from the
present surface.

6. A greater rainfall produced a shallow lake, perhaps not more than 10 or 15 feet
deep. This lake gradually silted up and slowly evaporated until the present condi-
tion was reached.

The lake is dry for perhaps the greater part of the year, and only in the wettest years
is water present on the surface. The silting up of the lake must have been accom-
plished in a large degree by xolian action. The presence of a recent volcanic cone
on the western edge of the marsh indicates one of the sources, at least, of the material
which filled the lake. The mass of silts and muds filling the lake basin contains a
saturated brine.

A chemical examination of the brine indicates the nature of the salines accumulated
in this lake bed. From the work previously cited the following table is taken:

Analyses of composite samples of brines—Silver Peak Marsh.1

[Parts per 100,000.)

Constituent. 1 2 3 4 9 10
59. 01 57.35 60. 11 59. 16 58. 32
1.70 1.30 9) 1.09 1.61
- 01 fs - 01 . 69
36. 54 32. 87 34. 65 34. 38 34.37
2. 26 Bel) 2.95 3.69 3.11
36 1.92 1.25 84 1.29
11 2. 49 - 04 48 50
01 Ps eee -07 i

100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00
(UNO 554 cadens eedncscoeEnaEsobcocesEs 278. 76 264. 03 48. 82 233. 44 57. 60 39.33

1W. B. Van Winkle, analyst. Table recalculated from Bul No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey.

1. Composite of samples from boring No. 3 at 15.5 feet and from No. 6 at 21 and 40 feet.
2. Composite of samples from boring No. 11 at 27 and 35 feet and from No. 12 at 10, 20, and 27 feet.
3. Composite of samples from boring No. 13 at 16, 31.5, and 40 feet.
4. Composite of samples from boring No. 14 at 11 and 17 feet.
9. Water from boring No. 1 at 6 feet, collected June 1, 1912.
10. Water from boring No. 1 at 27 feet, collected June 4, 1912.

The order of the ions is:

Nama ih Daren eyisainestisen st: 35.14 O]eaarquaaalisligh done 5 eb ewe e) 58. 86
Iemma wea teat (byt 2.94 SOL trea oloninnie Welt rees 1. 26
CE Ue 1.05 CO Os ik ok nes 30
Me Ae A eieoKo aralg sue: 64 SiOuie coment weikn aiid xb 06

Carbonates and sulphates are inconspicuous in amount. The brines consist almost
wholly of sodium and potassium chlorides. They are practically saturated. The
ratio of sodium to potassium is 11.9. The brines at depth show a somewhat smaller
conient of potassium than the composite samples. The average is 0.69 per cent of the
total solids.’ Dole gives the analyses of four spring waters tributary to the basin;
two are from hot springs and two from cold. These waters have a chemical content
very much the same as the brines. They are slightly higher in sulphate radical and
average slightly higher in potash content. The sodium-potassium ratio is 10.8.

Certain interesting observations were made upon the brines. In boring No. 12
the brine encountered at 8.5 to 10 feet rose to 1.8 feet (head of 7.45 feet); those at
18 to 20.5 feet rose to 7.5 feet (head of 11.75 feet); those at 22 to 35 feet rose to 8 feet
(head of 20.5 feet). A similar condition was noted in bore No. 11 and most of the
other bores which penetrated the brine body. These observations indicate the effect
of pressure no doubt caused by the elevation of the water plane in the ground water
outside the main silt area.

The source of the salines has been discussed by Spurr.?. He reaches the conclusion
that the weak brines discharged by springs around the marsh are the source. Dole

1 Bul. No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey, p. 14.
2 Professional Paper No. 55, U. S. Geological Survey.

ete eee ide i

42 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

suggests that these springs may derive their salines from the marsh itself. Both Dole
and Spurr state that the leaching of the Tertiary stratified rocks which are present in ~
the basin in extensive areas accounts for much of the saline residue. If Dole’s estimate
of the quantity of salt, 15,000,000 tons, be taken, and the area of the basin considered,
1.9 pounds per square foot of the basin surface would account for this quantity. It
would not be unreasonable to expect this to be derived from the erosion of the Tertiary
sedimentaries and volcanics, especially when we consider the great amount of erosion
| which has taken place in Clayton Valley. Spurr points out, however, the conspicuous
absence of borates in the salines of the Silver Peak Marsh and their presence in the
neighboring playa to the west—Fish Lake Valley. In both localities Tertiary sedi-
ments are common. He rightly reasons that if these sedimentaries were responsible
for the salines, borates would also be present in the Silver Peak salines. is con-
clusion that the salines of the Silver Peak Marsh are derived from hot springs at the
edge of the playa would not account for the absence of borates at depth. Three
possible hypotheses suggest themselves: The absence of the ‘‘borate member” in the
Tertiary sedimentaries of the Silver Peak Basin and its presence in the Tertiary
sedimentaries tributary to Fish Lake Valley; deeper borings in the Silver Peak Marsh
might reveal borates; the volcanic activity in the Silver Peak Marsh was not character-
ized by emanations of boric compounds.

The source of the borate compounds in Tertiary sedimentaries is generally conceded
to be due to contemporaneous vulcanism. This must have been local and would
result in localization of boraciferous strata in the Tertiary series. This leads me to
favor the first hypothesis. I do not, however, consider the question settled, and -
further data must be obtained before it can be.

I am inclined to the view that the major part of the salines were derived from the
erosion of the rocks of the basin; that possibly recent volcanic activity was respon-
sible for a part also; and that much of the present surface accumulation is due to the
springs and seepage water.

Dole estimates the quantity of salt in the Silver Peak Marsh as 15,000,000 tons
within the first 40 feet. The deposit has commercial possibilities for the production
of salt. The average of the analyses upon the four brine composites shows 2.76 per
cent potassium in the anhydrous residue. This is equivalent to 5.2 per cent potassium
chloride. It is doubtful whether this is high enough to warrant the attempt to separate
the potassium salt. The association of the brine with compact muds would prevent
it irom freely flowing to a bore hole. There would be, therefore, some difficulty in
obtaining sufficient brine from a few bore holes to supply evaporating vats. The
small amount of carbonate and sulphate would render the problem of the separation
oi the sodium and potassium chlorides comparatively simple. The production of
sodium chloride with a by-product rich in potassium chloride is not beyond the possi-
bilities of commercial exploitation.

Conditions in Rhodes, Teels (PI. I, fig. 1), Fish Lake Valley, and Saline Valley
are very much the same as in Silver Peak Marsh. Undoubtedly shallow lakes occu-
pied each of these basins, and the filling-in process and the desiccation of the lakes
must have been similar. Unfortunately the results of systematic boring are not obtain-
able. No doubt each of these presents individual characteristics and differs in some
details from the example described. The most marked difference is in the presence
of borates.

In Fish Lake Valley, Turner states that there are four playa deposits, all of which
have been worked for borax. Analyses by G. Steiger show in one case chloride,
sulphate, carbonate, and borate of sodium. In another, sulphates and borates of
calcium and sodium. No mention is made of potassium in the analyses.!

The conditions at Rhodes Marsh have been described by LeConte.? His observa-
tions are summarized below.

The central area is occupied by asalt crust consisting of almost pure sodium chloride.
About the salt area and below the surface soil isa comparatively thick bed of sodium sul-

hate. Sodium carbonate occurs in soft crusts 2 or 3 inches thick, but is not general.

orax and ulexitealsooccur. The ulexite is in the form of nodules imbedded in wet,
stiff clay in the semicircular area surrounding the central salt area on the north, north-
west, and northeast. The borax occurs on the west, southwest, and southeast of the
central saltarea. It is ina moist, stiff clay which is full of the transparent crystals. It
also occurs as a crustfrom 1 to3inchesthick. Thiscrust renewsitself. Thelocalization
of the salts is attributed to the action of springs, and the concentration of the pure
sodium chloride in the lowest part of the playa is attributed to the leaching of this
compound by surface waters. It is evident from the description that the salines in
the marsh are much more complex than those in the Silver Peak area. The regional
rocks are similar to those about Silver Peak. The playa is of special interest in that

’

1 Professional Paper No. 55, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 158, 159, Spurr.
2 Third Annual Report State Mineralogist of California, 1883.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 48

it more nearly approximates the ideal type described before than any other. It isa
circular basin of 232 square miles area, occupied by a playa of 3.2 square miles area.
The ratio of basin area to playa area is 72.5. It receives its principal underground
waters from the Sodaville-Mina Valley. Undoubtedly its history is similar to the
Silver Peak Marsh. The central area is occupied by a reddish-brown mud, locally
covered by efflorescences. In places the mud is dried to a brown, pulverulent soil,
containing more or less sodium chloride and small amounts of other salines. The
present movement of the salines from the deeper beds is taking place, first, by slow
upward movement of the water contained in the muds (caused by capillarity), and,
second, in the marginal portions by a slow movement upward caused by capillarity
and by the banking up of the water plane where it strikes the more or less impervious
mud bodies of the central playa. The water of the central area is saturated with
salines and deposits them as crusts at the surface. In the marginal portions the
underground water becomes more or less saturated as it passes through the beds and
carries saline material to the surface, where it crystallizes out. LeConte’s idea in a
large measure is correct. His term ‘‘springs” would include seepage water in all its
phases of upward movement. Occasional heavy rainfalls produce sufficient run-off
to form a shallow lake. Such waters dissolve salines and concentrate them in the
central depression. Salt is the principal compound concentrated in this manner.

A number of analyses were made upon samples of salines from this marsh, but
potassium in small amounts only was found. A sample of moist sand and salt from
the central part of the playa shows the following:

Analysis of salt in sand from playa, Sample No. 15.
{Analysis by J. A. Cullen.]

Per cent. Per cent.
Ciscoe ei Rie SE eR eo HE ZOM AS One eals presale et nena trent a 47. 68
Tere aren nh 2 LAGNA NY 3S BZA ASM) [Settee seers iL ORO ayers me ay BRO 14.17
TR estas cis 8 ei Nae ee AM MA RE Ree eT Bs Us eath OG Reet og saline a Aeeagec vaya SiC da 3. 09
TB oy Sd Aas FR ee 30. 39 | Total soluble salts in sand ........ 12.15

The analysis shows sodium sulphate and chloride in greatest amount. Minor
amounts of sodium carbonates and some potassium chloride are shown. The sodium-
potassium ratio is 10. No analyses of the brines are available. Excepting for the
borax and salt, this marsh isa very doubtful source of commercial salines. The potash
content is too low and its separation would be complicated by the presence of sulphates
and carbonates.

SALINE VALLEY, Inyo County, Cat.

This is an inclosed basin. The central portion, of about 12,000 acres extent, is
covered by a salt crust 2 inches thick and beneath are muds saturated with brines.
When the crust is scraped off it renews itself in about 15 days. At almost any place
over the salt area at a depth of 2 feet salt brine can be obtained. In warm weather
the salt crystallizing out is pure; in cold, it contains small amounts of soda. The
salt deposits are being worked and preparations are being made on a large scale for
its shipment by the Saline Valley Salt Co. The regional rocks about this basin are
erates, limestones, and volcanics. Marsh borax was worked at one time in the
valley.

A single sample of the salt crust from this valley was submitted and found to con-
tain 40.98 per cent soluble salts, and thesoluble salts contained 4.2 per cent potassium.
Three brines and one spring water were also submitted. The analyses follow:

Analyses of brines and spring water from Saline Valley.
[Per cent of total solids.]

Total solids

on evapo-
No. Ca. Mg. Na. K. CO3. | HCO3. Cl. SO,. ration, parts

per 100,000.
1 eae la A - 10.0 3.08 | 13.84 Thre Tr. 7.64 | 24.62] 28.46 130
LOS CECA g SEE EE eee . 18 .37 | 36.31 iL, 7% .07 03 | 48.78 | 12.85 35, 506
PRPC ON es 88s SUTRA 1.55 79 | 34.38 .73 Tr. -15 | 48.70) 13.37 8, 237
Bend AR an Ae ere 2.97 .73 | 32.57 71 Tr. .28| 45.45 | 17.30 4, 238

No. 1. Spring water.

No. 2. Brine from center of flat.

No. 3. Brine from pothole on south edge of flat.

No. 4. Brine from pothole one-half mile east of No. 3.
Analyses by J. A. Cullen, Bureau of Soils.

t4 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sufficient data are not available properly to characterize this area. It is not unlike
the Silver Peak Marsh. The potassium content of No. 2 brine, the highest, is less
than for the average of the Silver Peak brines. The high content in the single sam-
ple of the crust material is not considered significant, since samples of this material
occasionally run high in potassium.

DEATH VALLEY.

Death Valley receives the drainage of the Amargosa River. The drainage area is
given as 23,160 square miles by Free’s table of basin areas. The area of the playa is
approximately 160 square miles, not including Mesquite Valley in the northern end.
The ratio of basin to playa is 144 to 1.

The valley lies between the Panamint Range on the west and the Amargosa Range
on the east. It hasa length of 120 miles and a width varying from 3 to10 miles. Much
of the valley area lies below the sea level. The lowest point on the topographic sheet
is —280 feet. Ball states that some 15 miles farther south from this point the
depression is 125 feet deeper. The Panamint Range reaches its maximum elevation
at Telescope Peak, 11,045 feet, an air-line distance of about 12 miles from the —200-
foot contour of Death Valley. The Amargosa Range reaches an elevation of 6,397 feet
at Funeral Peak, a distance of 6 miles from the —200-foot contour; 6,725 feet at Pyra-
mid Peak, a distance of about 12 miles from the —200-foot contour; and 5,420 feet at
Chloride Cliff Peak, a distance of 10 miles from the —200-foot contour in Death Valley.
The Panamint Range averages from 7,000 to 9,000 feet altitude and the Amargosa
from 6,000 to 7,000 feet. The maximum grade on the west from Telescope Peak to
the valley is 920 feet per mile (9.8°), and on the east, measured from Funeral Peak,
1,066 feet per mile (11.4°). The canyons leading to the valley do not approximate
these grades, except in their upper ends, but the average grade is very steep. In
consequence of these steep grades and the torrential character of the occasional rain
storms, alluvial fans and mountain aprons have been developed on a vast scale. The
narrowness of the valley has resulted in the development of a structure similar to
nee shown in figure 4. Undoubtedly many of the fans overlap beneath the central

asin.

The floor of the valley is level, put on the flanks are low hills, some of Tertiary
sediments (Pl. I, fig. 2), and some of alluvial material representing the residual
portions of alluvial fans attacked by recent erosion. Mesquite Flat, in the northern
end of the valley, is covered with sand dunes. There are no positive evidences of a
lake during Quaternary times. Some evidences of a shallow, recent lake in the area
east of Bennetts Wells are discernible in faint shore lines, which indicate a depth of
6 to 12 feet.

An enormous deposit of salt occupies the lowest depression. The salt area begins
south of Salt Creek, 6 miles northwest of United States land monument No. 34, and
extends to a point south of Mesquite Spring. The length of the salt area is from 30
to 32 miles, and its width ranges from 2 to 4 miles. Over a large part of this area the
salt appears as a crust composed of pinnacles and fantastic, twisted masses. (Pl.
II, fig. 1.) It is said that some of the rough salt pinnacles reach a height of 6 feet.
The average height of those I saw would be from 14 to 2 feet. The thickness of the
rough salt varies. Campbell?! states that it can not be less than 1 foot thick. Free
states that the thickness of the upper crusts is 18 inches. Below this is 3 feet of mud,
then 18 inches of salt, and then mud to 10 feet at the place where he tested.

In the so-called sink east of Bennetts Wells and about 18 miles south of Furnace
Creek Ranch is an area of smooth salt. (PI. II, fig. 2.) On the eastern edge of the
valley this is separated by a narrow rim of mud and rough salt from the alluvial wash
of the Amargosa Range. Onthe north thearea is bounded by rough salt which extends
across the floor of the valley. The first foot of the smooth salt area is composed of
layers of crystalline salt 2 or 3 inches thick, separated by thin seams of mud and sand.
Brine comes to within a fraction of an inch of the surface. A slight scraping of the
surface is followed by the flowing in of the brine. The surface of the salt is divided
into small polygonal areas by thin cracks through which the underlying brine has been
drawn and in crystallizing has left low welts of crystallized salt cementing the cracks
together. As far as I have been able to ascertain, no measurements of the thickness
of this salt have been made. B. K. Brockington estimates that the total area of
incrustation is approximately 150 square miles. Of this about one-third, or 50 square
miles, is smooth salt, the greater part of this being in the sink east of Bennetts Wells.

In the rough salt area, holes show a brine to be within 1 or 2 feet of the surface.
Within this area also occur potholes, circular openings from 2 to 4 feet in diameter

1 Bul. No. 200, U.S. Geol. S irvey, p.18.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 45

and of varying depth and filled with brine. (Pl. III, fig. 1.) The interior of the
holes is lined with salt crystals. About the edges, surface tension has drawn the
brine up and the margin of the hole is crusted with efflorescences of salt. Near the
“jand’’ edge of the rough salt area many holes are to be seen, some more or less arched
over by salt crusts and dry mud, and always containing water. Areas of soft red mud
also occur between the rough crusts and the outer margin. These are often difficult
and dangerous to cross. The formation of the rough salt crusts may often be seen
upon these mud areas. The explanation appears to be as follows: The surface mud
dries, forming cracks, and in shrinking leaves narrow channels, bottomed by soft
mud, between the cracks. Through these channels the brine solution slowly passes
up and crystallizes, forming veins of salt. As the mud cakes dry, they curl upward
on the edges, opening the channels wider and allowing more brine to work upward.
This crystallizes in part and in pact is drawn by surface tension over the surface
already crystallized, forming thicker crusts. The brine in the soft mud below is
steadily supplied, and the crusts build up until they practically seal the brine over.
More or less evaporation must continue beneath the crusts, and as the salt crystals
form they must crowd the mud and crusts up, forming the characteristic windrows
of mud and salt on the marginal portions. The slow consolidation of the mud, as well
as the banking up of the ground water on the periphery against the mud mass, would
account for the upward movement of the brines. Rain water would dissolve the salt
from the crusts thus formed, and it would collect in small puddles between the rough-
ened masses, where it would be evaporated to a brine. Surface tension would draw
this brine up upon the rough masses of salt and, evaporating there, would thicken and
build up the irregularities of the salt. The evaporation of a salt solution in a beaker
and the climbing of the salt up the sides is a familiar laboratory phenomenon.
__ The smooth area of salt is built up by fresh accessions of brine coming from the
‘action of rain water upon the neighboring rough saltareas. Shallow channels (sloughs)
meander through the rough salt and collect part of the brine formed by the occasional
rains, discharging it upon the smooth salt, where it is speedily evaporated. Wind-
‘blown material collects in the thin sheets of brine and mingles with the salt crystals.
The general admixture of soil impurities in the rough salt is also explained in this
way. It is evident that the smooth salt area would eventually reach a level that
would permit little or no drainage to collect, and the salt bed would no longer be
built up. Slow consolidation of the silts and clays in the lowest depressions would
extend the differentiation of level over a long period. Differential consolidation
would be expected in an area like Death Valley. The finest clays and silts in the
lowest depression or sink would consolidate at a greater rate than the sand and alluvial
material forming the greater part of the Death Valley filling. The consolidation of
the clays and muds would be expected to force the solution upward and even outward.
The brines forced outward would be diluted by mingling with the underground
waters coming from the neighboring watersheds. We would expect the marginal
water to be lower in saline content than that in the smooth salt area, and samples and
analyses show this to be the case. Reference is made to the results of samples Nos.
339, 341, and 342. The sample No. 339 was taken on the west side of the valley, due
west of Furnace Creek Ranch; No. 341 was taken one-fourth mile east of No. 339, and
No. 342 one-quarter mile east of No. 341. They show, respectively, 2.77, 15.12, and
34.18 grams total solids per 100 cubic centimeters.

Campbell states that Death Valley is one of the best watered areas within the Amar-
gosa region and that the water is, for the most part, good. An inspection of the topo-
graphic sheet shows many of the water holes to be close to the edge of the central
playa. At Bennett’s wells the water is within 14 feet of the surface. Most of the
wells are shallow. The explanation of this has been given under the structural —
development of a playa.

CHEMICAL DATA FOR DEATH VALLEY.

Four sets of analyses are given im Tables XXI, XXII, XXIIJ, and XXIV (Appen-
dix). The composition of the brines in Table X XI gives perhaps the best conception
of the character of the salines present in Death Valley. The average percentage of
ions based upon the percentage of total solids in the order of their magnitude is Na,
36.12; K, 2.63; Mg. 0.3; Ca, 0.2; Cl, 53.7; SO,, 5.62; CO,, 0.18. Sodium and chlorine
are the dominating ions. Carbonates are insignificant in amount. The sulphates are
in greater amount than in the Silver Peak brines. Potassium isin smalleramount than
the Silver Peak brines. The sodium-potassium ratio is 13.7; in the Silver Peak brines
itis 11.9. These ratios indicate parallel conditions in both places. Calcium and mag-
nesium are insignificant inamount. It should be noted that there is comparative
agreement between the results obtained upon samples taken by different persons.

eee

46 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

B. K. Brockington submitted several brines to the Cooperative Laboratory from this
ead and the results upon these closely corroborate the samples taken by Free
and Jones,

It should be noted also that borate compounds are found in Death Valley; just
north of Bennett’s Wells is the Eagle Borax Works, now abandoned. Surface crusts
were gathered at this place and refined. North of Furnace Creek Ranch is an old
borax mill. The playa in the vicinity was the source of the borate minerals. This
deposit is practically at the mouth of Furnace Creek. The well-known deposits of -
colemanite in Furnace Creek Canyon were undoubtedly the source from which the
marsh borax in the valley came.

The borax deposits in Death Valley are no longer worked. No salt has been pro-
duced on account of difficulty of access and climatic conditions. The potassium
content of the brine is probably too low to warrant attempts at separation. Until
deeper borings are made in the smooth salt area and the composition of the brines at
depth determined, Death Valley must still be looked upon as a possible source of potas-
sium salts. It is, however, a matter of reasonable doubt whether a greater content of
potassium will be found at depth. Death Valley is of interest in that it indicates a
transition stage in the formation of a saline deposit at depth. It would not take a very
Sat ee in rainfall to bring down débris sufficient to cover and seal the present
salt deposit.

ennce the foregoing was written the results of borings and analyses upon the brines
obtained therefrom by the United States Geological Survey became available and are
given below.

Log of United States Geological Survey boring No. 3, Death Valley, Cal.

Salt (14 inches thick on surface). Feet.
Mud, light brown, containing coarse salt crystals.........-..-.----------------- 1.5
Salt layer 2 inches thick with flow of brine at bottom.
Mud, soft brown.......--- pas fatiee oon ed sh sheds ee ees 1d Soe ee eee ae 29.0
(Small flow of warm water at depth of 30 feet.)
Mud,. yielding seepage of. water... 22. jcpis tis: slid scice hE eh Seige ape - = 2.5
Glay.or mud and erystals ‘of salt. 22. 522225. - S252: b- bebe else ee een oe 1.5
Dalht dedacusweds Boe: 2d P ab saan oe bigs 25 ios cht 3S. ah Se ee .5
Mud, black, and crystals of saltz2...22-[ s. jose, eee Se peepee eee 1.5
Salt. 22 .is. 2s coven eee aL 22 eee ab ett BSE? Bae eee a)
Mud, black;.and. crystals of salt:..<-.-.2- =225:.5:25- 2 eee: eee eee 15. 0
(Water all shut off and auger cut without seepage.) s
Daltisis; aaues Seen hadspevssabistloosutlase- bet Singsees oct Siar eee eee :
Clay; black, with occasional thin salt layers. -..--:is4s: - b2sse/cn> -begee Sees ory.
Salt, crystalline, hard, containing layers of black clay mixed with salt crystals
1 to 4 inches in thickness at intervals of about 2 feet............--------------- 8.5
Maud... <2: 42.02 ites ewe 2d clieg? 452s. See ee ee ee ee ee .5
Salt, crystalline; apparently solid 222.5. 2:4: 222-264 epeee-eed = see eee 13.0
Avid 322 05 -b2 Jsdce oi disco lane aac eee ee Bae ee ee eee eee oer 2.2
Salt; crystalline: ...-j22.2c02 = sedk dosh. : 226. eee Bee aoe eee 3.8
Clay, black.....5,----5.-2.---.- lepeeuei nee 2 bee eee ee eee 1.0
Salt, erystalline—. 22:2 isowaie 2. sien ale bs osc et Sed -e oee eeeeeee 2.0
Qlay, black, containing salt erystals-: -22-22 52.-=-t i-S Eee aes see ene 10.5
(No water encountered in the lower part of the well.)
Totals. 2oducu - wes). 25o0) sid aid SEs See ee eo 96.0

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

Analyses of potash in natural brines from Death Valley, Cal.

[W. B. Hicks and R. K. Bailey, analysts.]

dena cee Potash (KO) C
Depth in feet ignited resi- otas 2 KCl expressed
RANA F ’ |due) expressed | expressed as as percent-
Description of sample. Bie asec as percent- |» percentage of | age of original
age af ee ignited residue. solution.
solution.

Ground water in the salt crust at the
COGS Tae EOS HA eae ae ee a a Rae 0.5 28.19 3. 43 1.53
oe in open ‘“‘pothole’”’.........--..- Ar) 27.47 1.20 .52
Pee nl zoe ctettie yd Vc hlsyaret nd 9.5 27.48 1.18 .51
U. Sal Ged Survey well No.1. 6 27.87 2. 80 1.27
on SA I ya a ee a PE ge 24 28. 64 2. 22 1.01
De SSSI GSCI SCT el a ae 29 28. 96 2.35 1.09
TD) OFS page asc eee SRD eas ea 8 52 28. 66 2.01 91
U.S. Geol. Survey well No. 2........-- 32 28.33 1.54 - 69
Ea 38 29.16 1.78 - 82
Bynes Reale tara natu, ee nal el ts 70 29. 96 2. 48 1.18
iWe g. Gel. Survey well No. 3....--..-- 1 27.78 2.05 - 90
el Ce AEE RRS one rer 30 27.91 1.68 .74
U.S. Gest. Survey well No. 4.......... 32 28.77 24. OB} 1.02
2 Oe it LRG SHE SHE SEO SEE eos 38 28. 73 2.12 -97
PASVET AD Clea cence aoa ae cA UE I ala STS ao Li8 28. 42 2.08 94

Gale comments upon these results as follows:

“No shore markings or other evidence of former deep submergence of Death Valley
have yet been discovered. It appears that the deposits laid down in this valley have
been chiefly the results of temporary shallow submergences and alternate desicca-
tions. Thus the deposits that make up the floor of this valley are supposed to have
been built up layer by layer, the salts having crystallized from the water evaporated
from the temporary shallow lakes and having been occasionally buried in mixtures of
sand and silt, including more or less saline material swept in by occasional floods.
This is the process that is going on at the present day.

‘“‘A vast amount of saline material is accumulated in the bottom of this valley, but
the mode of its deposition probably is not favorable to selective crystallization on a
large scale. Segregation of potash or any other portion of the soluble constituents
of the waters may have taken place to slight extent in the individual salt crust layers,
but under the conditions described any such differentiation is likely to have been
restricted to the individual layers as units, and therefore has occurred on a scale so
small as to be of doubtful practical impor tance. It seems evident that unless a vast
body of saline material has been deposited at one time during a single period of des-
iccation that there would be little chance for the various dissolved constituents to
become segregated one from another ona large scale. There is no record of the drying
up of a single large lake of saline waters in Death Valley. Although it is possible that
the shores of such a lake might have been completely buried, the assumption that this
may have happened must be purely a matter of speculation.”

The potassium content of the saline residues from the brines obtained from the
United States Geological Survey bores is lower than the average for the brines obtained
from the surface potholes, the figures being, respectively, 1.73 and 2.63 per cent.
There is practical agreement in the results since some concentration of the potassium
salts might well be looked for in the surface brines.

While the results of the Survey’s work in Death Valley are disappointing, they are of
considerable importance, as they give much information concerning deposits of this
character. The conditions at depths greater than 100 feet are unknown, but it is fair
to presume that they are not unlike those within the first 100 feet. Salines in vast
quantity have collected in Death Valley, but concentration of the most valuable
salines has not taken place on anything more than a very local scale. For the con-
centration of these salines extreme conditions of aridity must be looked upon as
unfavorable. A deep lake, existing for some considerable time and then quickly
drying up, appears to be the condition necessary for the concentration of the most
soluble salines.

MARSHES OF THE SECOND TYPE.

Marshes of the second type have a special interest in that the presence of a former
lake indicates a much greater run-off, and consequently a greater amount of saline
accumulations. The desiccation of such a lake would be more apt to produce worke

a eS eae ee Oe ee

48 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

able beds of salines than marshes of the first type. Descriptions of Searles and
poe ue Marshes, Railroad and Dixie Valleys, Sand Springs Flat, and Sevier Lake
ollow.

SEARLES MARSH.

Searles Marsh lies in the northwestern part of San Bernardino County, Cal., about
30 miles northeast of Randsburg. It lies in a drainage basin of 4,850 square miles.
area. ©. E. Dolbear states that the area of the central depression is about 62.5 square
miles. This would give a ratio of 77.6 square miles of basin area to 1 square mile of
central depression area. The lowest part of the depression is 12 square miles in area,
and is occupied by a smooth, hard floor of salt (Pl. III, fig. 2). Portions of the
area are covered by débris; other portions by efflorescences and crusts from a fraction
of an inch to several feet in thickness; and other portions are covered with clay muds
which are in part dried out and firm and in part are soft. Plate IV, figure 1, shows a
trona reef in-the northeastern part of the marsh. De Groot! reports results of a
boring and shows a section of the marsh. Dolbear * quotes the results of two bores,
one in the central salt area and the other in the marginal area outside of the salt bed.

Section of Searles Marsh (De Groot).

Depth.
2 feet......Salt and thenardite.
4 feet......Clay and volcanic sand with some hanksite.
Sects to Volcanic sand and black clay with bunches of trona.
8 feet...... Melee sand containing glauberite, thenardite, and a few crystals of
anksite. :
20 feet .<...-- Mud smelling of hydrogen sulphide and containing layers of glauberite,
soda, and hanksite.
28 feet....-. Solid trona overlain by a thin layer of very hard material.
230+-feet....-.. Clay, jurzed with volcanic sand and permeated with hydrogen
sulphide.

z: Analyses of samples from borings in Searles Lake.

[Analyses by Dolbear.]

Feet. P.ct TEN P.ct. P.ct. Pct: P. ct. P.ct.
0-18 0. 2 79.7 7.6 3.2 0.0 Tr. 3.3

| 18-25 1.4 44.0 30.5 14.8 2.5 1.0 5.8
25-30 1.4 47.3 28.1 10.6 .0 2.0 10.6
30-35 3.0 42.7 17.1 19.1 5.9 2.0 10.2

35-50 1.4 43.5 22.3 7 9.5 2.5 5.5 15.3

50-65 Tr 82.8 10.6 3.2 8 Tr. 2.6

65-79 Tr. 19.0 7.3 40.3 18.5 5 14.4

Analyses of samples from borings outside of salt-bed area.
[Analyses by Dolbear.]

Depth. Insol. NaCl. NagSO4. | NasCO3. | NaHCO3.| NaeB,O7.| HeO.

Feet Pct. P. ct Lei each P.ct P. ct P.ct
0-13 Midi}. fie SAME Oe Oe ee es Se eae er | er eee

13-20 8.3 66.8 1.0 11.7 5.0 0.4 6.8
20-25 Tr. 98. 4 .8 1.8 .0 .0 .0
25-30 1.4 15.3 4.7 38. 7 24.4 Tr. 15.5
30-35 15.0 39.6 2.3 16.4 3.4 5. 56 12. 74
35-40 33.4 17.5 3.9 14, 85 4.7 5.6 20.05
40-45 36.0 9.8 2.9 12.5 4 6.57 26. 28
45-50 32.5 9.0 2.6 21. 2 3.8 30.9
50-53 30.7 8.3 2.8 23.3 7.6 Tr 27.8
53-55 | 31.0 9.0 2.8 21.2 10.9 0 25.1
55-60 | 26.9 5.8 1.9 26.5 14.3 Tr 24.6
60-65 on2 4.5 38.0 28.6 10.1 Tr 10.6
65-70 6.8 5. 1 6.8 43.5 21.0 Tr 16.8
70-75 7.6 4.0 2.8 53.0 16.0 0 16.6

110th Annual Report, California State Mining Bureau, p. 535.
2 Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260.

Bul. 61, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fig. 1.—PotT HOLE, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

Fic. 2.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. MAIN SALINE DEPOSIT.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. TRONA REEF IN NORTHEAST CORNER.

- .

Fic. 2.—RAILROAD VALLEY, NEV. SALT PAN AT NORTH END.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—LAVA PLATEAU WEST OF ALKALI LAKE, OREG. SMALL INCLOSED PAN.

Fig. 2.—ABERT LAKE, OREG. SHORE AT SOUTHEAST CORNER.

PLATE VI.

Bui. 61, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.

‘ANV7] Yaddf} JO VAVId “‘D3SYO ‘ASTIVA SSIYdYNS

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 49

Through the kindness of Dennis Searles, HK. E. Free obtained the samples from a
bore put down over 600 feet in the area northwest of the central salt area and near
the road leading from the plant of the California Trona Co. southeast of the salt area.
The exact location of this deep bore is not known. The series of samples is not com-
plete, and the notes accompanying them are also somewhat incomplete. The results
of analyses upon these samples are given in the accompanying tables. Table XXV
(Appendix) gives the total sodium and potassium, soluble sodium and potassium,
ad insoluble sodium and potassium. Table XX VI (Appendix) gives the ratios of
soluble sodium to potassium, of insoluble sodium to potassium, and of total sodium to
potassium. Tables XX VII (Appendix) and XXVIII (Appendix) show respectively
the percentage composition of the samples, and of the water-soluble material con-
tained in the samples. Accompanying is a brief description of a petrographic study
(Table XXX, Appendix) upon the samples of the deep bore by J. C. Jones. It is
unfortunate that the record is incomplete, but incomplete as it is, the results of our
examinations are of sufficient interest to warrant presentation.

Before discussing the foregoing data, it is necessary to establish certain criteria
by which we may determine the nature of the events which took place during the
history of this lake.

The progressive or fractional crystallization of brines and salt solutions has been
thoroughly discussed by Turrentine.! On account of the-similarity of conditions, I
have deemed it best to take the results which T. M. Chatard obtained in his experi-
ments upon the waters of Owensand Mono Lakes. These results are shown graphically
in figure 6.2. The waters from both lakes are similar in composition. Mono Lake
water has a slightly higher percentage of sodium sulphate than Owens. The water
in both cases contains carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and borates;
also sodium, potassium, and minor amounts of silica, calcium, magnesium, alumina,
and ferric oxide. The temperature conditions in the evaporations range from 18.3° C.

_ to 37.8° C. The two sets of experiments indicate similar results. The following are

the criteria from these experiments:

1. At initial stages of evaporation calcium carbonate, mixed with more or less
ferric oxide, would be precipitated.

2. Saturation would be indicated by a crystalline deposit in which carbonates
would predominate. Sulphates would be least and chlorides would be present in
moderate amount only. Potassium chloride would be less than 1 per cent of the
saline deposit. The ratio between sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in the deposited
salines would approach unity.

3. Succeeding stages would be marked by decreasing amounts of carbonates and
increasing amounts of sulphates and chlorides. The ratio between sodium carbonate
and bicarbonate would rapidly increase. At an intermediate stage sulphates would
reach a maximum. Sodium chloride would remain in about the same proportion, or
would be slightly increased.

4. Approach to final desiccation would be indicated by the separation of a large
proporiou of sodium chloride and a small increase in the proportion of potassium
chloride.

5. Final desiccation would yield relatively small amounts of sulphates and a larger
proportion of chlorides and carbonates. Some borates would be present. The sodium-
carbonate and bicarbonate ratio would reach a maximum value, and relatively large
proportions of potassium salts would characterize this state.

aoe terms may be designated to indicate the progressive stages, and in their natural
order are:

(1) The trona period—sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in about equal amounts
preponderate;

(2) The sulphate period—separation of sodium sulphate;

(3) The sodium chloride period—maximum proportions of sodium chloride;

(4) The complete desiccation period—maximum percentage of potassium chloride
and presence of borates.

In the case of the uninterrupted desiccation of a saline lake the successive stages
mentioned above would grade insensibly one into the other. The actual case would
be further complicated by temperature variations, seasonal and periodical, by inter-
ruptions caused by the dilution of lake waters, by rainfall and stream discharge, and
by silt, mud, and ceolian deposition. Wind and wave action would tend to thicken
the shore deposits. The thinning out of the lake waters at the margin would set up
there more favorable conditions for crystallization than in the deeper portions. In

1 The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States. Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils,
U.S. Dept. of Agr.
2 Data for this figure were taken from Bul. No. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 59-65.

20814—14-_4

50 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the marginal portions silt Sore would be greatest, and the salines deposited here
would be characterized by a large proportion of insoluble material. In a single large
basin the lake during evaporation might be divided into several smaller lakes, and
each would have its individual conditions and in each case would form saline deposits
differing from the others. Lastly, the nature of the salines would be expected to differ
in different lake basins. The proportions between chlorides, sulphates, carbonates,

R Wy NN

. NS

X SHE ly eS

nS RS aks
XN °

se 88 i” Sones

HG SR cK DiS o'

OWENS LAAE

ae ae zo
= ae re

FS Ve

ve ‘Song

AK Cs

SUCCESSIVE CROPS
OF CRYSTALS

(Ve Ca3

_ eye
rongR ZZ
Sl =a
a nose ro
/ Z =] ye

ie Sog.

SUCCESSIVE CRORS
OF CR KSTALS

o 10. VZORIBO 40 50 «60 = @0 90 700
PEP CEIVT- r

Fia. 6.—Order of deposition of salts in Owens Lake and Mono Lake.

bicarbonates, and the basic ions present would vary somewhat from the two samples
chosen for establishing our criteria.

Another condition requires discussion, Salines are deposited upon and in lake bot-
toms. The lake sediments would include saline waters and, as desiccation proceeded,
the lake sediments would include waters containing oradually increasing amounts
of saline material. When saturation is reached not only would brine be expected but
individual crystals of the different salts would also be so included. If crystallization

da Resin faster than sedimentation, the lake sediments would contain larger and
er proportions of saline material. If sedimentation proceeded faster than crys-
tal ization, smaller proportions of saline material would ne expected. It is evident

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 51

that crystallization must proceed at a comparatively slow rate under natural condi-
tions at the beginning of desiccation, and, as desiccation proceeds, the rate of crystal-
lization must increase to a maximum. Final desiccation of the mother liquors must
be a long drawn-out process, if at all completed. It is not impossible to expect that
at this stage of desiccation sedimentation by xolian action might proceed rapidly
enough to absorb the final mother liquor. The crystalline mass formed during the
final stages of desiccation would also absorb portions of the mother liquor at the end.

The saline content of a mud, assuming that it has absorbed a brine which is saturated
and at point of crystallization, has been calculated in the following: A wet mud
with a specific gravity of 2 and composed of mineral particles 2.6 would have a void
space of 37.4 per cent by volume. lf 1 cubic foot were filled with a brine of specific
gravity 1.25, the brine would weigh 29.3 pounds. Chatard’s experiments on the
Owens Lake water showed a brine of 1.26 specific gravity at incipient crystallization;
and this contained 30.56 per cent by weight of salines. The brine filling 1 cubic foot
of the mud would contain approximately 9 pounds of salines. This would be equiva-
lent to 8.1 per cent of the weight of the dry mud.! Dry mud samples containing an
excess of 8.1 per cent of saline material would indicate saturated solution conditions
with some crystallization and deposits of salines; less than 8 per cent it would be con-
cluded that the mud had captured an unsaturated brine.

If it is assumed that the mass of saline crystals would contain a void space of 30
per cent of its volume and the resulting mother liquor had a specific gravity of 1.3,
the weight of the brine solution contained in 1 cubic foot would be 24.4 pounds. If
we assume the specific gravity of the salines to be 1.9, the weight of the brine absorbed
would be 29.0 per cent of the weight of the dry saline material, or 22.4 per cent of
weight of brine and salt. This would not be sufficient to absorb all of the mother
liquors at the final stages of crystallization.

Interpreting the chemical data obtained by the deep bore and the three surface
bores, and using the criteria which have been established, I have reached the con-
clusion below.

The initial stages of Searles Lake were similar to Lake Lahontan. The lake at this
period might have been over 1,200 feet in depth, and there is no reason to suppose
that it was other than fresh. The drying up of the lake must have extended over a
great length of time. The first part of the record, 600 to 627 feet, indicates that the
lake had reached saturation and had begun to deposit salines. The brines at this
stage deposited salines low in carbonates, high in chlorides and sulphates, and notice-
ably high in potassium. Either sedimentation proceeded at a rapid rate or crystal-
lization must have been slow. The latter is more likely the case. At a depth of
586 to 596 feet the brine was diluted sufficiently to stop crystallization. The saline
content of this brine figures out as follows:

Per cent.
Rotassimxchilondes sme Ae se) ee Se See ee es Ache aee 5. 48
Solna "ela overs ees ches eh ee yt eee ae Ey in el ees rar Bae 59. 15
SocmmnMysul plate: Mikes Mek SIRS The oka yeear eg meat OG dele as nie 29. 04
SOaMuMMcanbonMatertiaiawee Lew ete ee ay Pie ee eee Heol
Soaium-sbicarbomatesee eas Moke se yh ee Se ins 2. 44

During this stage carbonates were accumulating in the lake waters. Concentra-
tion of the water followed and salines were again deposited (575 to 580 feet; samples
Nos. 223 and 224). From 427 to 540 feet salines were steadily deposited and inclosed
by the sediments. The brine at this stage must have approximated in composition
evaporated Owens Lake water, for carbonates are found in increasing amounts. The
conditions must have approximated the trona period. During this period the rate
of crystallization exceeded sedimentation. The content of potassium ishigh. From
227 to 427 feet the record is lacking. At 227 feet conditions approaching the sul-
phate period are indicated. ‘The salines are low in carbonates and high in sulphates
and chlorides. Potassium still remains high and amounts to 3.72 per cent of the
saline residue (sample 211). From 80 to 227 feet the record is lacking.

The central bore of the Dolbear series indicates that at 65 to 79 feet depth the
trona period occurred, followed at 50 to 65 feet by the sodium chloride period,
and this was followed by a sulphate period at 35 to 50 feet. An interruption is indi-
cated here. More than likely a humid period diluted the lake and stopped crystalli-

1 From experiments upon slime cakes formed by vacuum filtration, I have found that the densest por-
tion ofa slime cake, formed under a pressure of 11 pounds per square inch, has a specific gravity of 1.84,
and a water content of 27.9percent. Using these figures and assuming a brine of 1.3 specific gravity and a
saline content of 30 per cent by weight would give a saline content for the dried cake of 13 per cent. This
figure can be used comparatively with the one obtained by calculation. I am inclined to use the figure
obtained by the previous calculation, since the slime experiment does not take into account the time element
nor the greater pressures to which mud in the bottom of a lake would be subjected.

52 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

zation. From 18 to 35 feet a sulphate period followed, and this in turn was closed by
the chloride period. Two periods of desiccation are indicated in the closing stages—
the present one and one (recent geologically) at some unknown time before.

The marginal bore also indicates an interruption in the desiccation. A passage
from the trona to the sulphate period was followed by a trona period. The last trona
period passes gradually into the chloride period, with possible indications of another
interruption at 25 to 30 feet depth. More or less sedimentation marked this portion
of the deposit. The final capping with a mud layer 13 feet thick closed the cycle of
events at this point.

The important question of what became of the residual mother liquor which must
have covered the saline bed at the close of the last desiccation period has not been
discussed. The suggestion by J. Walther, quoted by Clarke,! that residual bitterns
might be absorbed by wind-blown sands, and by capillarity brought to the surface,
wind eroded, and carried away, occurs as a plausible explanation. Undoubtedly
some such action took place locally, but it could not have been on a sufficient scale to
account for the removal of all of the mother liquors. The fact that the upper portion
of the central bed contains a large proportion of sodium chloride and a brine lower
in potassium content than the brine beneath suggests that the closing stages of desic-
cation must have closely paralleled present conditionsin Death Valley. Searles Lake,
in passing through the last stages of desiccation, must have deposited sodium chloride,
as well as other salts, over a much larger area than that occupied by the present cen-
tral bed. The shallow lake of mother liquor occupying the central depression must
have received periodic accessions of saline material from these marginal deposits.
Continued over a long time the effect would be to build up a bed of saline material
in which the content of potassium salts would not be conspicuous and which would
contain the diluted original mother liquor absorbed in its interstices. Continual
accession of salines from the margins would result in a top bed of saline material
comparatively poor in potassium salts. This explanation appears to me to be the
most reasonable.

The central salt bed over practically the whole area of 12 square miles contains in
its interstices a brine which, below the top bed of sodium chloride, is characterized
by a relatively high content of potassium. According to Dolbear, the brine con-
taining the high content of potassium salts is confined to a vertical horizon of some
47 feet. Below this horizon the brinés contain relatively less potassium salts. The
following is an analysis of the rich brine taken from bore hole A7 on the N-S center
line and just south of the center of the salt area:

Analysis of brine from Searles Lake, expressed in percentages of the anhydrous residue.

[Sampie collected by E. E. Free; analysis by W. H. Ross, of tha Bursa of Soils.]

Constituent. Per cent. |) Constituent. Per cent. Constituent. Per cent.
33.57 Miri oo oe oS ee es | None.) eee csedantsebeseeeee 0. 004
6: 064 Cn asst pee ee None m): SO¢ssa22 7-02 ee eee 12.96
O10) Pa Oy ae £0124) COsc-wacweneeiesaeiecs 6.70
Notte, jl Fe2Og. 5 22a sone ae 0038 (PO ete eee 30
None: || (SiQs2 =. 2248 ora- 2 eee | SO2BANOZ a2 see None
None: {| Chere 223. 54S Se 37. 02 AsOs: 022.2 SER Se 0
Traces dle BE: tse eaacey eee eeY 2094; |}eBiOz, hase Bee cB: 3.00

This is of the nature of a residual mother liquor. It consists of chlorides in greatest
amount, sulphates, carbonates, practically no bicarbonates, and borates. It is con-
spicuous by the presence of bromine, iodine, and arsenious oxide. The sodium-

tassium ratio in this brine is 5.5. The average of 14 of the samples from the deep

oring, omitting results upon crystals and Nos. 217 and 215, is 15.5. This would indi-
cate that the water collected in the early stages of Searles was not unlike that of the
present lakes in which the sodium-potassium ratio is 20.

Supplementary analyses by A. R. Merz upon samples collected by E. E. Free are
given in Table X XIX (Appendix).

The brine body is contained in a mass of coarsely crystalline material, more or less
honeycombed. The portion occupying the central mass of salt is richest in potassium
Poe pe borates below the upper salt crust of 18 feet thickness and above the 65-

oot level.

1 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 224.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 53

Dolbear! presents the following estimate of quantities for the 47-foot bed of brine
and crystallized salts:

In brine: Tons.
Potasstumiehlonide sad tie Suiyeid See! eho te ts Ta as 6, 455, 600
NMUMVOLOUS WONA eee Ma ct Mae ae yee se Leia. anus 1, 900, 000
SodMimmcarhonateme ss. vee eS hare ern 6, 630, 000

In saline material:

TELay ee FSISUIRT Ta 0 OT Ke) fea I Se RS 23, 900, 000
POMOC MOUS MOLAR 4 823s Se Re ak Pek ee 15, 200, 000
SOcumncanWonate sperms sae ky ms Lee NN ee Ok Sly ee 108, 500, 000
OCU bicarhonatessomeecgh Mn. he) oes se eeehy 42, 700, 000
AYRE Mh ONE Loven Vey ee ict ae a ha eee BUM YA ee et ear 144, 000, 000
NVSTe iG HO nt Seal terrae Rie ae val ieaeh ss eh iokates SIR ARSE AS lee 656, 000, 000

The figures given are conservative. Dolbear states that the brine contains 4.49
per cent of potassium chloride. The result upon the Bureau of Soils samples is less
than this, 3.51 per cent being obtained by their analyses.

Comparison of saline residues.

[Per cent of anhydrous residue.]

Ca. | Mg. | Na K. Cl. Br. I. | SO4. | COg. | PO«. | AsOs. | BsO7z.

Searles........- 0.0 Trace.| 33.57 | 6.06 | 37.02 |0.094 |0.004 |12.93 | 6.70 | 0.30; 0.083 3.00
Death Valley....| .002 | 0.003 | 36.12 | 2.63 | 53.70 |....-.|...-.- BPA G1) eee cealioskcacck Present
Silver Peak...... 1.05 -64 | 35.14 | 2.94 | 58.86 |......)...... EPA A BOUA eee Seile saa ce Trace.
Owens! 2.........| .02 -O1 | 38.09} 1.62 | 24.82 |......)...... 9.93 |24.55 il 05 14
Mono?........-.- . 04 10 | 37.93 | 1.85 | 23.34 |....../.....- 12.86 |23.42 |.....-|.------- 32
Great Salt Lake?.} .33 | 2.22 | 33.31 | 1.92 | 55.36 |......|...-.- 6. 53 WA REnen el ANS Oger Encscoasen
Pyramid 2.......- -25 | 2.28 | 33.84] 2.11 | 41.04 |......]...... O20 FEE 28 5 | rarer rst ara etovotelsieteisiate
Winnemucca?. 55 49 | 36.68 | 1.94 | 47.88 |......]...... 35 00, OBB) |boascclicssssccsllooctoconse
Walker?......... 90 | 1.56 | 34.83 |....... 2B OU Soe Sel soouce PAP AAR Vath llnharcs saacbeal bnoencocde

1 Owens Lake, nitrate=0.45 per cent.
2 Clarke, Bul. No. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 144-146.

Comparison of the saline residues from residual brines, from lake waters in which
concentration has proceeded to a considerable extent and from lake waters in which
concentration is in initial stages is shown in the accompanying table. Regional dif-
ferences are, of course, apparent, and must be considered. With the exception of the
calcium and magnesium content, the saline residue of the Death Valley brine closely
approximates that from Great Salt Lake. Silver Peak is lower in sulphates but more
nearly approximates Death Valley. Mono and Owens Lake closely compare and,
save for the higher proportion of carbonate, approximate the Searles brine. The
residues of Pyramid and Winnemucca are relatively higher in chlorides and lower in
sulphates than Mono and Owens. The residue of Walker Lake is high in sulphates
and carbonates and lower in chlorides than Pyramid or Winnemucca. Little concen-
tration of potassium is indicated in the last two groups, but decided concentration is
shown in the first group, and borates are progressively concentrated from the third
to the first group. Nitrate is concentrated irom the third to the second group. Great
Salt Lake is the only water in the second and third groups in which precipitation of
a is taking place. This residue can be considered intermediate between groups
land 2.

COLUMBUS MARSH.

Columbus Marsh is near Coaldale, Esmeralda County, Nev. The area is 32.5 square
miles. It receives the drainage of Fish Lake Valley from the south and the basin
immediately surrounding the marsh. Two shore lines are present, one about 60 feet
above the flat and the other, reported by E. E. Free, at 104 feet. The lake could not
have been of much greater extent than the marsh. The comparative shallowness
would indicate a relatively small amount of salines. The present surface is a broad
plain roughened by very small, more or less rounded, hummocks. There is very little
salt in the form of crusts. The surface is dry enough at most times to support a road

1 Eng. and Mining Jour. cited before.

54 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

across the central part. The marsh has some of the characteristics of Rhodes Marsh.
No chemical data are available, except those published by the United States Geological
Survey in the press bulletin noted below.'! In this report Gale describes the dis-
covery of a mud at depths from 18 to 38 feet, containing a small percentage of soluble
salts, and a high content of potash in the soluble salts. The analyses follow:

Analyses of samples from Columbus Marsh, Nev.
[W. B. Hicks, analyst.]

Percentage of total soluble
salts.

Total
No. ofsample. Depth. | soluble
salts.
K K:0. KCl
Feet. | Percent.
DE eee Roce ae mmaeie nae see icc se nig aRle aici at GEESE 1 17.20 1.67 2.01 3.18
~ {Ree oP OSS RSA Ea ieee oo RY ees Bee Be ae, 43 be 3 9.07 2.55 3.07 4.85
Deck cn acnm se ooce bonnes iceed sadies - Saeete eee Sees 44 8.88 2.48 2.99 4.73
CNA Ee ae ce mere see te tay nein es eee et BEES 10.15 2.95 3.55 5.62
US Fe Sees Senet ren GER ee Mec ge ee Nees he ae 12 1.93 @) (4) 1)
Be Sa son see oe eke ce eclecieense bees eee ee Ee 18 5.17 16.64 20.05 31.72
ie a Bo peinn pate e He oe BOERS Ace eee eee tae eee Betee aE 27 6.30 20.90 25.18 39.83
eee Leb EA ee WRLC eee een eiseerer 30 6.17 13.69 16.49 26.09
Bee arse Soe eee rene ae eee ete SE eaten 33-38 6.22 17.12 20.63 32.64

1 Not determined.

The results are unlike anything as yet reported and their full significance can not
be determined without further investigation. The low saline content, 6 per cent,
together with the average potassium content, 17.09 per cent (average of results from
18 to 38 feet), would give a potassium content of 1 per cent on the original material
dried. The conditions very much suggest that in this occurrence we have a sample
of the absorption of a residual mother liquor by wind-blown desert material. It is a
matter of doubt whether this mud and brine could be_utilized. The removal of a
brine from a mud would be attended with greater difficulties than would be the case
with the Searles brines. In the latter case the brines are contained in a coarsely
crystalline mass and there is comparatively free movement of the brines. In the for-
mer case (a more or less compact mud) there would be slow movement of the brines.
The most significant thing is not so much the workability of the muds as their high
potassium content and the possibility of a larger brine deposit equally rich in potas-
sium at depth. The results of further work in this locality will be awaited with
interest. Marsh deposits of borax were worked at Columbus, but at present nothing
is being done.- These deposits do not show any points of special interest.

DIXIE VALLEY.

Dixie Valley, called Osobb, or Salt Valley, in the Fortieth Parallel Survey Report,
lies just east of the Sweetwater range in Churchill County, Nev. It was occupied by
a shallow lake which at its maximum covered the present valley to a depth of 150
feet. The Railroad Valley Co. explored this area for potash salts by a number of
bores, some extending to 100 feet in depth. The bores showed in the central de-
pression a bed of salt 11 feet thick, mixed with mud, and below this a bed of black
mud, 33 feet thick, containing a few crystals of gaylussite. The brine body under-
lying the salt contains salines composed of 92 per cent sodium chloride, 4 per cent
sodium carbonate, and from traces to 0.5 per cent potash. The saline efflorescences
consist of sodium carbonate and sulphate, but no potash. The highest content of
potash found was 1 per cent of the soluble salts.

Through the courtesy of the Railroad Valley Co. and E. E. Free the results of
several bores and the chemical examination of the brines from the bores are pre-
sented in the following table:

Record of drill hole No. 1, Dixie Valley.
[Located slightly northeast of the center of sec. ae 23 N., R.36 E., being the southwest corner of claim
0. 42.)

Feet.
Date 4 SAE Se SAL. oe Ieee Le ee Orn) tow
Black malty mad... fre gils steel Soe ee Lraton2
Salt with some: mud)? 2e0e JS. ws ee Se a ee ee 2ae to. Pd

1 Press Bul., U. S. Geol. Survey, Feb. 12, 1913.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 55

Feet.
ekg with scattered Salt ChYStAlS +. <n soe een ose ee winle 3.5 to 5
Be nE PEPIN NS evccr se heres Conn Innes EES Pee Ge wee ewer ees Be toe
Black mud with) scattered salt.erystals...<-~-pacasnecce't J-------2-22--8 Le oe &
Peheralivemnd WwithOUICDYStQIS. 54. 2-2 oo aise nine ene see e peewee 8 toll
Gray clay with occasional layers containing small salt crystals........ 11 told
lnc CL cAdWSS2- bc cine be St Se as SPs Bees ee eee Seer 15 tol6
Sine? CLES SSEE LE Soccer ener InEs peers. 16 to 22
Dry, yellowish clay, occasionally slightly gritty.........- Be eee se 22 to 26.5
SLACT G20? occa: aie a RRR, 1S ee eee ene Pere 26.5 to 29
[Svazle Glace 21/0) Te Lege enna Sees ees Salyers in AL nee Benin ee aen ete 29 to 33.5
Black mud with many layers containing small crystals of gaylussite... 33.5 to 49
Bisek mudjand clay without crystals... -2. 20.022 ee ce ec teen 49 to 98

Record of drill hole No. 2, Dixie Valley.

[Located slightly southeast of the center of the west line of sec. 19, T. 23 N., R. 36 E., being the north-
east corner of claim No. 5.]

Feet,
ae eC eR ae hare ede enti cim wer oR AS HSE Soja ejaenee OF atonst
LP Lae TDG! aie Se ee eae es eee ee eS ee Li.s tod
Bieamunud withi many salt crystals.: 22-2 520..02 0222 222-.32--.3 52282 2 to 3
i ac 2 BS eee Ee eRe ee ONO eS se on BY en ae ene RLS 3 to 4.2
PrMumNPMESOMIC DIACK. MUI 3. yo apo srxarrrapreimrs.c ets.c]oertejejarc's|s 2a Lok, d ore atte 4.2to 6.5
Grayishi clay: with sonre saliserystals-..-: 22:2 - 22-222 tsi. ge eens tes 6.5to 8
Yellow clay containing some salt crystals in the upper portions. Lower
PPmMGnAeany, ANG tou 25... 58605... ESS.) REE Bee. teens tered tyes 8 tol9
LODZ TiN GLEN IANS Baan eet ee et MRE SER rene Un, SY Sana pees Gielen mle een 19 to 22
- Black mud and clay becoming tough and dry in the lower portions.... 22 to 94.5

Record of drill hole No. 3, Dixie Valley.

[Located slightly northeast of the center of sec. 13, T. 23 N., R. 35 E., being the southwest corner of
claim No. 46.]

Feet.

Sil ie 2 4. Siac cea ote ed ao INA eS hl pg CL a 0 to 0.25
Mere ae 2a scr a ee SEARS ALR IER Ryo bo oa i 8 0.25 to 1.2

PEt, ees his ich CP ASI ee eet oe a Ss ae cea ae ga a a tec 1.2 to 2
iBilevelke wails aa ed pee Ba Bale Ue ee alee te eee Dey Cece seat 2, a itOee2eo
Sree some mide 10H da) Vath: 80 MRO Wi ia: Ba Lt Os DT alr 2.5 to 6
SELL say eed A EE UR Rane te ee eae ee MR aL 6 to 6.5
Binekanideawathvsalti crystals. 22/2. DISS pes, MOIS ore SUL eke) S 6.5 to 10.5
ie Mowaelage et Er eS RE ISO en LT CARESS 2 > be 10.5 to 14.5
Thin layer of salt with some flow of water........------------------- 14.5 to 14.7
Yellow clay somewhat gritty in upper portion............-.-..-...--- 14.7 to 18
eRe ye ene ae CEPE! GHEE BON LES SALE BB RODOL AE pele eee TO 18 to 25
Black mud becoming dry and tough in lower portion...........-.--- 25 = to. 83

Analyses of brines from drilled holes.

Conventional combinations, grams per 100 ¢c.c. Total

. solids on | K20, per

evapora-| cent o

Sample. Depth. Total by tion, total

NaCl. | NagSO«4. | NasCO3. | KCl. addition. (2228 Per solids.

“| 100 c. c.
Hole No. 1: Feet.
ce Surface. 27.01 5.02 3. 83 0.41 36. 27 37. 62 0. 69
PAE Oe, Ee 4 26.37 4.39 4.12 - 46 35.34 38.70 15
Ll Oo Sse Seen eee 26 26. 91 4.03 2.65 -19 33.78 35.10 34
EO) ices echt Rie ee in 64 25.08 4.37 3.30 28 33. 03 32. 80 54
URGE SC Eka ste TA ene re] ferris ces Sse) [ete aay [es at ab adr a ae 34. 48 38
RID batiedae avast SLM hatie seek cmal abate ame saa eee) eer ok bed ie eemne Bee Es 34. 64 42
EMM Se eae Sat tee 91 23.71 3.73 3.48 24 31.16 31.57 48
Gh aos eae Nase Rae 8 OF llserad tes sell | Sener eel 1S ee wes | OCH 8 SON ae ee RR 8 31.70 41
Hole No. 2

Die ance ose Noe SESSE G2 A ae Be 5 | SS AC He Sco EAE a eet) Ee oe 36. 48 54
Hite en Oo eee eS Ee oe Guo Beeesssace Saas cece cclbseee Sse 4] Sees Ge wet tec 35. 82 47
i Suiiece SESS Seo aeee OS om | Beem ce saree | ose ee ee So eee es eee tale cees es oae 35. 63 43
GS aa Re ee ore PO | ee Be re one eaae seme eeoecel cece nes Semeceeess 35.19 33
Ne ibe ae ae Less OTS isc aeee otal Ge caticaaelal teebie ace toee anal tae pecnee 35.50 40

56 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Analyses of brines from drilled holes—Continued.

Conventional combinations, grams per 100 c.c. Total
solids on | K:0, per

Wi Meee SRR GESE OSE IBS| Beer Sooe as Pe cneose ss borcm bons: |Sbaaoe s4ieeS- cae. 34.99 . 28
GSo tee cle on occ intaias 2.5 28. 99 3.65 1.77 15 34. 56 34. 81 .27
GOn a ee ener BB) Boseeeecrol Ccacancses| |asesoearc cllstocaoss|iscicatcoese 35. 00 -27
(Al bp es Ae ae Bb WS acca rma] eoels Jetie | sitet roll tere ee Peete eee 35. 60 +25
ipl & Set Ge amor ose 1453. ace e doe ee | Soccer sa] = ae Shee ta| sepa eae 33. 92 25
REE se necomenee tl) SANS eoeeseee ae beseshossa| bassoobatS| Sat sso cllste-4---- 35.79 -23
oer epee phe Bene oesbcel Benet eaSel Haas oStal lp ashocdllsasascaene 34. 65 -19
(he ABA e ee eater 45 28. 42 4.68 2. 21 16 35.47 35.30 -29
ifm ae Seep Ssaeoe SHY | eoceteneeellpsocmceseclsosnnecscsleoseccosisetoccocce 35.77 35
WO rebates Se Seles sees 63) | ajeisinte ewicint lee oe «ls femeleis a ota | See Oe eee eee 35.01 -30
Wiseeke eeeeoebsesbe (hell Bone aA sal eae Salise Se eaeedel bee te sels eessubs se 28.70 25
LSE EAE Ane pearics de| poets esse 26. 92 4.34 3.12 28 34. 67 34.96 -40

The section shown by the borings indicates very much the same conditions and
history as were described in the Silver Peak Marsh. - We have here the case of a shal-
low lake passing through alternate periods of desiccation. At times desiccation pro-
ceeded to such a point as to, cause concentration of the lake waters and deposits of
salt. More than likely each salt bed was marked by the-evaporation of the lake and
the formation of a salt playa.

RAILROAD VALLEY.

Railroad Valley is in the northeastern part of Nye County, Nev., about 130 miles
northeast of Tonopah and 80 miles southwest of Ely. It is 10 to 20 miles wide from
east to west and somewhat over 100 miles long north to south. The flat, central por-
tion of the valley has an area of about 200 square miles. The drainage basin is about
6,000 square miles. Free states that shore-line indications show a lake level varying
from 50 to 300 feet above the present bed of the dry lake. A number of playas,
covered by thin salt crusts, occupy the bed of the present dry lake. (Plate IV, fig. 2.)
Analyses of these crusts and the accompanying brines have been given in a previous
section, and many of them show a high potassium content. The Railroad Valley
Co. put down a bore 1,204 feet deep on the east-west half-section line of sec. 2, T.8 N.,
R.56 E. The bore is about one-fourth mile west of the west north-south line of sec.1,
same T. The log of the bore is herewith presented.

Log of potash drill hole No. 1, Railroad Valley, Nye County, Nev.

[Drilling commenced Mar. 17, 1912; ceased Aug. 27, 1912. All operations in charge of D. H. Walker.)

Feet.

Mixed clay and sand, mostly sand (fresh water, not artesian).........- 1l- 32
Quicksand (iresh-water)-... 41. .... 2202). 23.8 a eee apes 32-103
White clayy. ss) pipe sige 25 2s eel bd ee LE ie ee 103-104
Alternations of quicksand and clay. Some fine gravel among the quick-

sand (artesian waters in sands, especially at 128 feet)....--.....----- 104-136
Cla EP) oo uA tb co Sue eee < bo, ee ehis one epee eee 136-178
Very fine quicksand (artesian water, especially at top of division)...... 178-214
Gye iat. LN Bs ON 214-220
Quicksand with fine gravel (artesian water)...............--..-------- 220-222
Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clays (artesian water in most of

the'sands? especially at 250 feet).:-:2 2.2202 se ae 2 eee 222-255
Cie ee Seek Ae an a ne ann nmin Seamer E ec 255-260

GUICKSAT S2 ae cle wider cjbecicdne vs see eno bl tee eee eee 260-264

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 57

Feet.
Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay..........--...-.--------- 264-275
LEP iUE TG) BUS Sats A eS go: Vk les 8 eh a A a 275-285
Sand with coarse and fine gravel, including pebbles ? inch in diameter

RESUME WALOE) Ease Deemer cap ais Rone Sense scite la wie ele ae 285-290
Renn cuDrowmMIsmsanGeectse ses ee kee hee Lec eee ete cee 290-305
“272 SIRES LENT 5 26 scoce Seco do doee Ae oekledusucasueneuesesse4aopeee 305-336
Rapid alternations of clay and quicksand, the latter containing a little

Hnestenvelartesial Water). i ssoews oe eo 336-340
"Letty hese OULD TR SLU CUE AE ane i UL UP sae et 340-350
Quicksand, probably with occasional thin layers of clay.........-.---- 300-375
Np LETS IPRS GLENS ee ia Esp ee ee 8 a ee Mea 370-390
Giekeand (small astesian flow): i. 050025) oo oie eee itt. 390-391
DEIR GoD Nes Ras Se al eo aa a 391-418
Gimekcand (smallartesian flow)-:2 2222-222 22. eee ete 418-419
LST GIID) ChE Asie iS SSA AAI a i a SS a a Oe 419-429
pamansmalbatbesian NOW )o. soc005 st oci. S ees eek eee eos cn gees 429-430
Hard brown clay with occasional very thin sand streaks.............-- 430-445
CSTE CL DAV So Cis MASI Ree OATES RA Sy aac am nen nf Pa RS Ye a na 445-459
Rictecotimvelowish Claye i 2: Ss eee ie pe Oh ON NS en 459-461
Guaeksane: (artesian* water) 222-62 l eee ee ee et 461-462
Wianiecest te Kavala ey te as So ee Eh kan VES DS Eales 462-463
PRI EUREETILCLAY Meu npie eteie tise te sta. Sarat Nr ee ee ee eee 463-470
Veryiine quicksand (artesian water)....--... 02 5/.00020.-2-4.0222225-- 470-471
DME Te eOORCUUG Ae Nec eae ie eee a eS wren Mane oe tec oie ar 471-478
MPDEEGT TNE ENIAC |e ee at ees ae aN A Al Aap A I ee ee gg 478-479
13 1 RSSSEg SETTER Fae SO em ae eG, = Rn a 479-480
Rie Ne INGA Um ee Ree IR TMT IR Nun ia ha tele gids ee 480-490
Blue-green clay with occasional thin sand streaks.........----..-..-.-- 490-493
SeTNURGN YP PN Eee Sey. PTS aieinias Siders ws cinta fad dleia cs 6 ose ore 493-500
Blue-green clay, with occasional thin streaks of coarse sand.........--- 500-504
White clay, fragments showing jointed structure..............---.----- 504-511
MC TMPE NTO; OTEOM CIA on ssa sc. ha ce ee a ae eae ee sien Ab Gest 511-519
Quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) ......... 519-520
(GARDE? CLE obo 6 Semicon en ar ae a een SU este 520-523
Gray clay with occasional thin strata of sand (artesian waters in all sands.

Waters smell of sulphuretted hydrogen)...........------------------ 523-529
CIP (Cl ENT SG aise RRS 8 Gd A ae NST LRM ORE HESS le 529-533
Very fine quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) - 533-534
HME emCON CLAYS <2 0 jac Lis ee oe) ale me SEY pages emote dar te Ble 534-539
Quicksand with some rather coarse gravel (strong artesian flow. Water .

carries no sulphuretted hydrogen)..-.-..-.-...-.-2-----2--+----+-+-- 539-541
yLdekaumere Oo waAshyelavian ne shih Saal oe Oe a Se toe Pa AE 541-549
“LESTE DPMS) Gl i cae I aha Ss ay ar SE 549-554
PERE ETIBCL AR ier cis cy aie er aieee/ ue 'cy ola tae ue ERA ye eat Cra Ray op ene 504-556
Menmvatauohswitite clay 20 5545. oe. le ea See se eS Os 506-560
CG point el aspera Ls 0 Py an ee i MP a ley a 560-561
1 BSN Y= RESID CE NPT ol gh Ra eg NUD ee ARSC 561-583
NANTES CLES hh Li ek te ae I Ui aM Der. coe NE 583-586
Puiekcsands(smallartesian flow) 2... ~ 34 Ge 5. ee ee Ns 586-587
CIBAP 5 <a -eleag Sle wiBS Scie Sit ee ae meats Silastic in is onl Abra NRG 587-096
Alternations of clay and black sand (small artesian flows in sands, espe-

Stallysat GOO Lee L) ian eee eee he aes os emcee Se Meme ONE 596-609
“TEQUUE VEN Aare DEESY IE fas eM eS ee em ag Ie ep ane IA 609-620
GIPSON Ves Se x aS gE ctr ee SPSS a Er AGS a(n US 620-637
SENG eae 5a ac HN ga kA tT A a 637-638
Rasinmeiickayeelaye ae) ee sek ye SG a oe ea ay, 638-655
Mictecolored ereenish clay. .:52. 02/4. 545. ee ces shee epee te nsec see ease 655-657
Memyprameimunhiite clave cs. oleh oc eli eS ce ee nuisances age 657-676
Shielssamnda(small artesian, flow)... 4.--s2=-.ocpeiec iis ofa cies cise one 676-677
Rapid alternations of clay and sand (very little water)........--.--...- 677-680
VV TEARS CG BNI RS aaa A Noa ao a a a Te a A ara SU i a 680-691
Rapid alternations of elay.and sang... 20/2022 e os Seen oils sin ee ae ee 691-700
1S aN TerTa S| OYE) Fa ARR SESS a Ne ys a a 700-719
SMO GVenyAsmMall atlesian HOW) as eaters sees meaner kee ee a 719-720
SES Tonyatiss MCL anys cio te eae a ee ep NL mee ee Sa 720-738

Rapid alternations of quicksand and clay, the former carrying a little
coarse gravel (small artesian flows).........---------------------e-e- 738-746

58 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Feet.

Wery.touch brownish clay..:...- 2:2. - <2. 0ss--- +>) Sue ade 746-759
Rapid alternations of sand with brownish clay (small artesian flows in

CHOHRATIOS) oo oe Tl Doe at icia eis Je che eine ieee « Eee 759-771
ardunrawrhishiGlay.. 02.6 st ss ges se Shee ene Sodas er 771-785
Ouicksaneartesian water). .20 00. $002. Te eee 785-786

BV Naga ate inj a Dictate cis asish, sim ajinres © Sale A ober eae Re oe 786-790
Sand (amall artesian flow)...:..-..5-- 0. seo 790-791
mews Clay Fo Fae isa nie ayepaimie scene's, 5.8 5, ee 791-798
api alternations of sand and clay... -.. 7225-77-22 e saeco oe eee 798-805
Hard brown Clay ice ae aes hae o-oo) ee ee 805-816
Quicksand and gravel (artesian water).......-.------- iMag ON, at eaphet 816-822
Hard iwhite clay S202 se a See 8s 822-824
Rapid alternations of brownish quicksands and clays. Some gravel

# inch in diameter in the sands (very strong artesian flows in sands.

Temperature’ of water,’ 22°C.) 220220220 b 2 2 8 ane nce ee 824-846
Browuush: elay.2. 5200 f2 00 loool ss 2 ee 846-850
pandvand.pravel. if 32. 2 i205 ee Oe 850-855
Rapid alternations of sand and clay. ---. 2-2 -ase oe ee 855-858
Wery.dine sand 2 252! 23. b a ne oe noe he ee ee 858-862
Rapid alternations of sand and brownish OY. oc. 2-32 ee eee 862-865
Gra vGlay.2.2 fools eee ee ee 865-876
Coarse, gravel (artesian water). 2.005.002 -. (2 22. Soe see eae 876-878
Wery fine sand 2.0. 56 $65 ooo ee le been nee bn ns 878-882
Rapid'alternations of clay and sand’<22 52). 232. 2kee ee er nee 882-886
KaranGlay es. lose dace: ow bee gaa Aon eee ae ee 886-889
Hine quicksand (artesian water) ° 7.005255... ee eee 889-892
Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay........--....--.--------- 892-899
MRPAY, Clay. os bso ie UL i ee 899-908
Sand nd. coarse gravel (very strong artesian flows)....-.-..-..-.-.---.- 908-910
Very, dinesand.: . osc. sos t ss Se ee eee oe 910-922
Sand and coarse gravel (small artesian SOW) aio ec oe sees ee ee eee 922-924
Light-gray clay..:---.---.--+---. SiS anit ae seiere aie PRR aos art pear ae 924-924
Hainersand 4082400 02 TS ov ae a 934-941
AGN A CLAY 0-2 oo 8- Noe teed eee Sol ainie afB aia yee eee 941-945
DANG S25 soe ein Soe eis ae cee eee een ee ee ee 945-947
EUW, Clays: sc2.. 20 ees 2 an cin eye, oeie =e oe ee ee 947-953
Gray Clay en ne ee ee eee ee 953-967
Sand and gravel (small artesian flow). .....--.---:-----------.-.-.-.- 967-969
Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of at So la ee ee 969-980
Brown C1BY. . 222 - eieo Pyarsyadin ree: cre Hates eee ee Cee ee 980-1, 002
Hine, sand (Gry). oie oe ne ee ee ee ook tn ee ee 1, 002-1, 003
PALA MOWMACIAY...o coe ptate aa ee eae eee Te eae Ce eae 1, 003-1, 049
Dang. (dry)... oo em ce in Ae eee oe en a an 1, 049-1, 050
TOWN, CLAY 2. os os eign eee oe ae ape ae e aler ne 1, 050-1, 078
Quicksand (probably dry) 2-9 -- 502-2 ee i 078-1, 079
Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of sand.................- rh 079-1, 085
(ough brown, clay... (fo 52 2 oc at eee ns oe eo ee ee L 085-1, 131
Very thin sand sea (diy) a nee eek oe ee oe ee a L, 131
Brown. clay... 2. coc ce mile ode mao = ate ees a oe el 1, 131-1, 140
Sand cemented by calcium carbonate, believed to be lake tufa........- 1, 140-1, 144
PPLCKY. CTA: CLAY mnie tae ge min ei ey ain ee 1, 144-1, 165
Rapid alternations of clay and sand. <-.-.--. 1222-25. s- oso 1, 165-1, 175
Lime-cemented sand. Probably lake tufa........-...-..........-.-- 1, 175-1, 190
Reddish clay with occasional very thin sand streaks (dry). .....-...-.- 1, 190-1, 204
Hine. sand, propablyuquicks. 00. eee ee oe eee 1, 204

The casing having stuck hopelessly in the cemented sand between 1,175 and 1,190,
it was impossible to carry the hole deeper.

The bore does not show either beds of salines or brines. The material obtained
consists of muds, silts, clays, and quicksands. Artesian water was encountered at
many points. The nonpenetration of saline beds by a single bore hole is not surprising
when one considers the area of the central depression. The fact that artesian flows
were encountered would argue that the bore was considerably without the central
mud area, or the area of lowest depression. The former lake in evaporating may have
separated into several parts, and thus we might have several saline beds of moderate
thickness in the central area. The general silting of the whole area would render it

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 59

extremely difficult to locate these beds. Until proved otherwise by a number of
bores, Railroad Valley must be looked upon as a possible source of buried salines.
The question as to whether these salines will be characterized by a high potassium
content is an open one. The finding of surface crusts and brines of relatively high
potassium content proves nothing as far as we know at present about the buried salines
and brines. A possible explanation of the high potassium content in the surface salines
and brines may be found in the fact that there are a number of hot springs in this
area, and these may have been responsible for the surface salines. Until analyses of
the waters of these springs are available this is only conjecture.

SAND SPRINGS FLAT.

Sand Springs Flat areais described on the United States Topographic Sheet as ‘‘ Hight-
mile Flat” and ‘‘Fourmile Flat.’’ It was called ‘‘ Alkali Valley” in Russell’s Mono-
graph on Lahontan Lake. It lies 11 miles southeast of Fallon, in Churchill County,
Nev. The area is about 37 square miles. It has a peculiar interest in that a bay of
Lake Lahontan once occupied the area. The highest level of Lake Lahontan was 439
feet above the present flat, elevation 3,961. The desiccation of Lake Lahontan would
have left a shallow lake upon the flat, and this, on evaporation, would have left a bed
of salines. Russell states that the salt bed is from 3 to 5 inches thick near the margin
and in the central portion is not less than 3 feet thick. Rain water has collected the
salines in the southeast end of the flat. Russell! states that after rains a shallow
brine lake of several inches depth and about 15 square miles in area occupies this
Sopa No notable amounts of potassium have been reported from the salines of
this area.

SEVIER LAKE.

Sevier Lake is in west-central Utah, Millard County. It is of some interest in that
it was formerly a part of Lake Bonneville and for a long time was occupied by a shallow
lake, which in recent times has dried up. Gilbert? describes the history of this lake.
From his account I take the following:

Sections of the saline beds in the central and marginal portions of the dried lake.

Central. Marginal.
1. Top. Sodium sulphate, 2inches ...........-..- 1. Top. Sodium chloride cr:st, + inch.
2. Sodium sulphate with some sodium chloride, 1 | 2. Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate and mag-
inch. Ss sulphate—free crystals mingled with water,

14 inch. 2

3. Sodium sulphate, 2 inches..............-...--- 3. Sodium sulphate with sodium chloride, a crust of
coherent crystals, 4 inch.

4, Gray clay containing woody fiber, 2 inches..... 4, Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate; incoherent

crystals mingled with water, 14 inches.
5. Fine sand containing fresh water shells, 6 | 5. Sodium chloride, with sodium sulphate, chemically
inches. identical with No. 2, but fine-grained and with the
consistence of an ooze; color white above, with oc-
casional passages of pink and green beneath, 4 inch.
Ga Gray Clayieetaes 4255915 nSsceseaeteccceeeets 6. Dark-gray mud, 2 feet.

The analyses upon these from the same reference are given in the succeeding table:

Constituent. Center. | Margin. | Brine.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Seal srian Sine ee Oe ee Se Se es See eet ae ee eee ere oe 84.6 14.3 15
SOMITE AL OM TiO epee ee aah maa sears 4 yaictesisise ine SE CIE sioner
SOMRITITG HIOEIG Cees eerie Serie Pte ns Nol Seino a2 aotearoa ee
WAICTIMUSUILPHALGs: cacti. es eee Re ee Seok eS Le eee EER eee Sa peeee
MEOTESLMMUSULp abet cere ee eee eee aoe beateeeenete center ee.
MAD MeSIITIMNCHIOLIG Gao eae oe teins scene nicchcteeccaoeesceer eee eee
Potassium sulphate....
WVDOINSS cra. seen ersten o
HERI) Oxee eague se av EES tage uBR SS SSUES HER RR EE EHGaeeeE

100.00 100.00 100.00

1 Monograph No. 11, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 235. 2 Monograph No. 1, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 244.

60 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The accumulation of sodium sulphate in the center is of interest. The absence of
potassium compounds in the brine and the low content in the marginal deposits are
conspicuous. The accumulations in Sevier Lake are undoubtedly due to compara-
tive recent action. Deeper bores would have revealed more of the history of the
basin and perhaps beds of salines characteristic of the Bonneville period would have
been discovered.

BLACK ROCK DESERT, NEVADA.

The Black Rock and Smoke Creek Deserts are of notable extent. The northern
extension of Lake Lahontan occupied this area, but no surface deposits of salines have
been discovered. Some saline crusts can be found, but these are of little importance.
A 500-foot well was put down at Sulphur, on the line of the Western Pacific Railroad
and on the edge of the mud flat, but neither oil nor salines were found. West of
Gerlach, salt is produced in small quantities by the evaporation of brines obtained from
shallow wells. ;

But few data of a chemical nature are available for this area. In the vicinity of
Gerlach samples of mud were obtained from a shallow auger hole. From the same
vicinity water samples were also obtained. The analytical results are given below.
The muds show a high content of salines, and these consist of chlorides and sulphates,
together with small quantities of carbonates. The potassium content is about what
would be expected. The mud isa tenacious clay. The waters are somewhat similar
in composition to the salines contained in the clays. ;

Analyses of saline crust and muds from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada.

Percentage of total soluble salts.

Total solu-
Sample and depth. Pigicalts:
Ca. | Mg. | Na K. | CO3. | HCO3.| SO4 Cl
F c Peck P. Ch. |B ct. | Peck (Pact ex Chaa eee to) eenGee IEAGE
See erst. eS ee 5 Sees soya ces 1.56 | 0.02 | 34.41 | 1.12 | 0.05 | 0.10 |21.36 | 40.99 59. 68
uds: :
Ga Pailee hs Soi che Seer ecieeEaeee -78 | .02 | 35.90 | 2.32 -16 .33 | 6.85 | 53.63 18.31
1 P2T OLS (ool A eR oe LR a ae see aril -03 | 36.09 | 2.06 | Tr. .66 | 7.84 | 52.57 23.19
PAS YY 0 (ol Re REET Se ln acc ee . 63 -02 | 36.32 | 2.28 0 -49 | 4.97 | 55.37 24. 83
aie (lo) ae ee eee ee re -68 | .03 | 36.48 | 2.33 0 .35 | 4.07 | 56.03 34. 47
1 Average ratio Na to K in muds is 16.
Analyses of waters from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada.
of total soli ion.
Percentage of total solids on evaporation Seids on:
Sample. Te | CES
Ca. | Mg. | Na. | K. | COs. |HCOs.| SOy. | Cl. tion.
~ Parts per
Pi eb. | Cks | ear Che | eCh. \cbte| be Cie eeencran eects 100,000.
Water from surface trench..........- 0.48 | 0.08 | 36.03 | 1.49 | 0.10 | 0.46 | 4.64 | 55.11 5, 209
Average, 4springs...--.------------- rt -06 | 32.08 | 2.73 -19 | 2.97} 8.13 | 47.57 428.4
Balinese Hopspriripccs = en -- tssoe ee 2.48 | Tr. | 32.63 | 2.70 0} 1.35 | 11.25 | 47.93 444

{Saline clays and crust from point 1.5 miles northeast of Gerlach, Nev. Wate1 from surface trench from
same place. Samples by W.S. Palmer; analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

The waters from the four springs averaged were taken 0.25 mile from Gerlach. The temperature of
these springs ranged from 16.1° to 32.2° C. Samples by W. S. Palmer: analyses by 8. C. Dinsmore.
+ The rer spring was three-fourths mile northwest of Gerlach. Sample by W. S. Palmer: analyses

y J. A. Cullen.

BURIED DEPOSITS OF SALINES.

The deposits resulting from the desiccation of Searles Lake are exposed on the
surface and their discovery was a simple matter. Geological reasoning indicates
that the conditions exemplified by Searles must have been repeated at other places
in the Great Basin. Evidences of Quaternary lakes are to be found in a number of
places, but not in all places do we find the expected saline deposits. The largest
Quaternary lake basin, excepting Bonneville, is Lahontan, and it is now occupied
by Pyramid, Walker, Humboldt, Carson, and Winnemucca Lakes. Unlike Mono,

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 61

Owens, and Great Salt Lakes, the waters of these lakes are comparatively fresh. Geo-
logical evidence goes to show that Lahontan Basin must have been the locus for an
accumulation of salines for a long period. The inconsequential surface accumulations
of salines in this basin, coupled with the anomalous condition of the present lakes,
led Russell! to propose the following hypothesis:

‘‘After the last great rise of Lake Lahontan there was a long-continued episode
during which its basin was more arid than at present. Evaporation during that, time
is thought to have been equal to precipitation, and the residual lakes were reduced
to the playa condition—that is, the remnants of the great lake gathered in the lowest
depressions of its basin were annually or occasionally evaporated to dryness, and
their contained salts were precipitated and either absorbed by the clays, etc., deposited
at the same time, or buried beneath such mechanical deposits. This process may
be observed in action in many of the valleys of Nevada in which ephemeral lakes
occur. The broad naked playas of Black Rock, Smoke Creek, and Carson Deserts,
as well as the level floors of the basins occupied by Pyramid, Winnemucca, and
Walker Lakes, are in support of this hypothesis. Should the lakes just mentioned
be evaporated to dryness, playas would be left similar to those in neighboring valleys
of less depth.

“Tt is pened the level floors of these valleys and lake basins that the more soluble
salts once dissolved in the waters of Lake Lahontan are buried. Borings at certain
localities might reveal the presence of strata of various salts, but in most cases they
are probably disseminated through great thicknesses of clay, sand, and other mechan-
ical sediments.”’

Russell’s? admirable discussion of the freshening of lakes by desiccation, together
with the later review in the reference cited above, leaves little to be added. Under
the discussion of the present and past rate of accumulation of saline materialit was hown
that over some 95,000 square miles area a present accumulation of approximately
3,000,000 tons of salines per annum is taking place, and that in the humid period of
the Quaternary this rate might have been more than four times as large. No even
approximate estimate of Quaternary time for the basin has been made, and conse-
quently no estimate of the probable quantity of salines can be made.? That it was
large goes without saying. While absolute proof of Russell’s hypothesis has not
been made, its probability is almost beyond question. If we admit it, the pertinent
questions arise: Where are these deposits, and what is their probable value as a
source of salines? The answer to the first question has been given by Russell. The
answer to the second is given in part by the chemical studies of the deposits in Searles
and Columbus Marshes, Death and Dixie Valleys, and the partially concentrated
solutions of Mono, Owens, and Great Salt Lakes.

Gilbert shows that Lake Bonneville overflowed and discharged its waters, together
with their salines, into river waters which eventually found their way to the ocean.
On account of the prevalence of older sedimentaries in the Bonneville basin and
the low content of potassium in the brines of Great Salt Lake, together with the above
fact, the Bonneville basin is not looked upon as a very favorable place for the discovery
of the more valuable salines. On the other hand, Lake Lahontan and the Quaternary
basins of the west, central, and southwest parts of the Great Basin have never reached
an outlet. The regional rocks are largely volcanic, and consequently these Qua-
ternary areas have been looked upon favorably as a possible source of valuable salines.

Ti we consider that the present topography of the Lahotan Basin is, in a measure, a
counterpart of the topography at the end of the final desiccation period, then we must
conclude that the present lakes are holding within their shores the former areas of
maximum depression, and, consequently, a part of the saline accumulations is buried
in the sediments and beneath the waters of the present lakes. The remainder must
be sought for in the mud playas and basins contiguous to the present lake basins.

An examination of Russell’s map of Lake Lahontan at its highest water stage?
indicates a division of the lake into five major lakes, Carson Lake, Black Rock Desert,
Pyramid, Winnemucca, Walker, and Honey Lakes, given in the order of their mag-

1 Bul. No. 530 A, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 16.

211th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, Wy 244.

3 Russell estimates the duration of the post-Lahontan period to be less than 300 years. Gilbert estimates
that at the present rate of accession some 34,000 years would be necessary to account for the sodium chlo-
ride in Great Salt Lake. I-have calculated the following: At present rates of accession it would take
18,576 years for the chlorine accumulation in Owens Lake; 9,028 years for the chlorine accumulation in
Mono Lake (assuming the same per square mile annual rate of accumulation that was determined for the
Truckee Basin); 4,529 years for the chlorine accumulation in Pyramid Lake; 840 years for the chlorine
accumulation in Walker Lake, and 6,452 years for the nitrate accumulation in Owens Lake. The impos-
sibility of determining the average rate of accumulation renders such determinations of little value.

4 Eleventh Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, pl. 5, p. 32, and the U. S. Geol. Survey topographic
sheets, Granite Range, Nev.; Disaster, Nev.; and oney Lake, Cal.

62 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

nitude. Each of these lakes on evaporation must have left deposits of salines. It is
not improbable that in some cases several separate deposits were left. The Black
Rock Desert is at present a comparatively level plain. As far as known, no notable
ap pene of salines have been discovered. That they exist in some places beneath
the desert sand or absorbed within the muds is probable. The great area of this
desert (1,600 square miles approximately within the 4,000-foot contour) and its
extreme flatness would render the search for these deposits difficult. Pyramid
Lake, the deepest of the present lakes, is 360 feet deep. This basin must have been

TRUCKEE FP.

PYAALI/O
0 :

IE BE ee se
WALAER PF. WALAEP “ae
5 .

ae PS ot at ee

CHEE WINNELAUCCA nN.

re Pi ier a ee

WW Yoo :

eo
200

ss Ses Sts BB eee

VO COTES ———

Fic. 7.—Profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono, and Walker Lakes.

the deepest of the Quaternary basins. It is an open question whether the waters of
Black Rock Desert or those of Carson Lake drained into this basin. Present topo-
graphic conditions would indicate no particular drainage from either place. In fact,
if we consider that Pyramid Lake receives the largest stream we would conclude
that the overflow from this lake during the intermediate stages of evaporation would
have been into the Black Rock Desert and into the Carson. Topographic conditions
seem to indicate that Walker Lake did not drain in the direction of Carson Lake.
The lowest pass between Carson and Pyramid Lakes is at Ragtown, and at an elevation
of 4,100 feet. If we assume that the Carson and Truckee Rivers had flows relatively
the same as at present, we should expect Pyramid Lake to discharge some of its con-
tents into the Carson. There are no present evidences as to the direction of flow from

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 63

one lake to the other, and perhaps the assumption that there was no considerable flow
from one lake into the other is the nearest to the fact. This would lead us to conclude
that in each of these basins we might expect salines at depth.

The present depth of Pyramid and Walker Lakes, needless to say, would preclude
exploration work in these localities. The profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono,
and Walker Lakes are shown in figure 7. These profiles show the deepest portions of
the lakes to be in the central part or away from shores or inlet streams. Topographic
evidence goes to show that the saline deposits in Black Rock Desert must*have been
spread over a great area and must have been relatively thin. The difficulty of pros-
pecting or exploring has been commented upon.

Carson Lake is comparatively shallow and would not offer serious obstacles to
exploratory work. The fact that the Carson Sink receives the drainage of both the
Humboldt and the Carson Rivers, each of which drains relatively large areas, as well
as the extent of the Quaternary lake, makes this basin comparatively attractive for
exploration. The greater area of the Carson Desert and the difficulty of securing
accurate information from surface studies as to the probable structure of this basin
would render a search for salines almost as difficult as in the Black Rock Desert.

The U. S. Geological Survey put down a bore in the Carson Desert at what was
hypothetically assumed to be the axis of the deepest depression in the Quaternary
lake basin. The site of the bore is close to the north end of Timber Lake in sec.
30, T. 21 N., R. 30 E. The bore was sunk to a depth of about 985 feet and failed to
penetrate either saline beds or brines. The log of the bore to a depth of 320 feet is

(A) BEGINNING OF DE. S/OCCATIONV

Fic. 8.—Cross sections showing probable conditions existing in Carson Lake at different stages of
desiccation.

published in the bulletin noted below.1 Sand, clay, and quicksand were the prin-
cipal sediments penetrated to this depth. Artesian water was encountered at a num-
ber of different levels. Examination of these waters showed them to be of low saline
content. Certain samples showed from 0.10 to 0.22 per cent potassium.” Other water
samples showed from traces to 0.1 per cent. At greater depths than that established
by the record it is said that no notable quantity of saline material was found. A
study of the Carson topographic sheet, together with the information shown by this
bore, indicates that the bore was put down in the delta material deposited by the
Carson River. That this delta deposit is of great thickness and outside of the area of
possible occurrence of saline beds is not an unwarranted conclusion. We would
expect sedimentation to be most active at the mouth of the Carson. Examination
of older and more recent maps indicates changes in the position of the Carson River
where it enters Carson Lake. The delta formed by the Carson during the Quaternary
lake period must have been eroded in part and must have supplied the alluvial mate-
rial of the present delta. The probable changes which took place during the evapora-
tion of Carson Lake in this delta material and in the deeper portions of the basin are
represented by figure 8. Three stages are indicated. In the first stage, or the begin-
ning of desiccation, a deep lake is represented, in one end of which is a considerable
delta deposit. The finer sediments and silts carried into the lake are represented
as a thick bed upon the bottom. As the lake evaporated, erosion began in the former
delta deposit and a new delta began to form from the débris of the old. This new
delta would be expected to reach out as the lake evaporated and, as it were, push
the lake farther and farther down its bed. The end of the desiccation period is
represented in the } sketch. On the resumption of greater rainfall we would expect
silts and sediments to be brought down from the erosion of the remnants of the older
delta. Under certain conditions the saline beds would be closed over by this mate-
rial. The bottom diagram, figure 8, shows the conditions at the end of the third period.
An examination of c section would indicate that the saline deposits would be removed
at some considerable distance from the remnants of the old delta. The flatness of the
Carson Desert and its extent, particularly to the east, needs to be seen to be appreciated.

1Bul. No. 530A, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 18. 2P.obably on to’al soli’s.

64 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The shore lines in the bottom of the basin, which appear with great distinctness, indi-
cate the slow recession and evaporation of the waters. Sufficient time is indicated
for the development of a structure similar to that shown in sketch 6. Wind erosion,
no doubt, played an important part in the closure of the saline beds. The soft char-
acter of the Lahontan sediments and the fact that the prevailing winds are from the
west would indicate favorable conditions for solian action. The east end of the
Carson Desert, and particularly that portion along the flanks of the Sweetwater Range,
is conspicuous for the large sand dunes which have resulted from the wind action of
the present.

The general features involved in the search for the buried salines of the Carson Sink
may well be considered. A study of the probable structural relations attending the
formation and closure of a saline deposit such as might have taken place in the Carson
Sink has shown that the most favorable area is removed from the delta area, either old
ornew. In the particular case of the Carson Desert a line might be drawn at the present
mouth of the Carson and extending southeast and northwest. Southwest of this line
is the delta area. Northeast is the area considered as most favorable for the search of
a saline deposit. The area between the line established above and the lowest con-
tour—3,900 feet—inclosing the present lake is about 350 square miles. The main
deposit of Searles Lake occupies an area having a ratio of 1 to 404, as compared with
the area of the whole present basin including fhe salt deposit. The drainage area of
the Carson and Humboldt Rivers is 27,575 square miles. Using the above ratio would
give a probable area of saline deposit of 68 square miles. The extent ofa saline deposit
would be determined by its thickness. Consequently the above area might be larger
or smaller. Again, the deposit might be divided, which is not at all unlikely in the
present case. The prospecting problem would be to locate by boring an area greater
or less than 68 square miles in an area of 350 square miles.

The nature of the saline bed, if it were discovered, might be similar to that in Searles,
or the salines might be distributed in a relatively thick bed of eolian sediments.
Respecting the probability of potassium little can be said. Gale’s discovery in
Columbus Marsh opens up possibilities which in my judgment would warrant explora-
tion in this area. ,

The only other instance of exploration for buried salines is in Railroad Valley, Nev.,
where a 1,200-foot bore was sunk, but without results. The valley is unlike the Carson
Sink in that no large stream discharges into it, and there is no lake of consequence.
The results of the bore have been discussed.

SALINES IN PRESENT LAKES.

The composition of the waters of the more important lakes of the basin region are
given in Table XV (Appendix). The three most important lakes from the standpoint
of concentration and amount of salines are Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes. The
computed quantities of the more important salines in these lakes are given in the
table which follows:

Quantities of salts in Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes.

Lake. NaCl. NazSO.4. KCl. NazCOs. | NasBs07.
Tons. Tons Tons. Tons Tons
GreatSalbths enti selon eek: 400,000; 000:|!:: 80, 000; O00;).e820'. cach eared ieee ea
OWens 4.955582 ceaie camboaate oe cecaacte 20, 000, 000 22,000,000 | 2,140,000 | 22,000,000 |......--.-.--.

iT Ge Mapes 2 Recah Liar, Sepa 86,099,600 | 47,586,400 | 10,538,000 | 92) 101, 100 945, 100

1 Monograph 1, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 253. fs
28th Annual Report. Quaternary History of Mono Valley, Cal., pp. 295-296. Potassium sulphate has
been recalculated to potassium chloride in the case of Owens Lake.

Salt is separated from the brines of Great Salt Lake and at Owens Lake sodium
carbonate and bicarbonate have been separated by solar evaporation and crystalliza-
tion for a number of years. At Large Soda Lake, Nev., soda was also separated. Out-
side of this, there has been no other commercial utilization of the waters of the basin
lakes. Only two other lakes in the basin approach the three mentioned above in
degree of salinity—South and Middle Alkali Lakes, Oreg. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) The
saline content of the remaining lakes is of little present importance. No important
concentration of potassium salts has taken place in the present lakes, excepting incon-
sequential cases which have been mentioned before. Later investigations have not
supported the earlier estimates of notable concentrations of potash salts in Abert Lake
and the Surprise Valley. (Pl. V, fig. 2, and Pl. VI.)

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 65

CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS ABOUT THE SHORES.

Tufa deposits have been found about the shore lines of many of the Quaternary
lake basins. They are not so conspicuous in Bonneville as at Lahontan or Mono.
They have been reported from Searles and Owens Lakes. The origin of this tufa, its
composition and mineralogy, have been discussed by Russell and Gilbert,! and it is
not important that they be repeated here. The significant feature of these deposits
is their potassium content. Gilbert quotes analyses from the Fortieth Parallel Survey
which show 0.22 per cent potassium. This is significant, as it indicates one way in
which potassium compounds separate out from lake waters. The deposits are of no
commercial interest. They have been an important means of interpreting the events
of the Quaternary history.

POTASH-RICH MINERALS.

Of the soluble potash-rich minerals kalinite and niter are the only two known as min-
eral species in the basin region. Undoubtedly potassium chloride and sulphate are
associated with the bedded salines, but no distinct mineral species has been reported.

The insoluble potash minerals, with the exceptions noted below, are associated
with other rock-forming minerals in igneous rocks. Rocks containing notable quan-
tities of potash-rich minerals are inconspicuous. Ransome? reports a leucite basanite
from the Bullfrog district, Nevada, but this rock contains a very low percentage of

otash.

» The occurrence of alunite has been discussed already. Jarosite contains from 6 to
9 per cent potash. This mineral is not uncommon and has been reported from Tono-
pah, Goldfield, and Bullfrog, Nev. Itisassociated with quartz and, in the occurrence
at Goldfield, it is found in an altered tuff. It does not occur in quantity and is of no
economic importance. Orthoclase has been reported, but, so far as known, no notable
amounts of this mineral are available. Adularia has been reported from Jarbridge,
Nev. Theanalyses show a potash content ranging from 11.84 to 15.12 per cent. The
‘mineral occurs associated with quartz in veins. With the exception of the alunite
deposit noted in a previous section, the possibility of finding workable deposits of
potash-rich minerals or rocks is not good.

GYPSUM.

Three types of gypsum deposits are found in the basin region—rock gypsum, gypsite,
and lake gypsum. Rock gypsum occurs in Nevada at Mound House, Gerlach, Love-
lock, Table Mountain, the Ludwig mine in Mason Valley, and at Arden, Clark County.
At Mound House and Lovelock the gypsum is associated with limestone. At Mound
House, Gerlach, and the Ludwig mine the surface gypsum passes into anhydrite at
depth. Probably in all cases the rock gypsum is associated with rocks of Triassic age.®

At Mound House gypsite occurs in thin beds upon a number of low, crescent-shaped
terraces which are a part of the alluvial slope between the rock gypsum deposit and
the Carson River. It has undoubtedly been derived from the erosion and partial
solution of the rock gypsum deposits above. Seepage and surface waters have caused
the concentration of the gypsum in beds varying from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The
material is of a pulverulent nature. Analyses taken from several of these beds and at
a number of different points are given in the following table:

Analyses of samples from gypsum deposits.
[Samples collected and analyses made by G. J. Young.]

Sample No.—
Constituent.
1 2) 3 4 5 6 8
Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.
GyPSHM Aer esse a. 59. 79. 68. 20 79. 51 53. 94 50. 43 1, 82. 9 79. 81 72.37
Calcium carbonate. . - 14.01 12. 83 8.72 12.58 13.58 6.35 8. 82 5.21
Insoluble............. 26.13 8.72 11.78 33.48 35. 98 10. 80 11.33 22.39

1 Monograph 1, p. 167, Gilbert; 11th Annual Report, p. 187, Russell; Bul. No. 108, U. S. Geol. Survey, p.
94, I. C. Russell.

2 Bul. No. 407, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 58.

8 Professional Paper No. 66, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 108.

4 Bul. No. 497, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 52.

5 See G. D. Louderback, Bul. No. 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 118.

2081414 5

66 . BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

F. L. Hess! describes the occurrence of gypsum in recent lake beds in the Mojave
Desert, Cal. The beds occur in a periodic lake in the vicinity of Amboy, Cal. Bristol
Lake is the name given to the area. The gypsum occurs in the lake bottom close to
the shores of the lake. The bed is of variable thickness and its maximum thickness
has not been determined. In one place gypsum was found to a depth of 9.5 feet, the
upper layers being more or less mixed with dirt. A brine is reached in the lake bed
at a depth varying from 8 to 10 feet. Prospect holes show the deposit to be confined
from within one-half to 1 mile of the old shore line. Thegypsum is of a granular nature.
Hess ascribes the localization of a deposit of this kind as being due to the greater
evaporation rate of the lake waters near the shore. Capillarity in the marginal material
also undoubtedly has contributed to the local concentration of the gypsum.

Rock gypsum is being mined at Mound House, Arden, and Ludwig. The deposits
are of considerable commercial importance. The gypsite deposits at Mound House
were worked for a time, but have been idle for some years. They are of doubtful
value. The gypsum at Bristo] Lake is reported by Hess as being exploited by the
Pacific Cement Plaster Co.

CONCLUSION.

Repeated reference has been made to the Stassturt deposits of Germany in connec-
tion with the search for potash salts in the United States. While this has served a
useful purpose in stimulating the search for salines, it perhaps has resulted in the
opinion that similar deposits might be expected in the Great Basin. Such a view
can not now be held. The German deposits are in the Triassic and they, as well as
the associated sedimentaries, have been folded and tilted. They represent complete
‘desiccation and more or less secondary action before, during, and after tectonic dis-
turbance. Omitting from present consideration the deposits of the Jurassic and
Tertiary, the saliniferous deposits of the Great Basin may be said to represent com-
paratively recent geologic activity. They are confined to the Quaternary lake and
desert basins. The older deposits were formed in earlier periods of desiccation, but
desiccation did not reach extreme conditions. The present deposits are in process
of formation. Very little disturbance of the Quaternary and recent sedimentaries has
taken place. More or less secondary action, such as solution, recrystallization, and
movement of brines, is taking place. It may be said that the basin deposits already
discovered represent the initial stages of what in time might result in deposits rather
remotely similar to Stassfurt, but of much less magnitude.

The influence of regional rocks has been commented upon and the prevalence of
volcanics in the Great Basin has caused geologists to turn to this region as a place in
which to look for potassium salts. Regional differences, caused by the prevalence
of different types of rocks, are manifest In the presence of alkali carbonates and
borates in the -western part of the Great Basin and the presence of chlorides in the
eastern portion where sedimentaries predominate. In the case of potassium, no
such marked difference is shown. The potassium content in the saline residue of the
water of Great Salt Lake is not much less than that of Mono, Owens, and Pyramid
Lakes. Humboldt Lake, North, Middle and South Alkali Lakes, it is true, show a
higher content of potassium, but these are relatively unimportant. The resistance
to.weathering of the potash-rich minerals and the ease with which this element is
absorbed and removed from surface and underground waters might well account for
the low content of potash in all of the lakes.

With the exception of the crusts and efflorescences about hot springs and in soils,
no notably high potassium content has been reported from salines taken from beds.
The potassium content in, material of this nature ranges from less than | to 2 per cent.
It is not in the salts which have crystallized out, but in the residual brines or mother
liquors that concentration of potassium has taken place, and it is to these that we
must look for potassium salts. As desiccation approaches completion, so will the
residual brines increase in proportion of potassium. A near approach to complete
desiccation would give a brine hie in potash. The fortuitous absorption and sealing
over of such a brine would protect it from further changes, except those produced by
circulating underground waters. It is evident that the above action might occur at
different stages of desiccation, and brines varying in degree of potash content would
be absorbed and sealed in the same way. Sealing would not necessarily have to be
caused by the formation of impervious layers, although this would be more effective
than alayerofsand. A layer of sand, subsequently flooded with water, would deplete
by diffusion the partially concentrated brine beneath and, in time, a much weaker
brine would result. It should be noted that the absorption of saline waters which

1 Bul. No. 413, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 128.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

P 4 Bet Neen eee qe
-entration sufficient to produce ¢ry:
have no AC X peentrat. . + yovassaav1uil UL SULUG UL
t reached co.” “14 gy no concentration of potassium, The absorption

compounds would give lituc tA oe ;
. = ve a weak and vy. “s br val
such a solution by desert sands wou. ™: Se ne oes ne Doubt.
aise eALEC aADOVe,

further investigation will show many of the .. oi HEC diae ae

Two general types in the desiccation phenomena ma, .° @8!4Nguished, the Seay
type, in which a large, deep lake was evaporated, and the compa.c™Vely thick b¢
of saline material, restricted in area and saturated with residual brine, was form
and a second type, which is best illustrated by Death Valley, in which case we h:
the building up of a mass of muds and silts with interbedded salines, by the repea
formation and desiccation of a shallow lake. To the latter type belong most of -
desert, dry lakes, or playas. The line between the two types is not a sharp one.

The possibility of deposits at depth is still not completely disproved. The geolo,
cal evidence goes to show that several periods of desiccation occurred. Each perio
might have been characterized by deposits of the kind described above. Such evi
dence as we have, and it is meager, does not indicate deposits of this nature. The
evidence goes to show that the larger Quaternary lakes existed for a long time and
desiccation was a feature of their final stages. This would place the period of saline
formation at the end rather than at an intermediate time, andl would argue for deposits
at shallow depths rather than otherwise. On the other hand, the geological evidence
is not necessarily complete. The obliteration by erosion of older lake lines than the
present ones is notimprobable. Only by systematic deep boring could such a question
be settled. As the larger Quaternary lake basins are, in almost every instance, occu-
pied by lakes of considerable size and in some instances of considerable depth, the
difficulties of such work are apparent.

The question of deep deposits being uncertain, the field becomes narrowed to the
deposits which might have resulted from the desiccation periods of the most recent
Quaternary lakes. Only in Searles have we surface deposits of this nature. In all
other basins, if older deposits than those at present forming exist, they must be sought
for at depth. The size of such a deposit would depend upon the area of the drainage
basin and the area and depth of the Quaternary lake occupying it. Desert basins
showing no signs of former lakes might well be placed in a separate and unimportant
class. Such basins can not be said not to have saline beds at depth, but the existence
of such beds and their value are doubtful. Upon the criteria stated above I have
grouped the desert basins in the following manner:

Grove I.—Basins formerly occupied by Quaternary lakes.

A. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was over 300 feet in depth: (in

order of magnitude on the basis of area): Square miles.
Parsoieandee iM pOldtanapastocsce Aes sae een eae os eicier lawn eee 27, 575
Black ock andsmolky Creel: -Desertas- 2 4. 55. a2 Se cece cic ies Se 10, 500
Beatles (anearimechiud eda OW ens))eey at. aes cise A ce eee ey Soe eee 4, 850
ESA APTN ee eee ee reir fers peer Re aa Oe a hey eS gs a ee rene 1, 950

B. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was 300 feet or less in depth:
TESA COBKOS NYU IEA ae eae A Se re atom ea Oe ag Speen ayes reine eh ie eee oe 6, 340
Columbus Marsh (including Big Smoky Valley).......................-- 5,225
Buena Vista (part of Caron and Humboldt)...............-..-...--.----- 4,000
HD Tox Fea NM set ars rte we pen rey yeh EE Sc Sr paral oe eg ocd ROS ge ERR <a 2, 660
C. Basins which are now occupied by lakes:

oume val ub as intense eee eal ie Uh i gaa ie eee eas ota cea 54, 000
WrallkcenteNe vce seee miei ane SE aya ek eae eae eae PaaS Seas 3, 850
EXIST OTC arta heen eae ish GRD als Sieh ol bets 2 ce ia iectees IERIE is OSE 3, 200
Eger de NC Neaee a= aerate eee Te eR RN et ee 8 Deel Oe oO 2,975
IS ie aca Creal ey Serco pea ete ns cya ey pit adeeb (eee a 2, 825
IBiarnenr bee (OHM MIAN ea oe ee tes ec shee =e gm be aay rays ae car 2, 660
RSH TET VESTEM A/a Zena Ora tay ae OS SNe, gs cS hee ee 2, 350
SO aiplow Ones ue.) Aes 1S Cet a antes eee 2 pease iearch yn eee htc 2, 000
DNciener my Oreo mays Saber etc le eae ee tee ME NES ore ee 2, 000
Abert, Chewaucan, and Summer, Oreg.-.--......2:---2----- EP ae ga 1, 500
Madeline silage Callmeepae es aia meenies a ue eelon a iil) ee ic a ee 900
LG Tee AW entre UNI @S ice ST re ee ohn rt ee a 775
Tuyen O cil evens detente ome mci sye yh eka Ree SY TS hn) 770
Rollayic iol OC Omar onan We Mente Se ee) Mas io iy oe ohare 500

D. Doubtful basins:
Diamond Valley, Nev.
Danby and Bristol Lakes, Cal.
Franklin and Ruby Lakes, Nev.

YS 68”°! purietin 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

iu?

“Group II.—Basins in which there are no evidences of Quaternary lakes.

Square miles.

“s A. Death Valley, includes Amargosa drainage and basin..............------- 23, 160
Be iver Leak. .sc26 «5.2 ese. sh 42 2 See Ae eee 550
AB9O Rhodes Maran. .-c.c 6 SS. PPS PVE SS SLA PA eee eee 540
eels «cites ee eles oS. se ae Se ee eee 320

All other basins in which the playa contains notable quantities of brine
avs and in which the brines are close to, or at, the surface.
»o'C, All other desert basins and playas not included in the above groups.

The order given in each main group is the order of relative importance. In each
subgroup the order given is the order of areal importance. Groups A and B of each
main group are believed to be the most favorable areas for exploration work. Group
II is of very much less importance than Group I.

Of the basins enumerated above, Searles is the only one in which the investigation
has shown sufficient concentration of potassium salts in the residual brines to be of
probable commercial importance. The salines associated with the potassium salts and
the possibility of producing several products predict success in the exploitation of this
area. The chemical problem of separating the several salines is a difficult one, and
upon its solution hinges the success of the enterprise. The presence of brines of mod-
erate concentration is shown in Death Valley and Silver Peak.! It is a matter of
some doubt whether these brines can be worked. The investigation of the Carson
Sink, Railroad Valley, and Columbus Marsh is inconclusive. Until the possibilities
of the areas considered most favorable have been exhaustively studied, it is inadvisable
to attempt exploration of the other areas.

1 The potassium in the surface brines of the smooth salt area of Death Valley is equivalent to 1.72 per cent
potassium chloride; in the brines from the Survey’s bores in Death Valley it is equivalent to 0.94 per cent
and in the brines of Silver Peak Marsh 1.50 per cent. But comparatively little concentration would be
required in these brines to produce a brine of the same content of potassium chloride as the Searles brine.
The Death Valley surface brine would have to be concentrated one-half, the deeper brines one-fourth, and
the Silver Peak brine somewhat less, than one-half. In Death Valley the summer evaporation rate for a
brine is said to be from 24 to 30 inches per month. The cost of evaporating a brine under such conditions
would be almost nothing. Theamount of brine available for pumping dnd the practicability of construct-
ing vats upon the smooth salt area would have to be determined by detailed examination and experimenta-
tion. In my opinion the experiment of producing potassium salts by evaporating the Death Valley brine
= well worth carrying out, presupposing that the detailed examination shows a sufficient quantity of

rine.

-_- 2
—

APPENDIX.
MINERALOGY OF THE SALINES.

A number of minerals have been reported in the salines of the basin. In addition
to distinct mineral species mention must be made of the mixtures of chlorides, sul-
phates, borates, and carbonates which are of common occurrence.

List of minerals.

[Compiled from Dana, Clark, Eakle, and records of Cooperative Laboratory and State Mining Laboratory
of the University of Nevada.]

Name. Chemical symbol. Name. j Chemical symbol.
Soluble minerals: Insoluble or almost in-
Thermonatrite.....| NasCO3.H»O. soluble minerals:
INDO = A Goooeeoe NaeCO3.10H20. Anhydrite......... CaSOu.
ET OMAN asi =< -| NasCO3.NaHCO3.2H:0. Cayo SUm ee eee CaS0O4.2H20.
Mirabilite......-. -| NasSO4.10H20. Celestite........... SrSO..
Thenardite NaS O04. Calentewes Meni oe ok CaCOsz.
IBIOITICE paneer ae NaCl. Wolomifeese seer eae MgCa(COs3)po.
FROTAKS Nese B55 NaeB407.10H20. Tychite Gasonocesses 2MeCO3.2Na2CO3.NaeSO..
Soda niter......... NaN Os. | . Colemanite Pan- | CasBsOn.5H2O.
Niter...... RAST KNOs. dermite (var.).
Nitrocalcite.......- Ca(NO3)e.nH20. Wlexiten sores ee sae: NaCaB;09.8H20.
Nitromagnesite....| Mg(NO3)2.nH20. Howlite........... H;Ca2BsSiOw.
Hanksite.......-.. Nave K(SO4)9(CO3)oCl. Boracite (?).....--. Meg7CleBisOzo.
TRAIT) 3 seo ce esos KS O04. Alo(SO4)3.24H20. Neocolmanite...... Same composition as cole-
Partly or slightly solu- manite.
ble minerals: SUlphin sss S.
Glauberite.......-- NapSO4.CaSOx.. Pirssonite.......:.. NasCa(CO3)2.2H20.
Sulphohalite.....-. 3NaSO4.2NaCl.
Gaylussite......-.. NayCa(CO3)2.5H20.
Northupite...... _..| MgCO3.Na2CO3.NaCl.

In addition to the above, potassium chloride and sulphate, and magnesium chloride
and sulphate, are to be found in mixtures but have not been reported as minerals.
Hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, iodine, bromine, and arsenious oxide have been
reported in analyses. Marsh gas has been reported from a bore near Fallon, Nev.

Certain temperature observations have been made in connection with the synthetic
studies of saline compounds and these have been summarized below:

Temperature controlling formation of saline minerals.

aCe
THO) a al Pandermite formed from solution of sodium and potassium chlorides.}
NOES SU Ae Anhydrite formed from action of sulphuric acid on calcium carbonate.
Tychite and northupite formed at temperature of steam bath.?
UO.5 A eee Colemanite formed from ulexite in salt solution.!

34 and above. Thenardite formed from sodium sulphate solution.?

34 and below. Mirabilite formed from sodium sulphate solution.®

20 to 38...... Trona, borax, ulexite, gaylussite, natron, gypsum, hanksite, halite,
sulphohalite; deposited from solution. Anhydrite forms from satu-
rated salt solution.

10 and above. Glauberite.!

1Clarke, Bul. No. 491, Data of Geochemistry, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 216.

2 Am. Jour. of Sci., 4th Series, v. 20, p. 217.

3’ The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States, Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils,
U.S. Department of Agriculture.

70 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

. Soluble minerals are deposited from solution by simple evaporation. The presence

of one or more soluble minerals in an evaporating solution would result in the partial
separation of a mixture of the several compounds present, and the proportion of each
in the “solid phase” would depend upon the solubility and proportion of each origi-
nally present. Under certain conditions, as, for instance, the preponderance of one
compound, when the solution reached a concentration exceeding the solubility of
this compound, it would separate out alone until the residual solution reached a con-
stant condition, when another compound or compounds would separate out of the
‘constant solution.’’ The evaporation of a solution containing a number of soluble
salines might be expected to deposit, in sequence, first a single compound. and then
always a mixture of compounds, the sequential.mixtures varying with the composi-
tion of the original solution. Just what mixture would be deposited would depend
upon the composition of the “constant solution” formed at the several stages. Tur-
rentine ! has very fully discussed van’t Hoff’s work upon the separation of saline com-
pounds from solution, and it is unnecessary to repeat it here. —

Experimental data for the interpretation of results which might be expected from
the evaporation of saline solutions occurring in the western half of the Great Basin
are not complete. Chatard published the results of his work upon the saline solutions
of Owens and Mono Lakes,and these have been presented in another place. They
indicate, for a system composed of chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and borates, the ~
initial separation of calcium carbonate and ferric oxide, followed in order by trona
and then mixtures of carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates. The last brine contained
sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium borate, and nitrates.
Apparent separation of potassium chloride or sodium borate in the first crops of crystals -
was due to the inclosure of the brine by the separated salts. The nonseparation of
potassium and boron compounds was due to the small proportion of these compounds
originally present. The carrying of Chatard’s experiments several steps further
would have undoubtedly resulted in additional crops of crystals, which would haye
contained potassium and boron compounds.

Instances of the deposition of soluble minerals by evaporation of solutions are, of
course, common. Halite, trona, mirabilite, natron, and hanksite are deposited from
lake waters. Of the soluble minerals named, with the exception of mirabilite, as far
as our present information goes, none would be affected by the climatic temperature
range. Mirabilite alters to thenardite at ordinary temperatures and when in solution
thenardite is deposited at a temperature of 34° C., orabove. This temperature is not
uncommon in the Great Basin.

Of the partly soluble and almost insoluble minerals our information concerning
temperature conditions of formation is scanty. Most of them are formed by direct
precipitation under normal temperature conditions. Pandermite, colemanite,
tychite, and northupite would appear to require higher temperatures than would be
afforded by the climatic temperature range. The absence of colemanite in most
marsh deposits (reported only in Searles Marsh), and its presence in veins and as
amyegdaloids in basalt, would favor the supposition that this mineral only formed in
the presence of heated solutions. Tychite and northupite are comparatively rare, and
we might well conclude that some local conditions—such as the presence of a hot
spring—favored their formation. The occurrence of howlite in association with cole-
manite would lead to the supposition that this mineral forms under similar tempera-
ture conditions.”

Secondary changes in deposited salines have not been made the subject of special
study. Examples of the reduction of sulphates by organic matter and the formation
of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur; the reduction of nitrates and the formation of
ammonia have been reported. Reactions of this kind are characteristic of the more
deeply buried beds. The formation of ulexite in nodules in the marshes would indi-
cate this mineral to be of secondary nature. Anhydrite slowly changes over into
gypsum. Mirabilite alters to thenardite. Glauberite alters to calcite (Dana). Ulex-
ite alters to gypsum (Dana).

Minerals typically occurring in veins and veinlets are kalinite, alunite, niter,
nitrocalcite, nitromagnesite, colemanite, and howlite. All others occur in playa
beds, in crusts and efflorescences. Glauberite has been found associated with thenar-
dite and mirabilite. Sulphohalite has been found implanted on crystals of hanksite
(Dana). Hanksite is found with halite, thenardite, glauberite, trona, and borax. It
has also been found inclosed in borax crystals (Dana).

1 Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils. The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States.
2 Bul. Dept. of Geology, University of California, vol. 6, No. 9, p. 187.

ne eal

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

TABLES.

TaBie [.—Showing mean annual precipitation.

BASIN REGION—UTAH.

Ment Meas
. A annua. ; 1 annua
Station. Altitude. precipita- Station. Altitude. precipi-
tion. tation.
Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches.
Top Dae SS See aS sere eee ae 7, 500 123i Alp Ine yea ele Suite copes cee ces 4,900 19. 28
HEISE COME Sein Seite siviciz'e asia sheds 7,318 ce TR Bolo) Gene eee isso seeps aens 4,900 16. 22
Woodruff 6, 500 LOSOT! MB lackrockeses seme secee sees 4, 872 10. 61
Meadowville 6, 200 18.41 || Mount Nebo..............-.-- 4,650 10. 53
Marysville 6, 180 W2F 25a eDeseretn tacks wiaecnees ce ceaes 4, 541 8.04
Beaver 6, 000 1 2ES Telli Ee LOVOs ce see ce at ceeawie ss oeeee 4, 532 18} ca!
Heber...... 5, 606 ROLE MUOANET ese mets esac a nae cee 4,507 15. 69
INGA Ee Ae eee ee ae ane 5,575 T2ROGs ||P SaltplakelCityee esse eeeeee se. 4, 366 16. 33
Modena 5,479 150 || kOe denen cose see kee oa oe oak 4,310 14. 74
Richfield : 5,350 (20Gb armin clones: sess. seen ee 4, 267 PANS Ui
Government Creek Oe 14239) MCOnimneke seas le ee Pe 4,240 12.51
SCIMION Pee mas cee saa eeee Le 5, 260 UG ay MW UOaS 3 ee eS ke a 4, 230 6.38
HIM ONO aera so bees tee 5, 100 WET M COMO Sa aac Se eee eee ee eee ee ee 8.21
Minersivailles 5.202522 -.h lent 5,070 TELS EVN Cea Shee Boe yeaa ee eens a 6. 83
ILO Wain. 20 RA aries a karate 5,010 16.38 —_———_
PROMONtOGY ve sels oe cones 4,913 8. 23 “ANHETEE CHa hE Boe hs 2 cute Tee ee 12.80
BASIN REGION—NEVADA (AND PORTION OF CALIFORNIA).
ooo Calle. se soso ccsee eens 8, 248 14.48 || Quinn River Ranch......_... 4, 850 6.55
IBelMON sso sae cecs ees ech es 8, 000 8.67 || Battle Mountain.............. 4, 843 6. 71
7,977 16.80 || McAfee’s Ranch .............. 4, 835 5.46
7,017 47.78 || Gardnerville................-.- 4, 830 12.12
6, 990 CVAS WP asa dee exe Ose 6a Oke 4, 821 8.69
6, 594 fe 725 |e Me ermOtisss= essere nese eee 4,700 11.94
6, 500 Teall eG OLCOU Caen eer are sees 4, 697 5. 96_
6, 500 18/58el|, Beowawes.--2-¢ secs csccee eee 4,695 6. 48
6, 500 Qe 2HliCarsOMeeone ne ane ees Sacee eee oe 4, 660 11.01
6, 282 26596" ||@elawihorm ena: see ee sense ee- 4,569 3.56
6, 180 4.98 OTTO PSR Pee! an) ee he ee 4,497 8. 65
6, 128 C8} ai WN Chay es ee oe as 4,391 4.73
6, 100 TL 245 TO Oa aoe eee eer A, 375 7.45
PLOWOpaly eek es ooo eae ok 6, 099 GEBie | \yvanavareraano (ery = So ee 4,344 8. 65
Clover Valley...............-- 6, 000 VESOO i) 1ehenalovolole 3 ee oe 4,336 5ea2
Ridby, Valley = 2525 fleese kt 6, 000 LOTS | hkemll eyes 2s oe ee eee 4,150 4. 62
PRO AT Deeper: oe Sem ae 5,975 Sol Gril SAOmopnINeS eee ee eee eee oe 4,072 3.37
BLM CO eae vse usta asa besiess 5, 818 26590 OVelOCkme ease ee aeee eee 3,977 3.10
TS (aU OSs 2 eee satu vera 8 Re 5, 631 Sa OT Wall oMeatae ee een eee 3, 965 4.81
BVV Ze TI Sierra ye ah Ca 2 5, 628 Se Dial ESTO Wille ey set oe lem Sue oy 3, 929 3.83
OCA Beier anys hace oe 5, 5385 20.34 || Downey-ville. 2.2.2.2 2 22.22... 3, 800 6.47
Cranessiivanches.- 2522.2) 5,350 TC ASE asp Vie Sas eeene se menene eels o- 2, 033 3.57
BUR SEBS 28 6 ee aS eae 5,342 8.44 || Logan._.... EEE th ASN Rice 1, 700 6.04
Canines 2m G 1 ok 5, 232. 1.22
WOOT TENE on Danes eae 4, 895 15.47 PAG OTIAS Gear See Sey ae ep oe 10.34
BASIN REGION—CALIFORNIA.
AERIS OD Pee ea ae oe toes on ease Seale 4, 450 He.) MEMO oss oeae saeseeeceeGneee 2,150 3. 61
Independence..............-- 3, 907 iS AES Tstaexclenel ay os les oes 784 2.98
WOMGEP INOS eee le scenes 3, 661 5. 28-|)) Needless 245s iateeee eee ee 477 4.30
te clerss see Soe eal a Rebs 3, 620 3.06
Mohaivieee sas tcre oe ate 2, 751 5. 00 SASVICTIOISC aes 9.45 SETH ea ae eee Ce 4.43
BASIN REGION—OREGON.
4, 825 17.85 || Klamath Agenecy............- 4,200 21.47
4,700 OLAS || RBS a seats me eyed e oe 4,157 10. 87
4,700 1480)|| Riverside: es cete ee on Soe 3, 000 9. 76
PAIS Cypser ee csc eeecee eas 4,500 10. 90
Klamath Falls............... 4, 250 12.54 UNG HONE YET) OU I See ese aoe tee ae 13.59
Happy, Valley... ...--2. 28... 4, 200 13. 73

86%

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Kita. \SeSsaoReresaisc pepseg || '2 ‘IT OOD 0 one ean nega “-aToold || 7g °z) CEOMbS ao lktseti os woxuey ong |} &4 “eT DUCBERE aI ose ee SoteA Addex
(gigasl su ae mojereg || e9°8t | 0099 [ttt oyemmted || ppg | aee‘g | ttt Torte prow. || 08 "PT | OR alee a Faia ynaren
1K A Asad ae One ORE aavyoyy || 9P °S G8 b “77> *WouBy sey VOW || 10 ‘6p Che tells oe ae xejfoo ||_STAT COey eee |e ee eee DO LAOLG TT
Ve a es raja0 x || 96'S OSb ‘f “dousta || ¢6 "pe 2 tae eee oar ae wmqny |} p$ ‘21 OG Oe aloes Sees 6 SIISH. CSCaeT ST
TODS" = Bipaar ae se as emt ouo’y || Sp"9S OCLC Ge eae ae O[VPAIOUIUING: || SP “Sz QiCh-ks wea peer ae UIP |} ST “0% Li) Me My le cane 9 ag puelysy
LOGCG Ae lremrcas= eouepuedopuy || 1Z ez Chile niee |eaee oe STT@AL paorsyy || 08 61 10 ie aR acres ae OFMOULBIO’S || 02 BE GOB a ilies oe lt ssvd s}UBID
“JaaT *SayOuUy “1007 “Sayoury “1007 *sayouy WLLL &
qdioord || -qayoora dood
“m0r} pe -1d 1001 *mOT} - . -1d1001 wor} E : -1dtoar “mOr} :
~BAOT TT Tones jenaae | -eAo[q MOTHS jenuue | -eAopor TOH8IS tenuue | -vAopsT Tones
Tee, || weep fous) iE

“oL€ 0} 9S8 OPN}I}EL TION

“o88 0} oL€ OPNFIT}S, GON

“oOP OF 068 OPN] TION

“o&h 0} .Sh OPNIN] GION

‘apnjyn) 07 burp.ovon pobunisn “uisng ynaLH ay) Ur suOYD)sS Wn}120 7D UOYnpdwald yonUUD UDayy —TT ATA],

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

TasLE III.—Statistics of temperature.

Range
Mean Mean Mean maxi- Ses
temper- | maxi- mini- mum | humid-
ature. mum.! mum.? | to mini- ity
mum. :
2 ib, °F. eu ihe Quit. OB Firs
\WiGSHiOTn LOITEIAG] Cee ec Seat BEER e ene son ae eae a aees 47.4 103.6 —18.2 121.8 52
INJEC ES. 2 Sets Seu Messen ea a IS ay) ee 47.2 105.8 —17.4 113.2 51.3
(OR@EOTE 452 ARES Oster BEES See eae e ret eel ie aoe 46.8 106.1 —22 128.1 361
RYOTE nee BREE See ee I Sete ee tae at em oo 63.8 112.5 10 102.5 436

1 Highest annual temperature of each station.
2 Lowest annual temperature of each station.

3 Baker City, Oreg.
4 Independence, Cal.

TaBLe IV.—Proportional area of mountains, outwash slopes, silt, playa, and water in
the Great Basin region.

Sierra- | Wads- Amar- Owens
ville, Rene, worth, Carson, gosa, Valley,!
1,344 5 ware | 1,344 sitiene 8,307 3,300
square ice square ice square | square
miles. miles. : miles. miles
|
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
MIO WIN TING 6 Seeeccseaccee Le eceECEereEeseee 75.4 76 61.4 41.3 5.8 35
Oultwashslopest a. -c-ces2--2222ssee- 22s |o- ses cee <= |Seemee Sean |temenseces 13.7 24.5 46
Lee ee oe eae ea hs Seatone cs ceobaes 2350 18.2 32.4 35.5 18.2 14
TPES) eh See he eae Sa Se Se Du a .6 4 5.1 1,7 5
WIGS Renee Gea EB OE TORS See Seren ee ieee eee -8 | 5.2 5.6 4.3 0), 1h: 2eaeeee
1 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, U.S. Geol. Survey.
TaBLE V.—Run-off of the basin region.
P Mean an- | Run-offper| Depth on
River. Drainage nual run- square drainage Pength @
; off. mile. area. r
Western Utah: Sq. miles. | Second-feet.| Second-feet.| Inches. ‘Years.
Wie DeTUEVivielewes coer os Ge umosicncce es eames sea cere Erich )al Nica MR Ct S| Dae ie ee 2 2
IBGRI RUIN (Gl tye tur CH GHASC REGS aE HOME HEeE 6, 000 1,860 0. 308 4.19 9
WO GATIBRAV CE stake hee 2 ae 218 339 1.56 21.18 6
SPaMIShHPH OMS a seme peee se ce cones 670 157 - 234 3.18 4
Sevier River-.. Ss 3, 990 208 - 052 . 70 5
LONG PEUEV. CE ae mola oa oe ee eeiacte Sees 640 433 . 676 9.16 6
Nevada:
CaTrSOM mat pane oneee sees ete sciestee eines 988 454 . 461 6. 25 6
PRTC K OC 2 ahte nis cl tele a ee see oaituciaee 1,520 1,030 .677 9.18 6
Bast. Mork Walkers)... 5022<-:2t2-2.2- 1,100 213 . 193 2. 63 3
Humboldt at Oreana.............--.-- 13, 800 261 -019 Bo 7
Humboldt at Palisade................. 5, 010 448 - 089 1. 23 4
California:
OMONSHR Ver semes seeecarcince tect accealee te os ee ee QUE laa leet =r eis eae [eae misses
Mojave River at Victorville....... Beee 400 78.1 .195 2.65 5
Susan River at Susanville...........-.- 255 151.9 SPO lero meaeess 2

1 Water-Supply Papers, Great Basin region.

TaBLE VI.—Run-off of the basin region.

BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TRUCKEE.
Tahoe (519 square} State line (955 Vista (1,519 Derby (1,740 Pyramid (2,130
miles). square miles). square miles). square miles). square miles).
Year. 7
Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off
off. |permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile,
Sec.ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft.
205 0. 40 753 0. 79 786 00525 |S ase | eoeeec anes 859 0. 40
589 1.14] 1,420 1.48 | 1,610 1506 iis2 ae ese a | error eraeteter ere
Be Sn ie eee (ar IEPs Ae a io ean [Pees hse teted [mana pene [SSS Ria G26 die see AS ee eae eterel ie aeestaleleral sie
488 92 | 1,530 hiGOoles-seecx) sees 1, 550 OU B92 aioe raat ere avait saree
HUMBOLDT.
Elko (1,150 square | Golconda (10,800 Oreana (13,800
miles). square miles). square miles).
Year.
Run-off Run-off Run-oft
Run-off. | per mile. | RUD-Of- | per mile. | RUD-Of- | per mile.
Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet.
BS (0 so Sie, eee ee el a Cn Ca ae eee Se Nh la Ul eA nel era de ie 171 0. 0158 121 0. 009
NGG See tere ae OS oS ee ee Se oe oe 210 0. 183 373 . 0384 303 . 022
LOO acetate oa crate la bays ievvoetovemter Aas eee 248) 2 2isiiselssie OO Boeke ieee (PIA ee Sees
OOS ATES Cee cies cert ace ee S LOBM anes eae 29S oss eaees 1G 4a eee eee a
LQOOSS ens rss Rah ee ABE See Soe et leone aes 235 - 03 287 . 021
WALKER.
. Coleville (306 Yerington (1,100 Wabuska (2,420
square miles). square miles). square miles).
Year.
Run-oft Run-off Run-oft
Run-off. | yer mile. | Runoff. | per mile. | RUD-Off- | per mile.
Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet.
MODS oa preice i= se SSSR mind ae SES Ey HR 2 Oe ee |e te a oem ee 170 0. 0704
LOOG Recor ee estos oS ccc a see eee 582 1.90 322 (Os PAB aes eel iss Slats Ae eee
Ne ea are NSS ce as, gah RS lng etl ee a ie nel ea BOO |e ASS ieee ees | Bey ac
CARSON.
Woodfords (70 Empire (988 square
square miles). miles). Hazen
Year.
Run-oft Run-oft Run-off
Run-off. | ner mile. | RUD-Off- | per mile. Run-off. per mile,
Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet.
GOS oe ss cee Sai ee ete = bcs atasate Se eto rc ane as | ile ac eera ome meine 429 OSA4B ss oe Seccreea ata
LOD Go eC TS pp oR SS soe sic fen tease eee 231 3.30 798 807 (len eer Se PRE ote
G0 B oo ciivinn baa e oe pare WARE oie sian slates | Se nero aoe Abr ee ae ae PAPA kee ke elles sabe hi Sls cid OPIS
909 below iapecletlde vets AH aes So hss Bake he cee Oe ee ae 678 . 686 45H) REE 2.
TasLe VII.—Run-off in the Oregon Lake region. }
Area of Flow per
watershed. | Mean flow. | cuare mile.
Sq. miles Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet.
MS LNGUT Tea KO aire ate e cee Merrie ten nel «dave. kutod ccd eign al pomib ieee 364 0.37
Hamoy ake silver Creeki(RiUey,)). cre sne 2 sme ss nbieece aoc. selene neta INN Ease eee
DIV OrePaKO ASI etn on a irtyrsic th aaieta ate ane ete couche ene mater eames 221 55.2 625
POT ARO oes SIT Saye ysis sop iw mid ren erate tee Cie Slee oie ce al heodta e Perale ateseiets lle eerapnee eee 189 . 694

1 Water-Supply.Paper No. 212, U. 8. Geol. Survey.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 75

TaBLE VIII.—Jist of lakes, with elevations and drainage area of the basins.

ibsine. Basin Lake Ratio basin.

area. area. to lake. Elevation. Depth.

Sq. miles. | Sq. miles. Feet.
Great Salt Lake (including Utah and 52, 000 2, 498 20.8 4,200 | 49 feet av~
Sevier Lake). erage.
EareLEM AL TED Net pers ae ts eee ae ne ol 2 |
IRI EIR 722 cn oe Sees Eee SORE Cee Eee Ee ami 11, 200 | 105 11.4 5, 950
g. |
3,880 | 361 deep~
} 310 9.6 est.
3, 875 | 87 deepest.
3, 929
195 141.4 3,900 | Variable.
| 3,916 | 4 feet, very
shallow.
118 32.6 4,083 | 118 feet ay
erage.
85. 5 9.0 6,426 | 61.5 aver-
age.
111 4.6 6, 225 | 1,635 deep-
est.
100 33 3,569 | 40 average.
111.6 23.8 3,949 | 18 inches.
125.6 5.5 4,088 | 10 feet.
4.9 653 4, 200
LEyare| 33.3 4,340 |very shal-
81 24.6 4, 600 low.
60 | 15 4,400 |;}None_ ex-
SUETTLTTTIDTE Se gee 7 ann eel A ape ror ee 550 60 9.1 4,300 ceed 25
HOES ae 6c Ape eh eaten a ee Mae eet Sa eae 1,065 190 5.6 4, 800 feet.
Srinpriscavalloyer ts ooo Sok tli ee els 2,350 137 feat 4,640
Square miles.
Bet pers eRSUDIAC Ca pst Maer a ye oe w nee Ree oe cosas ase oni RSet ee al OR
IERIE GIES » 6 ahaa S So Oe ICS Re SE ELST a ESP ret Sr pel a ieee ne pee a aN ee ua cent ware 210, 0600
PET Beg ¢ ng ee CSO REC CAO eS ESS REE Ee yee aie Po ie A ae ee ORD ean te gE ese 50 tol
1 Free’s table of basin areas. 2 Water Supply Paper No. 294, U. S. Geol. Survey.

TasLe 1X.—Distribution of different rocks in Great Basin region.

|
Map V, Clarence ae z eae panic) Gee Truckee folio (910 square miles),
| |
Square | Per ail | Square || Per
7 miles. cent. | miles. || cent.
Quango © 352-2 | |, Granodiorite... .| 180 || Granodiorite |
IROLpHYTY. 2-22: - j1s129 Alluvial and jeDiabaseen.e..] } | andrhyolite..| 22
*Granite......... || _ Sediment... .- 67.0 || Porphyrite...-. | Basalt_..-.-.--|
DIOEILe= 4-5-5. - = Basal ia saee ae jAtipitome = ees 18 || Andesite....... 45.1
Diabase......--- 103.9 || Andesite......- 14.2 Porphyry ...--. | Diabase--...---
Syeniters 2222-2. DOTICC) hohe 2 a ; Gabbro...----.- 6 || Metamorphic. ..| 6.15
pbrachyte=2- 2. 2: Rhyolite.....-- \ 18.6 | Bhyolite......- 20 || Sediment.-.--- 14.3
AM@eSIte).2 = 5... 336.6 || Granite. .-...-- “< || Andesite....... 3a2)|| Waters. -2 eee oe 12.5
Prophylite.-....-. ioBasalipgese oes oe | 54 ||
EOYOMEeS 22 2.2 1,810.0 | eolatee eee ee |
ASALEAO ae onc 2,005.8 | j;@hert2 = === pete 4
Carboniferous | Quartzite.......
and Archean ..| 561.0 | | Metamorphic... |
PETIASSIC 22 uo 2 JuLataSs ee \ 52
Tertiary, Hum- | Shist slate--..--
boldt and} | Neocene lake
Truckee. .....- | eds sees 5
Quaternary and | Pleistocene. .--- 125
Wecent.,-.2-...- Wiater= ise 114
BAe er cere te a? |
Maps IV and V, King (35,200 square miles): Per cent.
SR ERUEL CO Sige seo Se ee ep ane Sa as ees art a SES is eae EROS pe, SAIN ce rer AS eee 10
Euinyolitesan dkinachiyiie=p mee neem seiee cre eee se mice cene cin eS ee eRe en Seen ao ec oe. see es 23
Be ASal hy ANG ANG CSILG {Sees stone sea nioc io aio a tisideiee wisn a ae ee we Se a mis Sense Nas 14
PERE WIA ATIC SC CLIT C Muerto 5 ar Sa ase see oe Senne S Sajna eee ae Sas och awa Sos Saennecseese 53
Southwestern Nevada and eastern California (8,685 square miles):
OBER rie nie ese Sos eee ON ER Sl onie en See Maan a Se aS es Sak ane iy So acwia we niecene tebe cesses sei
PAIN ESLOME sea uke eee

Andesites and basalts. .

oe Ra a Aa ae cara Cana Rl caries CO a Ti A i

TABLE X.—Composition of rocks of basin region.

Gran- | Rhyo- | Ande-
( ite £1 ( lite ar site ;

= av. of | (av. of | (av. o

Constituent. 113 103 131

analy- | analy- | analy-

ses). ses) ses).

Per ct. | Per ct

71.55 61. 29

13.90} 15.16

1. 20 PAT

. 94 2.86

. 60 2.99

1.56 4.84

3428 3.30

4.17 2.93

- 92 - 63

ie 7A! 1.42

.30 - 56

03 - 02

13 . 26

- 09 lid

- 03 -05

04 .09

Beasts merle -07

Br te -08

eee dt . 56

Bye eit See AMR

mies - 03

100.00 | 100.00

1 Compiled from: Vol. I, Fortieth Parallel Survey, Bul. No. 4
XI, U.S. Geol. Survey; Bul. No. 491, Data of Geol. Chemistry,

Dia- Sand-
base tok stone
(av. of 110 (av. of
19 avieil 55
analy- on analy-
ses). ses).
Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.
52.04 | 51.29 | 70.55

| 15.89] 15.65 5. 80
2.48 3.10 1.06

6. 84 5.98 2.53
5.95 8.37 1.16

8. 43 8.78 5. 33

3. 20 2. 81 1.82
oe ls 26 1.32
2.17 |~ 1.78 | 28
1.06 1.01 39

. 00 yO1| eee

23 Au 17

16 OB ER Ate oer

01 OLR ane
- 09 Bla) eee epee

aie ese S08) iceecceoe
ties Oda Meneeas
ate Teese - 49 6. 74
Bergh SHR in ea) 5alz/
100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00

BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Lime-

Shales
stone
(av. of
(av. of 16
_ | analy-
en ses).
Per ct.| Per ct.
8. 82 ar er
. 89 2. 93
1.01 2.81
3.58 3.18
44.35 4.47
1.65
ro 2 1
Ly 3. 44
Ne aa - 62
Ginn iGAibe - Geet
Meieeaarcts - 08
Bae i” Naa 37
Se/407|" 7.93
Bermaal sores 34
100.00 | 100.00

U.S. Geol. Survey.

19, U.S. Geol. Survey; Monographs I and

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION.

if
gg chee” OS'st | 6L°eZe | HFSS | L8°061 | I8°ST 0°S61 | o'r TaCGe see LESCCS. |e eames OD i omed |leere ean OLLTOUQUAB He lea GG a)
a pee ea NO, — PReessee ge |e aloes ae “| Leh | @9°9SF ESOP patas PIPEUPIOD |°~- “TSsT
(ORC Teena se ems | Seca ee SS aes we | FL'SIP sore eee [OAN |luaee ane aie OLLOS Te bem OG ET
8°06 omit if Stuy Q°LT gee | AL Cen | 0OV les | 2 eae ss Sulidg |-uoljounL seu |**~ “FPET
68°22 | 26°2 | OL'S9T | 22°91 89L | L% Zr | SL '68h ESS] Oe es Sein es “""*-ONLA |" °° SPST
6S°00T | S8°ST | 1S °6T 0L°6S | S%°%6 | OS°s os‘zg¢ | 06°¢Sr 5 AoTTBA SULEPEN |" “FEST
1E°3eo =| LO-ST | ES°0F9 | 48°22 | Se-e6e | 09'8 Gre || GA) eee “TOM [777777 OXI | 7 OST
99°69 | 26°93 | TP'Tse | 28°01 | Ga°s9 | S2°8 oS | WBANgS = ee Ajddns uo, “eprqgMey | “Test
ZS'9F8 | 90'S | 16'S 80'9 °C 0°9 OBR |) ARO Re cece sessesoes "Te -“-UOTTBA j°~” “8Z8T
Go'S9 | 06'8F | 82°F 69°8 61s | AL 0°¢6 | 20°6P8 | A Se oes ~--syaedg |"~~ 6181
“I AA
OCs 0818 bees eg ep O0°SZE | QL'PRL‘T | TL‘OL | Fe'srE | 68 °9F FIST | 278 O1'89 | OF '029‘%| eA HOM SGA
OGSG6O TE |esestso se eee (eee es OFLLT | 48°386‘T | 2TT | 89Tse | sE°s ee. || Ae 2°29 | OF LoL ‘Z| ~~ “Joye Yooy TeysAID
“STIOAA Te}SAIO,
fobaee 0s GOTT ese ena a as | OCENG I NOhaSOGal ey2aG) ol CORGLEl 4]. 191c 09g | FZ 2°02 | 9°81 ‘e| Wor oTyur iy ae
z ns
eee IL ‘FST | S40" OZI‘ | 00°08T | 66°SS8‘T | 2°6 | FEEEe | 21% zee | 8h T‘8¢ | $99"¢e99‘z| Joye STIoAA TeISAID
(F\S 3 a ea ‘aATSSeOX GT | OTT | OG*6IT | 69 Tg POSE Cran ie ie “OuON Oy. AL 1°29 PS GOL “Jovem [TOM oe
96°6SE‘T | IO'FE | PL°9OT‘T| S$ 6IL | STFS | OL IT gee | 16'10e‘e Se STON eee aes oa ouey | ~~ 08éT
GL-2eL | S89T | Slr O1'T oag | Ge OAD || MesPrhyye _|P2see2os>= SEO Dr seae eas mee O Diet aod as PLOT
IL'82o | SL°@E | "Shr | 02°82 b9FL | FP PPS | P9E'CC8 | “Ayddns rye M | = 2OPr ee a ese SLOT
ogeze | Ses | OL°T6 PI'S O'l@ | 8°OT Ose Gio PLES COO| as ersten ed OP een cee aes Op | CLT
c619g | 10'TS | 0S°26 8°S pre | 8°01 ge || O2%aw) Pores ~"JOYBM [JOM | “"PleUPIOD | ~* TLer
C1688 | GO'rr | 2e7649‘Z| SE I9T‘T| 2°e88 | 8°89Z OsZys [S06 682C| ss oes “Ayddns Joye |"~**--** “yedouoy, |" OLeT
09°Le 8201 | Z0°8T 8"9 18% | &F cpg | GL°LST |-7°7 7 [eM UeIseRTWy | ~-ouey |" ” -S9CT
gece L191 | 78S | 60L°T 19g | 2°38 L°FOT | 609688 ‘T voto t oo sysedg |" "> 2921
L807 | 16°% Scr | 80°T csr | 6°9 €°0zT | 989°880 ‘T ere so shorg |” ~~ T9GT
3P LT “LL 0S'679 | 96°% T'8¢ | 0°F 78g | 8LL°006‘T "-ouyAvod JUNO |" ~-09ZT
8T 0S 9°LT | SO°TTZ 9°T ee | 2% 218 | P98 Far pees "12 a (4
6P FIL | °2T | S°etg | L9F- 0°89 | 1°9 Z TOT | £8628, “77777 W0\SuTIO X |" "8901
o°seg‘T | S'2T | 1'6E a €°09 | T‘9L vgs BOGP F UlBUNOW o7}98A hol
‘o1OUISUT |.
“ermomme | “eI “*O1V “Spryos ONE
*%09°H | OOH pioua -OULMIB "1(9) ‘O8RN- | “OF “OS “O31 0)-70) pue %OI8 1210.1 “sxTeute y “Aqrye00'T eouelejo wy
rundTy | seq 20°07

[ezomsurd *9 “g Aq sashqeny *000‘000‘T 10d s}1e4]

‘suajom burids pun yam fo sashjpuy— JX Lav,

78 BULLETIN 61, U. $&. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE..

TasLe XII.—Analyses of waters from Amargosa Valley.

[Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

No. of | ‘Total Ca. Mg. K, Na. Cl. S04. €0s.. | HCOs.

sample. | solids. |
ee Yo | ee eS
24 ee ee 105.6 6.9 6.0 | 5.8 10.4 8.5 27.9 1:2 22.0
Vee { 1,692.2 ar niet 44.8 534.4 285.0 544.3 96.0 155.6
22) oe 101.6 6.7 3.0 4.3 18.3 17.0 30.7 1.12 20.7
-~..2 Ee ee | 49.8 10.2 10.8 12.8 132. 1 101.3 160. 8 4:8 65.9
2962 So 93. 2 5.1 3.3 3.9 17.0 8.5 30.0 2.4 25.6

237. Water Willow Creek at railroad bridge south of Morrison’s.
238. Water Amargosa River, same locality.

284. Shoshone, Cal. Water from warm spring.

295. Well at Fairbank’s house, Shoshone.

296. Water spring in railroad cut south of Tecopa, Cal.

TABLE KT Analyses of water from Furnace Creek and Death Valley.

[Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

No.ofsample.| Dotal Ca. Meg. K, Na. SO.. cl. | COs | HEOs.

+ eee ee | 64.8 2.4 1.4 1.0 14.5 14.2 10.6 2.4 14.6
MOTE oot | 20,360.0} 175.0 50.3| 152.7] 7,500.0] 9874.0| 11,525.0| Tr. 11.0:
Aine ae | "490. 4 71.4 37.0 #5 75.6| 173.0| '147.7| Tr. 17.8:
pinesenas 65.2 4.8 3.0 1.5 7.7 19.2 49| Tr. 20.0
Sie eee | ad41-6 los 36 3.3 9.0| 321.1] 646.0 29.6| Tr. 19.5:

305. Slough at first crossing, road from Furnace Creek to Bennett’s Well. Water from surface.
307. Water from hole 18 inches deep 1 mile north of sink (saline pond’northeast of Bennett’s Well)..
325. Water from main water hole at Bennett’s Well.

348. Water from Texas Spring, Furnace Creek Ranch.

349. Water from well in Furnace Creek Canyon, 13.5 miles east of Furnace Creek Ranch.

Note.—A trace of borax is found in all samples.

Taste XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in sotls.

> Total Percentage of total soluble salts.
Location and No. of solu- :
sample. ble |
salts. | Ca. | Mg. | Na. K. SO. Cl. | HCO3.| CO3. | NO3.| PO.
Fallon, Nev., alkali soil: ! |Per ct.
Crust Nosoeesse 4.10 1.51 | 56.98
First foot, No. 10....- 3.57 1.62 | 49.72
Second foot, No. 11...| 3.33 1.62 | 51.44
Third foot, No. 12....| 1.70 3.65 | 41.65
Fourth foot, No. 13...) .93 6.22 | 38.85
Fifth foot, No.14...... 78 4.61 | 37.18
AV OUALE oe Pe at, 2.40 3.20 | 45.97
Fallon soil. <- 5. sees Gee: 41.34 .30 | 56.23
.89 2.10 | 34.08
1.18 1.27 | 42.82
1.18 1.13 | 44.07
1.41 1.07 | 48.55
1.81 1.28 | 54.73
1.54 5.05 | 53.20
. 24 3.77 | 25.94
1.01 7.54 | 37.26
1. 60 6.46 | 45.95
44 2.12 | 15.38
-bl 2.01 | 19.64
1.94 4.31 | 35.11
. 66 3.58 | 32.08
1.65 | .84 | 40.42
1.80 1.50 | 50.20
.49 3.10 | 18.28
. 80 2.43 | 38.95

1 Records of Bureau of Soils.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 179

TaBLe XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in soils—Continued.

Location and No. of
sample.

Wallon soil. 2222252. 2.-2-

Average.......-..-..
Swan Track, Utah: !
No. 724

Iii), LTE ese eB

INCE eee
Elsmore, Utah, 1 Redfield

clay, iN (Oa Ye eee
Salt Lake City,! soil No.

Cornine, Utah,! No. 1129a.
Salt Lake City, sola. ass
Silver Lake, Oreg.,1 No.

MOS OO ie Macias Narn Ss 2

INVICTAP CR ome a= saan

Harney County, Oreg.,?

B=OeCbe oe cece ae ass

5-6 feet
Lake County, Oreg.,3soils:
1. Thousand Spring
Walleye sean ee

WMTAS MUA ye a 3
TMAS Ake merase

5. North end of sink
of Peter Creek....-

STI a ee ho Rept) ae
7. mile east of Cliff
postiofice. =. 2.22...
8. Center of north al-
iealictlatees ses os ste
9. Western arm of al-

Nevis asta tee ei 2

Percentage of total soluble salts.

Cl.

1 Records of Bureau of Soils.

2 Water-Supply Paper No. 231, p. 53.

8 Water-Supply Paper No, 220, p. 72.

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“U0rbas USD WILD 247 fo S4ajnm ayn) pun warrt Jo sashjpouyp—AX WAV],

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 81

Taste XVI.—Quantity of saline material carried annually by certain rivers of the Great

i Basin.
: ‘
Constituent. Owens.! | Owens.2 | Humboldt.| Truckee. | Walker. ent ’
nee ee Tons. Tons.
12,9 8, 818
"47.8 GBS tens coon Hes
3, 547 9,348 13, 246 17, 058 4,890 127,391
1, 017 3, 618 3, 343 5, 379 818 59, 938
9, 460 20, 807 15,355 26, 797 6, 822 258, 634
26, 253 63, 628 36, 781 51, 767 11, 544 343, 833
7, 095 16, 284 12,911 19, 895 6, 087 102, 647
284 ENZO ON HB og Paes AOD i RL ec OUR ta ial Lea
4,020 9, 951 2,032 11,774 2, 833 407, 473
i Motalisolidsy.: 2052. 55. Joke os 44,701 102, 228 92, 851 155, 335 37, 783 1, 259, 235
Discharged into.............-. Owens Owens Humboldt | Pyramid Walker | Great Salt
4 y Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake.
Total solids, parts per million. 189 339 361 153 180 687
Mean annual flow, second-
REG Leeper a at afc 240 306 261 1, 030 213 1,860
1 Owens River at Round Valley. 2 Owens River at Charlie’s Butte.

TaBLe XVII.— Yield of salines per square mile of watershed per year.

| :
Constituent. Truckee.) Walker.! aaa Owens. eee ».| Yuba. | Kern. ean Si eee
i Pounds.|Pounds.| Pounds. Pounds.| Pounds.|Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds. Pounds.
SHOn- sessseaseeeuses 29,5241 6,972 { 128 16,200! 54,822) 113,580) 301,970 17, 368 244, 006
SDE) Ph eae d Z 48 82 947, 1,703 2,516 67 942
(OR SSS aed SN eee 22,443) 7,063) 1,919 11,680) 49,838) 105,475) 301,970 23, 532 160, 855
Mg aie Mo eaicisie sie 7,080} 1,182 a, 4,560) 21, Be oy 887 Bel 461 5 a 72,108
EL a SOO Nh 1, 83 54,8221 70,750) 340, 400 22, 24
fs aes cl ee \ 35, 267) 9,852)’ 391 \ 26, 000)) 5/489] 10,385] 28, 688 2 409 \ 23, 296
CO sree eee aceite 67,998 PETG; 552 | Mea o rol Omer er eee ks teint yal pe een i MIATA A Gio iey 7, 210
EC OS eect eis oe | Swe eins ol Reais g Sa iereeeers | 79,400) 204,340) 389, 4386/1, 191, 130 91, 333 887, 500
SKOVEAS a e eN eee 26,183) 8,591 1,871, 20,200) 59,807) 105,475) 352,307 29, 696 166, 407
TOs ag ag NA We a | (RAD see raee seo maacna | asainmall yeaa tee Ge) 4, 659
CU eeepc ciciichoxis 15,497; 4,092 294 12,440) 32,893) 44,623) 152, 660 21, 852 210, 781
Totalsolids...| 203,992 | 54,304) 11,288 127,600) 368,800) 681, 516)2, 130, 600 179, 850) 1,442,166
Suspended matter: .|.........|.....--.]....-.-- peeehsnaee 338, 906/1,549,640 2, 734, 560 (OR563 | Ee aiiseceesee
Area, square miles. . 1,520} 1,100) 13,800} 1,600) 1,500 1, 220 2,345 318 128
R/S We NTS Ais Sy eae cyl | gt OR Pa ied | a a 15in.+} 15in.+) 15 in.+/ Less than | Less than
15 in. 15 in.
Mean annual flow, 1,030 213 261 306} 3,793) 5,023 1, 996 90. 4 45.35
second-feet.
Second-feet per 0.677) 0.193) 0.019) 0.191 2.52 3.56 0.83 0. 284 0.355
square mile.
Pounds per square | 301.908] 280,751) 593,748] 633,520| 146, 746] 191, 7171/2, 565, 954 633,274] 4,062, 411
mile per second-
feet per annum.

1 Bul. No. 491, Data of Geochemistry, p. 147. 2 Thid., p. 148.
20814—14—6

ir,

BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

“STlog Jo NveIng et} Jo Sp1099y 1

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T®10.L

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sysnio yoypn fo sashjoup—T]ITAX TAY,

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 83

Taste XIX.—Analyses of salt and water samples taken in Railroad Valley, Nev.

[Analyses by A. R. Merz.]

Description.

uater on ditch in Hot Creek Canyon, 0.5 mile below source, Wager
BIBI: ach Roe SES EO EES BEDE ee Ra pase bd ete tan at A aE
Water from spring in Rattlesnake Canyon...............-..-------+---------
Water from stream in Tybo Canyon at junction of canyon, 0.75 mile above
SLORC Pee ee eae eee eae eS See Re ee Meese sates eo eee ee eA
Water from draw about 3 miles east of Warm Springs, Hot Creek Valley. .-.-.--.
RCSA COM OLMIS Ona Wes Hs ar Shs ss es ae 9 9 aL eee FUE |
Water from south ditch at west end of Twin Springs Pass..............--------
SaliLOM NA SOULMVOL this Gitch= See bak tees eie te eees eked el eee ee elec |
Wiaterinominorth,diteh: same locality sis sd aii ao Se eye es |
Saltecrush (rom nonin sider thisiditch’*:20o sa see aa ee oes ose ee|
Water from spring at house in Twin Springs Pass...............-------------- |
Water from stream at east end of Twin Springs Pass...........----.----------- }
Satinenusiiromied ce OMinis Sines a) oh sae ee SS eS i ee ee 2 oe
Wiaterirome Mormon Wiellits.-453 242% oe sseo sot 525 22 eee eos aeeeede sentese
PMIACEKS A CLUS LINENG aaa mae se se 52a SS see ee Oe ee see Bee SME IY
Salt crust from seepage below terrace at Sharps’ Ranch
Water from main spring, Sharps’ Ranch..._.........-.....-
DalhicEist trom: Hanmeal thisssprmgees Les aguas eae ane ee: . St
Wiaterirontwellbat Shanps::-:ssi¢se24i22-4-. 6522522 2-.-.2 eee ee eee
WiatenironreWihowscprine ..vebosc ieee l oto tl oll oe oat eo oe
Standing water from outflow of Willow Spring onto flat.................----
Wisteniron: Bullwhackers prings: 2. SSL 0m 4m bee Le eee eeeseces
Outflow from Bullwhacker Springs onto flat...........---.-------------+----
Salt from playa below Willow Springs, 1 mile northwest........-.....--.----
Onisamesplaya.O:pmile mort OfNO.04. 22/245 tose aoe se oenee fae eee oes
Edge of main flat below Bullwhacker Springs...............------------------
Half ironman at10-25nmilexwest OL INOj06.25¢ see sks ok eee aaeclee cde nes tt
Salt crust from outflow flat of Willow Springs......!...:.-...----------------
Salt crust from surface near Bacon Springs............. aT S
Water from Cold Spring,1 mile north of Horton’s Ranch .....
Saltcrust irom surnacemear this spring. 4. iodo 20 ke ee eee
Water from draw 2 miles out of Allred,on Duckwater Road -...........-----
Salt crust from soil surface in Duckwater Hills, 0.5 mile east of Duck-
WUE rae ete pees ate ice Sis aime Sins seins soe sw eleeenscca anette cme eee

Wiateniromanam spring iat, wockes: 952 ees 02s 5. ee ee eee
el REESE ALON SUTRA Ce Mear GHIS| SPLINGSes = aes cae eee emia swine eee Seele
Water from spring on spring deposit well, 6 miles south of Lockes .--_......----
SaMACHUSiROMn CATH MIS!S DEIN OW: metre Eee eee. hats So teers ha Sie eet See
mane mOuavards soubheasus i=) 2ba see ces See nk Sade ete ee eee eee
Salt crust from draw, log 38 miles out of Lockes on road to R. R. V. Co. camp,
east ditchontins drawei 25525 seen 2 PBR SEED IPE ELE AOR WIE 2 rT
Same draw. Salt from ridge between ditches...................-------------
SIC: Aa Wran Sa Ub LOMGW esis ditches ae 422s 52. UR ae eee See els NETS Sula
Salt from surface in dune lands, log 55, out of Lockes to camp...-......--..----
alacar Todd aloo GORE se Saae e-em anacen soot cee me Sena sone siesta ae Se eniee ones
SLiBnCctenO Ae OPA Oe ses eee Sie wine a A Salers | Lee aan oe EE Le
First pan crossed by road. Salt just west of west edge, nearroad.....-....-.--
Same pan, justieast of westiedge, near roadi22=s352 25.222 - 2225-82 tee a s- 8
Same pan, salt from center 200 feet south of road................-------------
pamepan, center, 200 fee morta of road. =.= Jeet) te see ae aoe seee ee
Name, pam» just west OL eastiedee, near road —...- 51222252... 22-222 5-s55eeeee
Same pan, just east of east edge, near road
Salt from small draw at log 7.1, west edge........
Same draw, ecastiedges-._- #.- mses. a seem. See ee

Sraalidrawsab lord. 2, west SIMC-. 542 Sees ae ae eo ae a eye ear emt
SAMeCarawras UNO. 99, maim dramace limes 222 2.2 ee See neies saece ces esiscne
From large pan on drainage line, the west side of which is at log 7.3, west

EACH UISEMOREMONTOAd case see ns 4s 8 ane ae eine one ee ae eee eee weoces
Same pan, one-third across from west side north ofroad..............---.------
Palme mpanen US MORLM OLrOadib CULVEEG=— oe ee eee eeneaee. comer ne aceon

Total salts Foe
per 100c. ce. lis,

Grams. Per cent.
4.

HAM CHAMOMILE UIE CASH COPS MOP dame cece eae eine Sonics emcee ericelsia nee nreeine
West edge of a drainage line just at head of salt fiat (to south), log 7.7,
ORUMOMTOAM ere ne mete Aue Men et ccna erin om as Soe sa tae eeR ee ae Nese eRe
Date OUMCCTCASTIOLe NOs! Qo 2sra nia esas ee i ead eee eee Se
Same, 80 feet eastiof No. 106-- 2-5) 222524-222-2--
Same, at culvert, 80 feet east of No. 107
Same st Omer heasholpNonl0Ss sen cascee see aoe nn se aan oe Seen nee Sener saeases
Same, extreme eastern edge, 125 feet east of No. 109

aD
a
lor)
is}
WDIWSIR OD WOGOKI STOOL NICO AICO NI. 00 > NT GUND I YB CODD ¢
SOL SATO ATO ON TON AT NWO OTB OO
ae

OdOFOWM BDOMDN OBONNN

84 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE XIX.—Analyses of salt and water samples taken in Railroad Valley, Nev.—Con.

Total salts | Potash in

total
per 100c.c. Rais:

No. Description.

Grams. | Per cent.
111 | First salty drainage line west of R. R. V. Co. camp, about 60 feet from west

SCOOF OWE AWK WHORE

edre. and ident BOrtnol Toad == 5. Sse cee teioan teeeneae see nacieieeee 59. 62 6.11
112 | Same, main drainage line, 125 feet east of No. 111 and 125 feet north of road..... 59.16 5. 45
113 | Same, extreme eastern edge, 100 feet east of No. 112 (75 feet north ofroad)....-. 56. 48 6. 20
114 | Smalisait spot 420 feet east of No. 113 and 30 feet south ofroad:...........-..--- 72. 22 4. 23
115 | Surface salt at northeast end of salt flat, north of spring deposit hills, 6 miles

south of Locke’s Ranch 41. 24 1.53
116 | Same, about 0.25 mile southwest of No. 115........ 10. 56 6.02
120 | Salt from seepage on north side of southern of these hills 5. 36 6.16
122 | Salt from below spring on this latter hill 79. 56 12.10
124 | Main flat near camp. Salt from 97 feet west of southwest corner of Locke’s

ClAIM = «2 Vie os A bees Fo Sen ee cee eee ose Oa ee SRE ee ee eee eC Ee ee 68. 74 1.90
125 | Same, 375 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim.......-....-.----------- 45. 42 2.9
126 | Same, 725 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim .............-.-.-------- 56.90 5.0
127 | Same, 775 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim..............-.-.------ 76. 40 3.6
128 | Same, 850 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim................--------- 62. 08 6.6
129 | Same, 1,075 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim...............--.----- 55. 22 2.7
130 | Water from old hole 40 feet east of point 1,250 feet south of southwest corner ;

Locke’s:claim.. 5. ose jac sesd bai po aaseesusun nes ne eae cae epee eee econ : 20. 87 8.5
131 | Salt 1,350 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim...........-...---.---- 83. 40 4.5
132 | Salt 1,250 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim................--.----- 40. 42 2.0
133 | Water from old hole 150 feet east of point 1,150 feet south of southwest

corner Locke’sclaim. From upper (surface) stratum of brine..........----- 12. 63 6.1
134 |. Water from corner stratum, same hole_.. 2.5 2.222352 -+ once nan =e = eee 13. 04 6. 2:
135 |. Salt crust from 5 feet ‘north this/hole 2. =o sete See ee eee eee 68.64 3.3
137 | Salt from 2,225 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim-.............---- 14.18 1.8
138 | Water from old hole 50 feet east-southeast of southwest corner Fox claim...-.. -97 ith
139 | Salt, 900 feet northwest of southwest corner Fox claim-........--..--.-.------ 47.18 1.3
140 | Salt, 1,375 feet northwest of southwest corner Fox claim ...:.21..--.----2--<-|<---<-05-5e-|22-222----
143 | Water from auger hole at location of No. 140--.........-..----.--+----------- 15. 74 5. 94
144. | Salt 315 feet northeast.of No;.140: - o...0i 522.2222. -2cSaee see See eee 82. 46 2. 66
PA gee 2) - oe eee oe Oa ne S23 Fes e5 Yat eS3526 ee cee ee ee eee — 41.34 2. 83
146 | Same as No. 140.-......-- ee Se Seo Soee hoe See See sd eiesadh aes! 72. 06 2. 26
448 | Salt from east side of first drainage line east of R.R. V.Co. camp......-..--- 58. 22 9. 26
149 | Salt 100feet north of No. 148... -..- 552. 2sn2824- bie s4ses2 be 2 see eee eee 44, 22 6.58
152 | Salt 150 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s claim-..-.....-....---.--------- 29. 80 4. 838
153 | Water from old hole 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s claim, upper

Stratum of the brine: 2-22 025- st - Sais she aoe ee eee ee eee eC EEE eee 11. 62 11. 92
154)| Water fronmlower stratum, this hole 2222 a sae ee ace eee eee 10.09 11. 78
155 | Salt from 580 feet southwest of point 675 feet north of southeast corner

Locke’s (laim.. - ssc 5. sacacscas = bo ceusea ness A Tae eee =e eee ee eee 69 10.17
156 | Water from hole 100 feet northwest of No. 155..........-...----20ce-e-ceee--s 7. 86 11. 46
157° | Water from: McDonald spring... -.--<--255 so dsn nce cee nea see ee eee SO7Gleq sees 58
158 | Water from new hole 450 feet southeast of point 1,620 feet southwest from

McDonald spring... o<5 2.2) Sk 2 a ta ioe be pd ee SO ee eee 12.58 5.03
159 | Salt crust 5 feet north of this hole_..... aGe ania nena finn ace Reece eee eee 67. 92 3.79
162 | Salt 879 feet toward McDonald spring from No. 158..............------------ 48. 92 1.48
163 ; Water from lower brine stratum from old hole 200 feet northwest and 80

feet.southwest from No. 1582225 2255-2282 <cangs «bce bo eee Oe eee 13.99 5. 49
164 | Water from old hole 390 feet northeast of No. 163..............---------+----- 13.97 5. 82
165) |*Salt from ‘5 feet eastiof No. 163:- .. 3... se ee ee ee eee 64. 62 3. 26
166\| ‘Salt from 5 feet south of No. 164. 5200. ee aes So eee eee ee 76. 58 3. 42
167.) Water from well at RR. V-Concamipin 2 ose onc wee ee ee ae aocnee eee ee mOve ee see. oe
168 | Salt from northwest corner of main flat, 0.25 mile southeast of road at log

4 miles outof R.R.V.Co.camp toward Locke’s ranch #2 to.u. 22s 2egnd dee 41.10 Son
171) Water from Black Rock Springs 2.) 3... 3.255.508 soe ee ee eee . 04 1.53
175 | Water from Hot Creek at bridge at Barndt’s house....-........-......------ OMe essere. 2 he
176 | Main hot spring at Barndt’s..... Ma dnd oS RI e Soars oe RE ee ae SOSeicmeece. 2b
177 | Water from Hot Creek above Hot Springs at Barndt’s. From high ditch...... Pt eee ae
178) }- Water from. Warm Springs =... 2.226.320. 92-2 252-2 bee ae ee See ee BOSE tae 8
186 | Waterfrom a warm spring about 0. 5 mile northeast of Locke’sranch.......-..-. ROD eeeeaars =
187 | Water from well at Horton’s house, Blue Eagle.....................-.------. Sf tay | ain =
188 | Waterfrom cold spring at Blue Eagle, 100 yards northwest Horton’s house. ...- SOM Pecccin nc oe
189 | Waterfrom warm spring here, 50 yards west of Horton’s house............---- OSE ERTIES. 5 21

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 8)

TaBLE XX.—Analyses of saline crusts found in Railroad Valley.

[Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

Total

No. Ca, Mg. K, Na. SO.. Ol. CO3. | HCO3. solide:
ESE eaters tae 12 6 322 1, 509 987 640 600 732 4, 808
SOMME ECU iLL nls 10 4| 5,248 |} 24,549] 7,800] 30,800] 2,640 5, 856 76, 379
a Bee UR 10 4} 6,473 | 28,799 | 4,443] 34,020] 1,800 3, 782 73, 331
LO) Ss ae ae rene ae 10 3 | 4,105 21,817 | 3,785 33, 040 600 1, 342 64, 702
1G es ye a he 40 12 987 39, 475 555 6,650 | None. 31 12, 605
TBM Es de acin € Bee [MEIER ia RMN apie IMA pgs Pays WSN leche ses al A Dl as as BUN ee a eka
(GSE be hee 12 6| 5,826] 25,475 | 7,734] 38,360 180 |: 427 78, 020

76. Salt crust near spring 6 miles south of Locke’s claim.
92. Center salt pan at road crossing.
96. East edge draw.
102. Salt pan.
154. Water from lower stratum; water hole southeast corner Locke’s claim.
155. Salt from 580 feet southwest of point 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s claim.

TasBLeE XXI.—Analyses of Death Valley brines.

[Parts per 100,000.]

Total

No. f Ca Mg. es Na. Cl. SO, COz3 HCOs. solids.
De Aes eee ee 57.1 | 185.6] 1,197.7 | 12,339.4 | 18,557.5 | 2,057.0 Tr. 38.0 | 34,606. 4
Pio CASE eee St <7 AEE 64.3 | 120.3 913.4 | 12,389.8 | 18,557.5 | 1,978.8 Tr. 38.0 | 34, 138.6
BSH eat ares DERE 71.4 94.0 683.3 | 12,456.6 | 18,620.0 | 1,900.6 Tr. 45.8 | 34,122.0
Ct eee ee A 71.4 | 138.3 | 1,361.7 | 12,426.1 | 18,620.0 | 2,324.4 30 45.8 | 35,057.0
Oe eta etsrata! 3) ore 92,9) 113.7] 1,170.0 | 12,522.3 | 18,620.0 | 2,336.8 15 30.5 | 35, 318.0
Giks sabes paconeesnee 71.4 98.4 | 1,188.0 | 12,602.0 | 18,620.0 | 2,349.1 30 45.8 | 35, 243.0
ermine ios sok ¢ 71.4 63. 4 383.6 | 12,465.9 | 18,690.0 | 1,324.7 15 45.8 | 33,148.0
rt Saers Roser oe eae cam 92.9 40.3 349.8 | 12, 442.9 | 18, 830.0 | 1,053.2 Tr. 30.5 | 32,817.0
Os OS Seat OOE ee srEee 85.7 30. 2 372.4 | 12,558.7 | 18,690.0 | 1,468.7 Tr. 30.5 | 33,540.0
Average. ...- 79.6 97.6 907.0 | 12,451.3 | 18,620.2 | 1,947.8 22.2 39.9 | 34, 470.0

Sample No. la taken from hole about 5.5 miles northeast from Eagle Borax Works. (Size of hole 16
feet deep, 2.5 feet long, and 2 feet wide.)

Sample No. 2a taken about 6 miles northeast from Eagle Borax Works. (Size of hole 2 feet wide, 2 feet
long, 3 feet deep, out on smooth salt 1,000 feet from rough salt.)

Sample No. 3a taken 0.5 mile east from sample 2a. (Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

Sample No. 4a taken 0.5 mile east of sample No. 3a. (Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

Sample No. 5a taken 1 mile north from sample No. 4a. (Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

Sample No. 6a taken 0.5 mile west of sample 5a. (Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)
; Sample No. 7 taken 1 mile north of sample No. 3a on smooth salt in hole 10 feet deep, 3 feet wide, 4 feet
ong.

Sample No. 8 taken from pothole 0.5 mile north of sample No.7. Depth of hole unknown, but very deep.
Four feet in diameter. Only 1 sample marked No. 8. Sample No. 8 taken on rim of rough salt.

Sample No. 9 taken 1 mile north from pothole No. 8 on rough salt. Depth of hole unknown.

Samples taken by J. H. Jones. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.

86 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE XXII.—Analyses of waters and brines.

{Samples collected by E. E. Free. Analyses by A. R. Merz.]

Total K20 in
No. Description. solidsper| total
: 100 ec. ec. | solids.
Per cent.
306 | Slough at first crossing, road from Furnace Creek to Bennetts Wells.............. 36. 51 3. 42
307 | Water from hole 18 feet deep, 1 mile north of sink (saline pond northeast of
Bennetts Wells) 24 < <secces = sais sake 2 dae Cenc ase eee Eee 20.36 1.08
326 | Surface water from near road from Furnace Creek to Bennetts Wells, 10 miles
from Murnace Creek (Road 2 822 520. oe. ee bic So eee ee eee 10. 42 1.50
327 | Waterfrom 10-foot dug hole on this road, 9.7 miles west of Furnace Creek.......-. 36. 81 3.31
331 | Water from 4-foot dug hole at U. S. Geological Survey, B. M.72,on road from
‘Rurnace Creek: Rianch!to; Bennetts Wells: c2 see. = 4s ono Bea eee eee 33. 80 . 96
338 | Water from hole in mud flat northwest of Furnace Creek 7,500 feet northwest
from land monument at old borax works north of Furnace Creek, hole 2 feet
GO6D aos cece ss sec aoc cseaa ee ceeen eh ee ones sao eee AUAe eee eee eee 33.28 3.08
339 | West side of valley, due west from Furnace Creek Ranch, water from dug hoje
3 feet deep sees 2k S28 ck< cae tose eben cers eaten sea ee OEE eee eee eee 2.77 1.75
341 | Waterfrom dug hole 0.25 mile east of No. 339, 2.5feet deep...........-.-.-------- 15.12 2.38
342 | Waterfrom dug hole 0.25 mile east of No.341, depth 7feet. Onmain flat......... 34.18 2.98
343 | Water from surface pool at old bridge due west of Furnace Creek Ranch (Skidoo
tral) once PHS sass ee Passa tS LSE So Sis ae ONS ene a Se Te Ee ee 32.05 2.25
TaBLeE XXIII.—Analyses of muds and clays.
[Samples collected by E. E. Free. Analyses by A. R. Merz.]
Dalal dcaeee
No. 5 Description. soluble lubl
Solids; ||) SO Uae
solids.
316 | Death Valley fiat, east:side, 500 yards west of road, 5.4 miles south of Furnace | Per cent. | Per cent.
Creeks Ranch surface salt: <3) j-2.95-5.5-ceese aces eee ac meee aeie Secs PAF 0.39
317 | 665 feet east of Bennetts Wells, salt from surface of slough bottom................ 10. 65 1.79
319 | Clay from 3 feet under surface, 1 mile east of Bennetts Wells............-...------ 12.16 2.22
320 | Clay from shallow hole 0.25 mile east of No. 319...........---..---.-------------- 21. 49 1.12
323 | Water squeezed from clay obtained from hole in slough 1,800 feet east of Ben-
nettsWellséo2.).3. 285 tec 2 a a ee ee ee eee 18. 24 3.03
335 | Sandy clay, bottom of hole east side of valley on road from Furnace Creek to
Bennetts Wells; 2:22.52 =sisc sei. Sees Beek Foes eee eee See ee eee 25.54 2.09
TaBLE XXIV.—Analyses of alkaline Death Valley soils.
[Parts per 100,000.]
No Ca. | Mg. | K Na. | SO, cl COs. | HCO;.| Total
solid.
44 193 38, 460 823 59,360 | None 122 99,312
44 438 14,161 | 2,402 21,000 | None 240 38, 678
380 | 3,316 14, 364 | 13,390 19, 740 600 732 55, 239
35 290 37, 893 987 58,240 | None 122 97, 783
35 226 38, 608 527 59,600 | None 122 99, 415

Description:
20. Salt crust from Death Valley 3 to 6 inches thick, opposite Telescope Peak.
21. Clay underlying salt crust. Opposite Telescope Peak.
22. Heaved ground near periphery. Opposite Telescope Peak.
23. Pothole 5 feet in diameter, 10feetdeep. Salt from margin of pothole.
24. Hairlike salt from edge of hole.
Analyses by J. A. Cullen. Samples by G. J. Young.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 87

TaBLE XXV.—Analyses of various samples from Searles deep well.

Total. Water soluble. Insoluble.
No.
K. Na. K. Na. Ke Na.

Dee eee nae close close da dawins ce 1.14 29.94 -91 30. 34 ~20 -0
DLE ee Me ate cla ned ciceadiccieecewieniceina 2. 64 14.14 44 11. 23 2. 20 2.91
Dee ect tal coi stiSe coc asleee tee caeictete - 46 16.91 .09 8. 43 BB 8.48
PLP OEE s oiacin coms ecidcvaelnee ys se celble 18 24.05 . 26 11.81 02 12, 24
FAG 3 iets SG a Be eo ee en 3.07 10. 21 -42 7. 66 2. 65 2.55
ee ato a LE Ms Sanibel oe 1.58 19.77 09 ELPA 1. 49 7.50
BANGS sla OE A RIE a eC sn a 3.79 7.31 69 5. 28 3.20 2. 03
Der eee ol cece foie abe oh ey thny 2.73 9.95 .42 7.94 231 2.01
PUA er = ie ae | reise eee Llalclcre Aire steer enre bite 2.30 9.13 - 43 7.48 1,87 1.65
APP QOH SUSE CEE EE HO te ROE Ene eS pre eet 1.55 6.13 . 06 . 64 1.49 5.29
28 ec Sab one EO BOO EE CBE EES SSC eee 2.98 5.70 . 25 4, 64 2.73 1.10
BH BROS ae Ue BEE BE BS AIEEE: Glee Ee Eee 1.52 6.51 . 28 5. 68 1.24 . 83
EE eee CAS CRE SEE OE EES 2. 28 5.31 . 20 2.34 2.08 2.97
BAD. USE eS aes eae eee Gas eRe nL ee ee 2.79 Te -58 5.70 PaseAl 2.05
98 32.03 .70 31.23 28 80
1.44 10. 28 -48 6. 40 - 96 3.88
4.19 6.36 .33 4, 23 3. 86 2.13

209. Marked ‘‘Deep well, Mar. 9, 1896. Soft clay overlying at hard streak 62.5 feet.”

211. Marked ‘‘Deep well, Mar. 9, 1896. Clay from bottom of well to date. 227 feet 10 inches. K-S.”’

212. Marked ‘Crystal deposited by standing over night from water taken from well at 600 feet. Source
of water we presume at 400 feet.’’

213. Marked ‘‘ From deep well Sept. 2, 1895, at 409 feet. Depth of deposit 408 to 427 feet.’

214. Marked ‘‘Crystal at 427 to 442 feet. Drilling hard as rock.”

215. Marked ‘“* * * with bed of No.3. 442 to 469 feet.”’

216. Marked ‘‘Deep well No. 4. 469 to 500 feet.”

217. Marked ‘‘Green mud with No. 5. Strong ammonia smell from 506 feet. Dec. 31, 1895. Depth of
deposit 500 to 515 feet.’’

218. Marked ‘‘Depth of deposit No. 6. 515 to 520 feet.”

220. Marked “ From 535 feet on Jan. 8, 1896. Depth of Deposit 530 to feet. No. 8.”
: 221. Marked ‘‘Rimmings from deep well, Borax Lake, at 540 feet. Showing formation in clear parallel
ines.’’

222. Marked ‘‘ Washings from mud of deep well at 540 feet.”

223. Marked ‘‘Jan. 13, 1895, from 575 feet.’’

224. Marked ‘‘Jan. 15, 1896, from 580 feet.”

225. Marked ‘‘Rimmings between 586 and 5*6 feet ***.””

226. Marked ‘‘ Deep well at 600 feet, Mar. 5, 1896.”’

227. Marked ‘‘Crystals from water at 600 feet.”

228. Marked ‘‘Deep well at 620 feet, Mar. 9, 1896.”

229. Marked ‘‘ Black and gray mud taken from deep well at 627 feet. Black turns gray on exposure.”

TaBLE XXVI.—Sodium-potassium ratios for samples from Searles deep well.

No Soluble | Insoluble} Total No Soluble | Insoluble} Total
5 Na/K. Na/K. Na/K. i Na/K. Na/K. Na/K.
209..... 10.9 0. 67 1.32 221 17. 42 0. 88 3.97
741 ee ae 18.1 28 1. 40 222 11.35 3.54 4.47
212..... 33.2 0 26. 25 223 18. 60 -40 1.91
216 ares 25. 75 1.32 5. 36 224 20.6 . 67 4,28
214... 98.0 23.0 36. 70 225 11.85 1.43 2.30
Oa A 46.0 23.5 30. 75 226 9.73 -93 2.78
ZiGeeses 18.5 . 96 3. 92 227 44.7 2. 86 32.75
PATE ae ae 147.0 5.05 12.5 228 13.5 4,05 1.12
218-2. 8.95 . 685 1.93 229 12.8 .55 1,52
22072... - 19.17 9 3. 65

BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE XXVII:—Composition of alkali samples from deep bore in Searles marsh.

No. Ca.

Per cent
209. on be tn 0. 094
7AM ea erage B i
O19F seo38 Rr.
7AG eo Pr:
CAE See ee - 038
AD Se omits Br:
2162. - -Fiee . 038
PAY ees aes . 043
ASee Seeas a ‘re
LYS ae Si ALK.
OA | a ae aes re
7 i aia Tr;
O75 te aoe ae . 108
OA. ee Ee ‘BG:
COLNE amet Bes . 043
22GB. = ccetee . 050
VV. Cree aera Anos
220) 5 Joba as Drs
2202 BE tes . 065

Mg. K. Na.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
0.020 0. 23 2.54
- 010 7 4.81

- 008 -91 30.34

- 084 ~44 11. 23

- 221 - 09 8. 43
.192 - 26 11.81

- 004 .42 7. 66

- 006 - 09 12.27
- 009 .59 5. 28

. 045 .42 7.94

. 020 - 43 7.48

. 004 -06 . 64

. 015 o2o) 4. 64

- 006 - 28 5. 68
. 006 . 20 2.34
. 010 .58 5.70

- 008 . 70 Biles
- 008 -48 6.40

. 012 .33 4,23

Cl.

Per cent.
3.4

5.27
10.73
6.36
2.46
3.96
7.15
9.37
5.27
7.57
3.57
45
4.60
5. 82
2.65
6. 32
11.94
7.78
4.55

S04.

Per cent.
2.40

3. 94

—

PORNO? eed
DID OE se NS 90

CO BO 010000 DF

COs.

Per cent.

HCO3.

Total
soluble
salts.

Per cente

TaBLeE XX VIII.—Composition of soluble salis in samples from deep bore in Searles marsh.

No. Ca. Mg. Ke
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
1.04 0.21 2.52
Tr. |- -07 1.95
Tr -O1 1.00 !
AVS . 26 eh)
= 115) SSSull tems merap
Abies 54 212
.16 01 1.74
a8} . 02 AP
Are . 06 3a 12
Tr. 1.97 1.79
Re He 1.97
bee 55) 2.85
nie -11 1.83
AM? . 04 1.71
. 62 .09 2.87
. 29 -06 3.44
Er; -O1 . 74
Dre . 04 2. 62
aye, - 09 2.66

Na. Cl. SO4. CO3. HCOs.
Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
22.93 26.38 20. 64 Abr 3.48
34. 00 39.76 22.49 0. 89 2.61
28.17 11.70 54.08 te 2.88
32. 64 19.74 12.76 11.57 20. 41
33. 53 9. 80 1.47 21.24 32.45
33. 20 Tula 3.14 17.19 34.13
34.03 29.91 24.34 4.83 9.68
35. 59 27. 84 9.78 11. 43 15.00
31.38 33. 42 23.59 2.31 5.40
33.26 33. 24 25.91 4.67 7.12
33. 60 16. 43 13.30 16. 61 21.93
31. 63 22.93 11.78 7.74 22.91
32. 55 33.76 27.59 a 2.27
33. 82 37.19 23.77 1.69 3.25
Bye Ibi 38. 48 22. 67 131 1.77
31.85 37.53 23.06 1.26 2.37
28. 56 12.79 53. 70 1.74 2.10
_ 33. 83 42.99 16. 61 . 83 3.06
32.00 36. 98 26.08 - 48 1.98

TaBLE XXIX.—Analyses of water and mud from Searles Lake well, Cal.

[Samples collected by E. E. Free.

Analyses made by A. R. Merz].

Total
Description of samples. soluble
solids.
Per cent.
ooo: A Vil water 20 feet down). 40.02 sees el seeck on be shane c eee e ee tere ae eee eee 42.8
397.7400, mud trom.40 feet... 6s eee ct cee oe bane oe eee cect eae Dee eee 36.88
308.8: 5.water from bottom), 48 feehes 2-2 Sees stosen aos dear) ee ee eee 29.98
359. i 4) water from WOLtom ,./OheGuee Wm: ).2ka 28 Seaiencee oe eke Se L een eee ee 25. 43
00: oy Ay tt from POLEOUR: jx /5)0. aeeraia « ak wormitewistacls od sae ica Sees nee Dene nee: Caer ee 35. 26
361: 4.3, water trom. 424 feet, artesian... 3.6 < 2 Set bev ob aeine beeh eee ee eee eee 29. 60
BOC oe TE GOT OUNs 15 =O0 LE ras aye RE ia aa 2 oc wie ieip nin efu/ajep nie camieimeie aiviare wsche aetate ee rea 19.86
Bio. Bie ALCL IPO 60 LCCbo wave. - Bastien Dae cco Sb oats oe aeeeeecc een dae ene eee eee 35.9
Dies a2, ATG, STOW OS LOR b aa sao nin ORME « wv o wjaths wicije o aices ab aiclee ae are te ee Cee Ee 54.80
DOO aa Ls AV AUOL ALOML LOO LOG Ga2 22. wim a dle casei desc e male age bee oot Sen Ce ee ee 25.4
OOD Le CANTO Ob ons iol oN win oem ow cio ab aiambie See an Soe ee Eee Ee ee 49.52
867: 5-2, mud ‘and crystals from /OMCOb = =o oi s.5 a asic bie ooo co = esaleiato swim ie ere ea 60. 99
i 1. Southwest corner section 14, township 26 S., range 43 E.
E& 2. Southwest corner section 11, township 26 S.; range 43 E.
i 3. Southwest corner section 10, township 26 S., range 43 FE.
E 4. Slightly north and east of middle of west line section 10, towsnhip 26 8., range 43 E.
E 5. Slightly north and west of middle of east line, section 17, township 25 S., range 43 EB.

K,0 in
total
soluble
solids.

Per cent.
6.08

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 89

TaBLE XXX.—Petrographic examination of samples from Searles deep well.

[Analyses by J. C. Jones.]

Description.

Similar to 221 and 213.

Fine-grained tourmaline, biotite, hornblende, plagioclase, and quartz grains recognized. Major part
of material clay cemented by gaylussite.

Larger grains pirssonite. limonite, a few quartz grains.

A fine mud cemented by carbonates with a few ¥ iragments of quartz, hornblende, tourmaline, and
iron oxide.

Crystals of pirssonite with inclusions of clay and iron oxide.

Mostly crystals of pirssonite. some halite, grains of quartz, clay, and iron oxides.

Pirssonite in broken crystals, limonite, ‘kaolin, biotite, tourmaline, quartz. Fine-grained material
average diameter, 0.5 mm.

Crystals of pirssonite, nodules of limonite, a few grains of quartz, hornblende, plagioclase.

Mostly clay and iron oxide cemented by carbonates; some grains of quartz, hornblende, biotite, and
a few clouded and decomposed orthoclase ervstals noted.

Mostly clay cemented by pirssonite; mineral fragments of quartz, hornblende, tourmaline, biotite,
apatite, and many fresh and clouded fragments of microcline, approximately about 25 per cent of
the mineral fragments left after washing out clay and dissolving carbonates. This is the only
sample in which feldspar crystals approaching freshness were noted.

A ee mud firmly cemented by carbonates with a few fragments of quartz, hornblende, and hydrated

iotite.

Oolitic sand; rounded grains composed of minute grains of quartz cemented in part by carbonates
and iron oxide but retaining form after being acted on by acid. Not a true oolite as no concentric
structure could be noted.

Fine-grained clay grains of quartz, hornblende, biotite, cemented by carbonates.

Similar to No. 223.

ee neerained clay, cemented by carbonates, grains of tourmaline, quartz, hornblende, apatite, and

iotite.

Similar to No. 223.

Grains about 1 millimeter in diameter, gaylussite, limonite, quartz.

Similar to No. 225.

ot *, fe {dopant FX acer
See: aR {Rha Neate Se
amblitjineeds

ae xt nest boine tang deel 2, oie
Se est “4 mae oe ; 6 hattbnd *

: » Arhae gai
Beare by ee mane

teen wsesiote ihe sagem a

Phadeolae: nasty |
Lo ML a Tot ie hp CaaS

Tee Fehler Sy arg

he:

INDEX.

Page,

MD CHIPE AKC nd eCSCHIPUIVE MOLES. os ocs seins ot ade sa seat eee eee eeec eae eneesee s aeee sc. SUSE Sse 7, 8, 29, 33
Absorption:
HACORSIMMUEeN Cine <sumMMany sa. so shc ee hse Nee oe Webs psc Soke sees ener et ssars ses Pee
Menomena iMnweatherimp ZONE). stra. 552 sec cc cess ons ne See ces Ooe ebebeeceode so eeu sees
re LaMOREUONSAMMEYSOLULLONS Hs. owe ce nce se Sacro oc See eee ee me Oe RA Aes ae ae
A\GbHDS, Co Moy CURIOS eo aedbor cope ebbHogon ado ce Sa EUS bOR CRE GEre Sone HU Bea Hern mSAaanounsacanosaob ne
Adularia occurrence, Nevada, potash percentage..........--..2.--- 20 -c eee eee ee eee ee eee
Alkali crusts, description, occurrence, origin, analyses, etc ...........---.--
Alkali Wales, North, Middle,and South, notes-................----------22 2-2-2 eee ieee eee
Mees AESHyIM OV EINEM SOL Sten se nee nsew noose a Sehaceaceeae cobs ner ae ele Re Leite
Alkali Valley. (See Sand Springs Flat.)
iting alemraterialeas SOUnCe Ol Salimese em sass ates tea sae ate ae ae oe Sena oe ee eee eae ee
Altitude, as factor controlling rainfall in Great Basin region
AMINE posits) Greatwsasites «2 928A 05a. cccsanee vec ece see neeesee eee ceee
PAMTTTNNLETOCCUETCN Cet Great ASUaas == see eae a eee sae eee see see
Alvord Lake Basin, descriptive notes..............--...-.------.- Ses eo RAT a TRURICTE EREACR ora AUS RU 8,39
Aunrareosa-basin descriptive NOs. ©.2- 25-52-22 0 42ce2--cse esse ce ascetics ceccine semen ene 1,3, 4, 5, 24, 39, 78
FAITE OSA BEV IVET CLES CHU LIVE MOLES pee ae eee a ean eae aeoeeaoe eee see eee e eee ee ene 1,4, 8,9, 29, 32
Analyses:
ANIA Fe LLORES COTUCES Ua ee eg a a P to at RRM IS A Me yh OLS Oe hye) SR 33, 36, 66-67, 82, 83, 85
BORA eTHLONES CET CC Leet ete wire RET SNL BN hf ty GF 5 5 Dal iy Nan yt sy HOM) BO AREAL AL PAP RR 33
SOM S eDIxIeMVAlley Aken seem eae eT RE OU Se UES Ee ee Mek MOU atte Nhe Wea hy OE 2 ne 54-56
IB OMIM DSM Se anlesMe aces merrqee staal re tn aan) oes reer se or UL LE RSE RR 48, 49, 87, 89
HSTUTTE MS Oi WETAS AIG Ace yn iees 33 Ne Mie ils SR aa a 2 a 2 re 8 MTN RR SE SE 51
TINS SearlesiaAke seh Wyn ee eh A eR REN eR A alee CEN a aE Sa Oe Ae ONY Se Ee AO 52, 53
IBnes aD cathe Nall crete eek ie pe le eae NEG pei Ee ee ci aL is NEE aaly SUI N) AI! 45-47, 85-86
Brmesvetee salimesValleys | Calea wees ass seo. 22 oe sell a eISSN SS Elev te as Vee 43,
IB EIMeS ol hyerrced ke MATS Wess, ome Here Meee a eean seen pene, EMINAE ake Oe ty LO Ou ae as
Grypsumidepositss(GreatiBasins seas s ye sei yes hans Pees are es Dae a SOA Se
LOLS PRINS AWATeR ENG Vad aes eae es Sia Sich es A TA NN Ld LT OE PONE SOLE
WASH He MUG e POSITSHe x Besse eee ele ce Ree ee eee ie ale wae ape Ihe SEM an ae TUS pA
Matertalitromideeproore:searles; Marshes. =. 2 shoes eees ees ee eee meena eee ee
Material from lake beds northeast of Mina.............-..-. 22.22.2020 e eee eee eee
Material from:Searles}deep well. .2 8/52. S222225..02 92 22.8 A, ek
Muidisamples, Columbus) Marsh) Ney.)..25..2.22202.2 22228) 2 eee
Mudisamplessoeanles Makenwell st. oa ycm= secie se ci Soca ace se ce eee ee eee te Meeieyere ee eer
Muds and crusts, Black Rock Desert, Nev..........---- 22-02-0220 e eee eee eee eee eee
PG iastnD catheNAlOyCAle ee Ce cn Pele Si) ase ec nies ks UM ch (SO Onn AME
Salt, water, and saline crusts, Railroad Valley, Nev., tables....................----------------
Soils, humid and arid regions, comparison.......-..-.-.--2--+-222-ee eee e ee eee ee eee eee eee
Soluibleysal tshins ouster yey esse rs eee Rey BOF EES Fas Je RCN). See
Waters BlackRock Desert NGV. 2222 os2 bo et se oa cee ro ae sae ae a ee nee ae ees
WitersMb OL Springs ass ea we SuAa ee NER Nha es oe APE RN ees te ek Site Se IS ah eee LS
Waters, lake and river, comparison, etc..........-.-.-.--------- Bey CE TAT POTS BIE: SEE
Wiaterssundercroundand'surfacesas ss -s5 esses se sasc ass saceise see cee peers nee eeea
Analysis:
landpanryNevadaras ee Nace Mae a ae soos sence th siete eee) ih dal DOS ALON ES SOR UNE QUERY EY are
SalismausandeekunodeskMarsh= = eee cee ve et ied alec RIE Le WADED E a PEASE al 2 PO ee
Arid region, soluble salts in soils, movement, etc.....-.-.-..-.---------- 22-2202 eee eee eee eee eee
Arid regions, soils, analyses, comparison with soils of humid regions
ATIC yin area imi GreateBasites ses ssss- sees eae seen se sense ae eee ee
Artesian areas, Great Basin region 5
Atmosphere, contribution to salines of Great Basin.............-----.-2---20-2-2 22222 eee eee eee eee

Bailey, G. E., citation on salt bed, San Bernardino, Cal...........-..-..-.--.---------------------- Uf
BB alleyeeeyy Ke spo tashian aly.Ses ye icici ee See SRO EU AT OT PULSES. YORE ae AT
Baker, Charles Laurence, citation on borax deposits.................-..---------------e----e eee eee
pest systems composing the Great Basin region..........-.-..-------- +--+ eee eee eee eee eee 1, 67-68
asins:

Desert, formation, typical cases, description, ete..........-....-.------------------------- 39-60, 66-67

Wesects structuraledevelopmente=2 oso. 5 ees oe ee ee ee see Se eee ee ee eee eee tees 37-39, 67

Lake, composing the Great Basin region, list, areas, etc..........-..-.--.------------------- 1-3, 67-68
IBeATPEUV eh ACESCEIPLIVe MOLES Ee tye sett orcs taal aie Io sete et ce ee oe ee Hie eae a ea 29,30, 81
Bisgemoky.v alley, descriptive notes.) 205-5 --sces. ccc oe Joes Peete cohen sce eee os bees eteeceeeatee 1,12
BlacksWock Desert Lake, motes! 2.0220. -26 eee Ls ie ees cecce tees atl obo be 1, 3,39, 61,62
Black Rock Desert, Nev., location, description, analyses, etc........-.....-...-..------------ 60, 61, 62, 63
Bonneville Basin, descriptive notes.............-.--.--2-0-0e 2 eee ee eee eee eee ee eee 1,4, 7, 8,30, 31, 59, 61
Borates:

Absence ini certain desert: basins: 4.2). ees ce ee SS es SSS PS ee 42

DEHOSitShnEG Teste ASM sao Oey len yn eal nersa = 2 Scale cle iano aoe cn wine ose cise Uae eae 7, 33-34, 66

ipnesencein lake watersss . sis sresse. wo Siero rw se a ele ete ere eee SEA Ce Ee EL Saas Seer 30
Borax: :
Bedded deposits, location and origin..................-------.----- +--+ 2-2-2 eee eee eee
Deposits, workable, type and locations, etc......-.....---.------+---------+-e+ eee eee 33-34, 42, 46, 54
Efflorescences, Searles Lake, analyses........--..--------02c-g eee eee rete e ee cece cence nee nee 33
Supply. Great Basin repion, notes: =<22: 2-565. -422 22206 sees eee see sais see eel cetisis see 7, 33, 34

eo oe, eee ee OO oe

92 INDEX.
Page
Bore explorations Jor, potash. <2. 524 tcl se eae Ss. 2. Rae ete eect ee 2,13,18, 56-58, 638, 64
Borings:
Carsonssink, potash studies < .. 2 oc. see te ae ols So ee 2,18, 63, 64
Death: Valley; loz of Geological Survey. << 222.2... 52 2 os Se ee eee 46
Dime Valley analyses. 0.8 ccs Ses Seal es tig econ i's roa cule ae 54-56
Ravroad Valley, Nev:, lop of potash drill. . <-. 250.5) 26-2 ies eee ee 56-58
Searles thake, ‘analyses'of samples.i22. 2. 222. 24 S25. a A eee 48,49, Be 89
Silver Peak Marsh, ANALYSES! § = soe 2 Se se gto se seo ee cS eee SE ee
BBrINGS! ANALG SES eat cae ell! OY nd ey Se ee eri 27 a ee 41, 43,47, 51, 52,53, 54-56, $5.86
Brockmp ton). 6:5 Craton jo. ek 2 prin een, OTE ee ee a 44,46
Calcareous deposits, shores of Jakes:in Great: Basin: .=- 22 = 2-2: 2- Son 28 ee Sede: ee ee 65
California:
Oras: deposits sac 23) wes a ae Sa SOS oe RN as 20 UTES 5 Ser pe ea 33,34, 46
+ Climatic’ records, ‘precipitation: etc., tables. 2.225 2. hh ee ee ee ee 71-73
Great: Basm rezion, geachemical conditions: .. o>. 022 jecsee ce een ne sae eee eee 1-14
Gypsum deposits 2 2 ans jieee ec one a Bae ale ae Lae icke x es Se eee ee 66
Nitrate.deposits, location: -22'522-jceisk ne one ticle & Sica ws ee en ee ee a 32
Rivers, analyses, ChE eee se Steet Aa aso we Akin cn ie Se Sey tee ee a ee 8, 28, 29, 31,32, 81
Galttheds ss. o. te n sa ee ok ree S ota eo mae Ce NC age cee % Bera 46, 48, 52
Waters; analyses 's 2: 2205 Rell faci fee eee ba ek ae os See ee a 24, 77, 78, aS
Cameron, Citation ooo. 2. ee Fan heehee Segoe one coe oe a ea
Cam phelli: citations -< foo o 6 aco Desc See tee ae ils Cont eee Fea PO UrEe bie Ais ba ae
Garson’ Basin. descriptive notes: 23.52 2-02 ese koe aon t= See a0 eA eae 1,3,4,5,9,13,19
Carson Desert. (See Carson Basin; Carson Sink.)
Carson Lake; ‘descriptive notess. 52. 2.4.65: ssn) Poe Se ae ee ee a 9, 60, 61, 62,63
Carson River, @escriptive Notes .(s 42.552 tse ak alee oe Sek oe See eee eee 1,8,9, 10, 29,63, 64. 74
Carson Sink area, bore explorations: 38. 2.2226 2 Ee ee eee es 2°18, 63, 64
Catlow Valley Basin, NOTE: sich s Aiea hs eles 5 So Se eae Se ee ee a

Chatard, T. M. , citations on analysis of hot spring water, ete

Chewaucan Marsh, TLOLC ee) Pe Ss Re ote Sed Le See ae See

Chlorides, high content of some lakes

Christmas Lake V alley. ground water.........-..- wea Bie geind SSS ESE a a

Clarke:
Citation on. decomposition Of rocks -< 22252. 22 So ees fees ee eee ee ee ee ae
Citations on analyses of hot-spring waters, etc............-.-.-..-.----------+------

Climatology, Great Basin region, factors controlling, Ot sie oes ssh Se ee ee oe ee 3-4, 71, 72

Cloudbursts, cause ‘of erosion in;Great Basin: 52 98. ees eo ee eee eee eee ee ene 3-4, 21

Columbus Marsh, location, characteristics, mud AUC YSES S OtG os SSeS Rec eee 53-54, 64

Columbus Valley, notes. 222 oo. a tiswines «cba heee disc ent gadis asec epee see ne Sea Eee aeeae

Cones of extinct volcanoes found in Great Basin region

Cooperation, potash investigations | s.. . 2)... 2gset sa. o a ates ante ae soe ccee soe ae eee eee R ee enen see

Cottonwood Springs, gypsum oceurrence.-.......-.----- 7

Craters, extinct, as sources of Saline deposits..........--.--

Crusts, ‘alkali, oceurrence and Composition 323225562. -ascee sone eae eee eee ee aes

Cullen, J. A., citations on hot springs, analyses, etc

Danby ‘Basin, ‘descriptive notes\.....5- 222. Goas5. sees Const canaen acter e Sere he eee eee: Gee eee Ree a eeeee 1,32
De Groot, citation... 25 os). os boos sec cite else epee sens osleb ec Slee oe see ee eee ene ee eee eee eee 48
Death Valley:
Basin, descriptive notesss5.5 20-5. - -seeekise see see eee see ae eee eee
Borings: Geological Survey. - 22. -.tseeebiew oes emacs ae ec oe eee ne ee ace ee ae eee eee
Brines, analyses; tables? .. ....25.25 0c2 A JSiheese ss oo ch ace Bec oe ae oe Ree tos ae ee een
Ghemical data: 2<- osc on. 2 ee ee te ey onaxe scum
Location, description, and analyses of brines, etc......
Desert basin, structural development eee cilsnints sets
Desert basins, formation, typical cases, description, etc
Desert wells, water measurement...) 5224s ceo = ns sanode ne sense cE ee ee ne eae
Desiccation of lake waters, formation of desert basin..................-.--..
Dinsmore, S. C., citations on analysis of hot-spring waters, etc............-..-------------------- , 24,
Dixie Valley:
Basin, Gescriptive MOles - one as ain slain lain als we eS oe ee 8, 39
Location, formation, analyses from: borings, ete@s...220.5255. 1 -cesaacunice cee oe see eee eee ee see 54-56
Dolbear, citations, ground water, eC. =<i.50 Skee aceke sass See eee eee eer
Dole, citations, geology of Great Basin, 2) Cn Ste Senge Ry ee FEE Ce SE Aenea Se

Efflorescences, alkali, description, occurrence, analyses, etc
Erosion, water and wind, in. Great) Basin: 22.2 cp seems. seep sea eee
Evaporation, Great Basin 1-40) HES See PSE e eon are cee tinnOoer ore nenc anthem osson cake woneed

Fallon:
Ares) descrip iy 6 NOLS a= puis se comeawa's oa rici dace alia eae she. aie alajalaleiaeietalat eerste eta aerate
Souls, salines, nature Of. 72 == see = os < oie cine tania ieisinye tein a os wile nite ae Relate ete eee
Fish Lake Valley, GeSCriptive NOESE «= \-o- = = mine nine wile misloin.e wie Wels elie eae ae aa a
Fourmile Flat. (See Sand Spring Flat.)
ree) os) Ei; (citations sa. Sokeas ss seeps wbcec ns oe cel taste sei nie Rene ete
Fmiace Creek, notes-¢ < 02522 2oo spec on soe cee cowree enieia alcistoe moe) s) steele ane iia eee eee

Gale, citationse.:- 2 2 Seo Ses ee wt wc woos e's Sac coe olen ee cee een ei ee eee
Geochemical conditions, Great Basin region
Geological Survey:
Borings, Carson Sink... (220 \-\ ge < ooo 2 a esinecewe ols sabia ot eins ccc ons KUe Reta ae
Borings, Death Valley <2 oe oc cosie nies nies cise oo redieinie cin slo 'e cin ci'e oe» wlcie elo Se Nett ane ene ate
Cooperation with Soils Bureau in potash studies ........-...- 2.22222. 2cece ence cane rene enesne-e= 23
Ground-water studies, Great Basin..........------- 2-22-2202 - eee ene nee e en ne we ewe een aneemnne 8, 12,13
Potash studies in Carson Sink Dore <.. 2.2. foo esa. lee voi cin c cies shetesein olan elo Se 2; 13, 18, 63
Geology, Great Basin region, rocks, Jakes, ete... 022.002 won ees nce e sane cee eee eee 4-8

INDEX. 93

Gilbert: Page.
Gitanonsponszeolosy, of Greate asit see. war ota ase scams asa soca ed ana s9 sa a/s so aajesecceeees 15, 59, 61, o
Monorraph om Lake! Bonneville!citatiomees a7 seas iio.50ciskeelecizle ties eum mae 2) soa) oe oe =

Great Basin region:

Area, description, and basins included..............--.------+---+-- Bb rushed picts sabe ah bE 1-3
MOOCMeUMNCACONGIVIONS sme ae ree mesiee ese ie aciciiaaice neseaicsmetine ocilee cine ede sence eee 1-14

Great Salt Lake:

PRBSCHUD LU Werm OL eStee ame er Om eat taste a ote clot Ace Cla Atel h Sal aterpiclat retelling eee Ne 7,9, 10, 29, 53, 61
RAUESKCOTMP OI tase see ee eee eine he arate ee telcte oa eta nleiataleafsieipis cieveininin etotereatsble sawed 1s Rep elioeioiie Mise eiaiaencite 64

Gypsum:

Beds, in Great Basin geological formation, analyses, etc....-..--------.------------------- 7,17, 65-66
Deposits, Cea UB EAS ATA SOS) OF Chee) aafem em aiatoloteiane i Sei atm tenia cia pieelciie eae he pee ate 65-66

TEE, (0. Ns, GENO Ts Be ne Se So Se ee ee ee ee ma eee ore) it oye MMA eye 33

Hance, J., Berio Meee cer ceri aM ss pee eee Keuieey ankiiner Lint ag tein ance 36

IEE NOV AN AU ALY SIS othe ss kt te tenia sletait eliotn to eiattcle' np ine eae ee eed ois Ao nine aia 23

Harney Lake, descriptive TIO GOS aiey aya eae veel operetta RENE hes eh a nrg af ah May SNL ctiak ares olen tes Bite can ey s/s nae 29,33

Hess, I. CHUN ORI ea treok Nepal e CMR ays Sg rN Su raha ate Siebel ora ticeavslSle, cites Riel armen Saal ayaa ANeRayate Steae an 66

Hicks, W. a PUPLO LAS LNATI ALY SCS See tle haere ret ararereaal Stare CN a eraayat Sodas miateminnrarireloterenns Ere cio aay eeerncieetoes 47, 54

Hilgard citations on decomposition ofrocks eters. 5.22 222 see2 22 2h ee note as ese pee m eee Bees 15, 25

ENON ey AKG GeSCIp Live: MOLES ssi sama 5 se -tale 3 nel rae wal ois See te ra el alae tne a 9,61

Henampninesnt Grea O asin MOPlONs s.r see os aca scae cise 2 i RO eee ae Ae ee neta a ebAe 13, 18-19
Analyses CFT AE NESTS A aria g ae ee eel ees eee ae he Pe lca ys at eee ee Sere 18-19, 35, 60

Humboldt Lake, descriptive notes...............-. chat hi Matrcine SARA st ees cele Wels Poe rl 29, 60

Efennpoldityeiver, Gescrp tive MOLES: <5 2a - ow fae wale wre Saisie anime wells See aes 1,8, 9, 24, 29, 30, 31, 64) 74,81

Humid regions:

Soils, analyses, comparison with soils of arid regions. .......-.--..----..------------------2--e-- 24-25
Mineral content of IWELEES! | COMPALISONS) |GLCs dane sauce os Se Nee alae ne mene c ae ee ae BR 28-30

Igneous rocks as source of salines, copmbostHion, decomposition; ete: 2 -coec aso see eee ee 14-16, 76

Nac etea fea BEX AS LED yO LO ete sere ta cP en ne tet eee eh cies ence iia 5 a tant tn Wl al Veta emia cus eis locate Ee 1

Jarosite occurrence, Nevada, percentage of potash SSIS S eGR Se hare Sas a RS SS Mie aly S AOD cra bee 65

SHOW eS en AC orCLb ALON ot set om ue pen iiamane © Le Ss Natyccind the ee aamion Gi deinoe Se Hemi a| Sateen ----- 49,86 -

Jordan River, IO TORS ieee eta or A ieee aid Lb eizictee slayer mime meee else mem el RISE Sia SN eee 29

Jumper Lake BES AS LDPE TNO GO eee ee ee eps A PB oh Tap ee eee ce are 2 SONI A PTS RS Fee ee 8

APE IBEVIN OIA Cl ES CHUN Uli @ MLO LOS ica rermye este orate a eats oem minis loatals ero) etarete) cio eiaainSiayeielel~ eremicleieereicial sia =s= eT 10,31, a

Keyes, ELL OTIS Ek Se ets fe eae Ne a cae Sheree Creeyn mite icin ainiare eieinialplnininls Wer elamee sae ae eR Ce

tina pg REAL ep uake HTOLMA LION, (ELC ooo se wie nr ni cin eee stcie ete Sec oe eRe pete sale ess Maree *

LECTURES JEUINGAGIPS, Ir Bie eC yA 5 NSS CRE aR oa ete epg rete vp aire ay er Rely an et 10

Kullenberg, citation on ANSOLD Mon IphenO Mena se see ere ee metre eee nea suey Nyse 21

Laboratory, Cooperative, potash ATV ESHLEALIOMS eee ene kere e asl Nn Le ae ule Ne eS 3

Eahontany Basin \deserip tive MObeS . 3 o 2. noe Lotte ee eee ce eevee cide cesses 1, 4,7,8, 18, 29, 30, 31, 59, 60, 61

Taha Lake, ‘descriptive TOTES ete te a ste na iscctera lS aire rea ci SN SO eR Ne Soi ae a 59, 60, 61

ake:
Basins composing the Great Basin region, list, areas, etc.......-.-.------------------------- 1-3, 67-68
Bcdecke posits analyses secs n eaten ee came rere CARINE E Sons (l= beng Mind ep a ce pie tse nea 18
Profiles, Mono, Pyramid, Walker, Ghats Mires) hb (eo eee Ae ene ee Samet ee ese ee Ss 62
= Waters, ? analyses, comparison itAiniyen WALCESo 2.0 -ocl i ck eo eee PLIES peak 27-30, 80
akes:
Great Basin region, list, elevation, drainage, ete.....--- CES BAL DSS pay Diab ele ate ile EE - 7,9,67, 75
-Quatenary, list, description, COC EE wee ela Sen Et Sere BERS SEAR Se obbele Reger 7-8, 67-68

Large Soda Lake, EG) SST as 9 Oe gm ae eS Nei a a MME MEY Ne Nae A.M 33, 64

Latitude as factor COMPOMINeE Precipitation saeco a ea PP eh op has eae 3572

NEGRO OUCE ME IL AULOMS seme URI eae LIN CRIN Dee SS RT EL ol Veta a a a Sa I Se 42-43

Leevining FERC KAO LOS ee eso TIN We oc a somes eae NS nea pain see Ae ee 8, 29

Limestones, Great Basin, Eamipesition and losses under weathering.......-..--.--.----------------- 17,76

Logs, potash borings, (GEGSiE DEG a oe LE ene nny IG wc star alah ple ea DOE ae A 46, 54-55, 5 58

Long palloyBasimemote Sie ej se Nine Selle aaisieel 9D Se Poenius eng SR! Sigel ead eur 8

Louderback, citation on PVPSUMsE PEGS} GLedtADASIE acre: 5 4=ovae wetsaae de suk e es sissie eres Oana

Lovelock Valley, MO CES Pe Sec se ee sein nae le ie mee ne eke ras A rN eels Cael Ne een yale ke cay Oe 7,12

Mackay School of Mines, cooperative work with departments..........-....---.--------+------------ 3

Mace hinopilainspe asin ~NOLO:suan Sasa ieente eichmicisie ears inet arses Benicio cel SS ase EES 8

Marshes, Great Basin, types locatiomiandrdescrip tions = 2035.25 eee See ese es aa ad 39-60

NGA SME ba MONS te eelee Mensa ie eet Nl ON sce warn de WEE Joe eRe ue erase Se 25,26

Merced TRIIIGIPS TOOT KSSG= = SSR Eee ORME Eee ade See aera SRS SC eb ANE eRe ety Ser AT Op, oS EN Peery oe 10,28

Merrill, citations on GECOMPOSEELOMOLMOCKS 555 LEN ee Re eae) he he easier ates 15, 16,17

Merz, ALR. PRC MALTON Seer Ae ete Nee ioe cist nicole bre eS = GaSe cS De Sa Bek 36, 52, 83, 86, 88

Mill Creek, ESF NP SE Sh SI eS Se A a MP AR a ON achat 8, 29

Mineralogy LEGIT SENT TT CSE SEG UR eS ee ON Ei eu oe CAS as ala ae oP Ei ea 3, 69-70

Minerals:

Guedtebasinyoccurrence/and: association's #3) sees Dea bene Aan ee eer a) ee ee 69, 70
IPOLasa-richOCCULEEHCO)Gteab Basile: sees e asceticism aoe Secs Bcioeaia eee esos eee eee 65, 69-70
Saline, temperature Controllins forran tion ee ee ee Spa orange Calera 69
SOLO OL UIA WOT eye ees ee ary ene ee eminem ole tenes etn alone cine ninininin ciara neice eee ee 70

Pines SspmueS tappediain creat GepthS oe ne eon en- ee nase ae meine cme oo ee cone eeeen oe sem eriescemeiaocee oe 13

Manimedistieis ink Great; Basi TegiOny .- sees aish.e cee aoe Soe oS ee bi aeisemcehiee sSaas cc Seee eed aes 15

iMWojaveDeserts descriptive motes: =)5--2- - =. 8.252 See Roe aes as Sagan ee aeeiS te eens 1,3, 66

Mojave River, RTT ORE St MMe Mele te aay Hails dt Ee prulis Dison ON aka let Beet « Talviy Sacra thn siohibla Vaan 8

Mp Hos ASI. d CSChip biv@MOLOS= 25-8 ests sea eis aac a ae MSPS Ee ees SS ae Me oa Sz nse oe 1,3,7,19

Mono Lake:

ID OSCRED UNV OIOLES sey eS ee ee ao aie ais ensayo aE 9,19, 29, 30, 33, 49, 50, 53, 60, 62, 63

rez LS). foe evi re Scam eae a SE PB raged ys ha OND ES pepe righ oer e pein 7 aia AeA ene sis ES DR RS 64
Mounigblancor borax CepOsitSe ss peree essen reso cae nism one one alee ames a eines orl nel) sie eee 34
Mountain area, Great Basin region... 4,5, 9-10, 73

Mini Maas, Cesena 8b OT 9S. epee desea boas een eaeaaeE ons ce eB one {oseaance seo aSesoea=ckerdnm ane
Muds, Ss analyses black docks Desert; NEVAGS. «.- «csc coset ou- soos ase aon ae ceisneseleins weenie 60

OS ae a ee hee

94 INDEX.

Nevada: Page.
TAU EG (2) ((0s a on a ween eeelecmenniee sees males te 35
PTUNITGOCCUTTONGO o-oo ia eo alae in eee ve ticwcieesewe eee cocuclsb nec stat Gee e ee eee a 35-36, 67
OTE OWOSLIS@ Soe on = sie neo ate Sanna Swale ate wei ciel sin Seles ase) Sella = ae 33, 34, 42-43, 54
Climati¢ records, precipitation, etc., tables. ... 0.2.2. s0~0 5-25 beoewe ane een een eee eee 71-73
Extinct craters found Bwide smth oc eee teice ce bees es cnleetececeedes sees mee Re eet eee eee 19-20
Great Basin region, geochemical conditions... ....-..-.~-----2---<22-202s5see0e= === ese 1-14
GaypSUBLGeposlise st toMtowen oso a2 os oes 28 es oetomuarwnentone sees $scesec se see te see See nese 65, 66
Hardpansyoccurrence and analysis. - =. <2... 2..322420--902s0000ecessy ese eee Se eee 23
LOU Springs, Watemanalysis . 0. cj...-0 02s coco case Hee ced acess oe eee aoe se eee te eee 18,19, 35
Witrate deposits, location:...: = <== 2+ -.<<2-070 cos. SEs a es eee 32
Salt: deposits 22. Uses sae Sesto es se ss oa odes os ee eee ce cies saaee eae 7,17, 40-41, 42, 43, 53,54, 56
Soils, salines, nature, etc.....-.------------- wise nae ence side este Riens aa eee eee eee oa eee 25, 27, 78
Waters, SNSLYSOS <2 2122 oS seh ae oa oe seis ae wis oo ssine sew se a ane ae 24,77, 78
Waters, ars and underground, aes bea ans Obs Sede idudae cee ee See eh ee ee 24) WT 78

Nitrates;occurrence in Great Basin. s32.40-i2e...~ 226606 45.5 2asme neue soe ee eS eee eee 32°33, 66

Opden-River: notess: 223. 2 Gases. ss asus doen nese tot eeces sles estnbe ace eee eS 29

Oregon:

erates; Cepositss 2.0... css eeee sds abe seeded snc shs. cee c eee eS cee ee eee 33
Chimatie records, precipitation, .ete., tables= . <2. =< - 225. = 2 - pena a ee eo 71-73
Great Basin region, geochemical conditions....-.-+.-0-.2-+.)scseneceeegOlee saa aienn omnee 1-14
Daketbasin. descriptive notes... '- o<¢.)o2< 452 4e\06s,<< nese sep ae eee ee ee 1, 4,30,31, Ue
hakevregion, hot springs, -water:analysis. =... 3-00.26 2c<----c02905-5de pe eee cee eee eee ee
Lakes, motes Me Wel, Weeks. baceagodldlacdecsadcaccoussseelcec eee eta aan gama 9,3
Soils saline, MAGUTO\OL Ws oe Sas se esac see e eco ee eee gece tee cee sme cee se eee ee eee eee 25,79
Southern, ANLESIAN QrOAVee sae cise vied ee ace eee ts wow ge ds AL kn 2d RLS SOE eS ae ee 13

Osobb. (See Dixie Valley). ;

Owens Lake:

Descriptive notesinf2 25 2325-4 2. Fe eee 9,29, 30, 32, 33, 49, 50, 51, 53,
Saltsicontent.e tke lene amc ced dek oe ge cease as eeickeee accu as weed teens eee en es ae ei rrr

Oweus' River, descriptive Notes: Le 2 nse bs oe ects ee coe Ee eee 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, a

Owens Valley Basin, descriptive notes. .-.......--- (bocce SESE OOS ee eee 1,3,4, ip 10, 1.) 12; 19,30, 31

Panamint’ Basin; deseriptivenotes’:hvsc-- 2. 6a: cocci ceeceee eecaek eee ee Eee ee eee eee 1,7,39

Paradise Valley, Geseriptive Notes sot HU Le Sete ee ee eee eee oases Beek. eee eee L 33

Playa deposits:

WESCHIPbION sie: Meee ee NS see Dee ei ee hee 33 Pek ene ee ees 2 a ee eee 36-37, 67
Borax, description. 20.0 328 {ese SA ok j Sa he ee or eee eee eRe Eee eee 33,57
Se mud, and marshes, description, location, 6G s.<:4)005 2.02263 ces ce ae ee a ee ee 39-60, 67
otash:
Analyses, natural brines, Death Valley, Calls... 2 22 222. ge CSP SRE ee ee eee 47
Bore explorations J2) S282 ates Wasee soe de node ee ees 2 2,13, 18, 46, 54, 56-58, 63, 64
Discovery; Columbus: Marsh's oseis2 cee See ucin nc ee ceed ace ince sta se Scene ee ope 54, 64
Drills Railroad: Walley, Nev, loge oi os 2<as5.c2020 s6 0 Sei ces cee es acne eee ee 56-58
Investigations, cooperative WOT Ko. co eae ete ons a2 aeoehe eee ne ae ea em 2,3
Studies, Carson sink bore: ...2.--.---..cscdlok seo Hie alee SE ee See pane 2,18, 63, 64

Potash-bearing. minerals, occurrence, Great Basin. <..<..2-¢ +225 - = ese es aoe eee eee 65

Potassium:

Annualaccumulation of Great Basin... 5. 2-+-.--s2sse se eee se poe eee ae eee eee eee 32
Content of deposits, Great Basin, notes, etce.......-.-------.----------- 44,45, 49, 51,53, 54, 59, 64, 66, 68
Ratio to sodium, in waters and soils, Great, Basin ... 325 .9sg2 Oo SOE ae ee eee

Precipitation, Great "Basin région, notes andi tables:..- << <2. -2n)a ga ee eee 3,9, 10, 71, 72

Pyramid Basin, descriptive notes «.. . 2-2. 264 cece Gle nae idcsite ae 452 cece see eee eee eee ee eee 3, 10

Pyramid Lake, "descriptive NOS: wi esies Sas EE ee epson ces oon PE Coe eee 9, 29, 30, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63

Quaternary lakes list, ‘description, ete)... 9.2424 0828-62 2222-2 Se agen oo eee eee 7-8, 67

Quinn River, descriptive NLOGES woe 2.0 nn DT RES PL SOE SE ee a 4,8,9, 29

Railroad Valley, location, formation, artesian waters, borings, etc.....-.---.-.-.-- 8, 13, 39, 56-59, 64, 83-85

Rainfall:

Annual, Great Basin region, notes'and fables. ....- 2. .-5eco-n-sseeee-s= sesso eee 3,9, 10, ee G
Distribution and run-off, Great Basin TOPION 32 250 soe dice os eee bas ms ereeeeec Eee eee Eee

Rains, torrential, occurrence in Great Basin, andefiects: 2% (5,235 2. ee See ee eee eee 34, mM

Ransome, citations...) 01see) Sou baless sve pncoreacudecs cob cassie sae e nese tae aera 65

Reactions of solution in rock weathering ... J... 002220. Ci PSS Le a a ee eee 20-21

Reade, 1. Mellard, citation se. iic1..a22ses 222 Se..G bbe tase olen ones ca ose Bee see Cee ee ee eee ee 31

ReesesRiver, descriptive Motes ag. §esSe. xo nnc doce cene asec aeaene aes Peper. 6 eae 4,8,9, 29

Reno, topography wa eieialeisew oor Ulin nian nie ein a wie oisiemieiniae oie inaiclninle cee eee ae ee Se

Rhodes Marsh‘ descriptive notes, analyses, t@s...- 22. scce- secs nee chasse eee eee eee 1,33, 38, 39, 42-43

iver:
Discharges; saline content, .js...20ce0 2002-9 case ccee cou dese cee ccneinseiesuee sete =p Snes 30-32, 81
Waters, analyses, comparison ‘wath lake Waters: - .-..< <i: jms m0 sensei a ee te ee 27-30, 80

Rivers draining into Great Basin region, descriptive notes... .. 20s 8s22ce= see. 1,4, 8,9, 10, 27-80, 73-74, 75

Rock weathering:

Products; SOLWDUIGY... uno one o nies wo 5 vn 6 owes = ween n wine a.m aiainid ea Rtas ee eee eee 20-21, 66
ZOO TCACHIOUS 2a 5,-3.5 u/s 5 n.o ooo denn Sana ane nies ocd e cicadas dine de ee eae 20-27

Rocks:

Formation, etc., Great Basin TEgION <<. .\. ascie ceo ac oaee ccc tn~ manatee at eee eee ee ees 4,5,6
Great Basin region, extent, distribution, and character.........-.....----------- 13-14, ea a 75, 76
Igneous, composition of acid and basic, discussion and tables.............sc.scseeeeeececes 5,76
Igneous, decomposition, rprocee ANG TeSuUlts . - cco we ne ose ne cineca ne awe em ae eee ee 73416
Sedimentary, as source of salines, analyses, ete......-.-. on Se ceee bcos canes e aye ee

Rosamond Basin deposition, description Rae ketenes css

VOSS «(Wier kh Cll ations yas ci scale Oy len a6 oia)sae Sale sid aan peelopimiaen

Rowe, citation on gypsum, beds, Great. Basins . o.oo. nanos een ne oe «on nin ne <3 a 7

Run-off, ‘surface: waters, Great: Basin area...) . 5202 sc ones eae a woe 54 30s cn a a eee eee ener are 8-10, 73-74

West) Creek, NOtes!15 ocs.s aaa s0 c's =’ oo cewdasermeaaenseriaauslenocusvsine se headset a 29

Russell:

Citations.on geology of Great Basin... ...5.622- 2.08 dacdcns carne ous sos cee se eee 6, 13, 15, 18, 61, 65
Monograph on Lake Labonilan, citation... ..-. 2.0.5.2 6- 0 easenns ocean = seen see ee if

INDEX. 95

Saline: Page.
Crusts, Railroad Valley, analyses......---.--------0-2+22e2e- cee e eee n ence eee nee ecco een eeee 85
DISPOSES, OECHILENCE, CESCEID LION Cl Catsteleta] melee la miele enlace = eieoie anion ein oleleieeleeiaieea=le 32-37, 66, 67
Segregates, geological formations and localities............--.---22+2--- 2-020 eee eee eee eee eee eee

Saline Valley Basin, descriptive notes.......-.-.-------------------------- Boecenermascbee 1,39, 42, 43-44

Salines: ” ,

Buried deposits, location, explorations, etc......---.------- 22-222 - ne ene ene eee w nen nn nee 60-64
Collection in surface waters...-.--- Joc sn oSen 2h desde ve cee oeoobedsesrarscee nce eneseehols: 27-82, 80, 81
MIschaALee ILOMUELVCLS AM LOLA kGiaslMS) wo slasmet eels eicloeiniclae moe semilocal ee eet eieisleiae es =a as 30, 31, 81
Great Basin Teflon, SOUL COS ee ao ae ooo oa a ne on wn in ew oo owen ee ew ewes ene enon ene 14-20
Wh DESO EVES Gi Coals AES eae Sse ae ee BAe case pce beeCn poo SabenEe eas aborneeseseescsos 64-66
TIS OMG AN AGUNG nae et ate tee soe sists «cen te ncie seer Breen 25, 27, 66-67, 78-79
Mineralogy.........--- DE ree ee Teed ne ON grin ue ae RRR SOREN - Mean 3, 69-70

See also Salts.
Salt beds:
pusrar [Pehle WIIBIO INGNe Ce Seedeetcnecoohoncacees Cece MEP eu aee nbn caaue nr coneek ab yonasenaseoscs 40-41, 42
Moisene: Wellllesye INCI Ge goer See seen ce Gee Sere SSD aS pee Seer Se Sees OR BO RCOH ee REE a pHe MRC eae Ace rner 54-56
me rea E asim ceolopiGal fonmMatiONS acne esate ae oe tees es aoe nbc a tae eanieeeeides ee oae 7, 17,18
SPrie COMMALSH ODM ALLON CLCS ses oop le iei ain tase etna epee horas mio) en shan nat SIAR AES © alee eater
Salt:
WOAS ES ATAU SOS lee 2am fey aeroa meee) Scie e eats chal ip Prarapsiaisine Oe Se a oe ESE Aas
IMEHOSItS Mea bay Valley: stot pikes ae ae rm aaeteletcinia se Seisis SOsitsie nas cleieis oc bisroe AL See Meee eee 44-45, 46
Het canyl ake beds«depositss< 552 Jes alow we samecs se noseccanid naoee eas ah Oca bee Sa pee SHEN seat eee eee
Rhodes Marsh, analysis..-.--..--
Lake Valley, descriptive notes
Production from brines of Great Salt Lake and Owens Lake.............--..---.---------------
Valley. (See Dixie Valley.)
See also Sodium chloride.

Dah OMY Saka GeSCELPLLVEMOUCS es aaa see actys oes eins ait a Soe <A eee = mn asiee creole MceMeciSe Mtl .amohe ey 4,10
Salts:
PMA IPSTE OV CITCLULS HENS OUIS Se he gs ee awe snsre aeleige ice ois teeioe Secon eS Se aS os soe eces Se sesacee 26, 66
Collected by rivers of world, per square mile, estimate.........---.--..-02.---2-0-2- eee een eee ee 31
WonmbentouwGres ti Sale Mace os 5 se sts, are) faqs opine aialol= nl ain cin le srepetnm SNe ele ete See eiclale etala teas Bere 64
Weposits.;ounied, location explonations;: eteHies 2 a.0e sose cs tee ee oe uec Lee eee oe ele sume eeeae 60-64
Deposits, Searles Marsh, formation, etc...:---.-.-----+---22----¢--- OEE SU aaiSE Re tee 48-53, 64
Ve CuIOHSAIT GETAW eA LMENIT Oe! = ser aes Be Slee ay th ets Sar ein yates oe ee ee Sa Peyncy eee 20-24
SOL eMae pL MLOnaAccUMUatONS|iN: SOs 2-senceese)- came ee lee cere meee eee ee eens eee 26-27, 67
OLMMLOMIMES OLS HaTIAl Vy SOSU ie tee, cis 25) oy to hep = Sone mie Bejan se Ss oe see ee nee oae aoe 78-79
Holmplesosses caused: DyJaDSOLPLLOUE. 2525-2 sect ce asas 7-O Sees eno eee ene ae awa Cate cise Jee 21-24
SOlUublesMoOVveMent AM ard sousinae 2 casas eo cye es tee jk gee Sees Cee eee 25-26, 66
HOMDlenLaho Wan GsandnaMiGisOlSe ayy nes asi ce tne ee eee ad comics cree eee as Kee ee oe 24-25, 78-79
NOMplenre tentlOnsbyiSOUS OL arid wrePlOnss jas eae soe — = eee. Soe Seen eens ese 25-26, 66
See also Alkali; Salines.
Saumrcapelm@nee kein Oler-2 tise ods name eS era e tess + Raw na Se cee ae sass 54 ante Se OnE Re ee 31,81
Sandespnnes Hat, Nev. location, description, €tC- ass oeseee = tese-2- erate Sab leno seein eeeeee 39, 59
Seal ea VAHOZBEU EY CIN TOLL 4 ter es SST SECS Pic acid a= aoe <iain/bin sin sD pee ine stew Ee dee RAE SE SG Naan hea 28
SAR Gomi AiIcpEGhVCl uO LE tsa soa) alc eraiais = arora ates cle Sse cie) 5 Gia Le = wiceitiar = Eostncel= Se ee oe ee Ae ee ee 28
Pedlimemover.calimedeposits desert basins? = — 5-29 1s fee eee se es Ue Se oe 45, 52, 66
Searles:
ASIN OCSCLIPLIMeMO LES ots eke SE Sash ea cr ae re Lye So a ee ere Se PE 1,7, 12, 32,39, 60
Deep well, analyses of samples, and petographic examination.....-..........------.-------- 87, 88, 89
DWeenewellsamplessanalysess tables oa: beats 5 factesinceine <e eel. Pons = ae Senseo. Mae see eee 87, 88, 89
takevonmahonand various stages, WEMeS! ClCi-25_- ne ascoae cle aoe es - = scisc see eeeeee 33, 51-53, 60, 64, 65
Marsh, location, description, chemical data, etc.......-..-.-----------+-+------ 12, 32, 33, 39, 48-53, 60, 64
Semiarid regions, mineral content of waters, comparisons, etC.....-.-..----------+--+---2-+-------e- 28-30
Sevier Lake, Utah, location, description, analyses of saline beds, etc..........-.-..-.-------- 7,9, 29, 59-60
SICHHABY El lLeay ALO DOPLAD Uy meray eee eile es rain cease ee Re lems ames nOn@us Bune ine a bk Se eee 4-6
DilyemlakewVialeyaGeScElp tive TOLESe aay. 2e 22 obec ariel coer Seek anaes Shins 5 een meee seek eee 8, 12

Silver Peak Marsh, conditions, formation, description, analyses, ete

6, 12, 19, 38, 39-43, 53
Smoke Creek Desert, Nev., location, description, analyses, ete 60

Soda production at Large Soda akeliNevessacuce anaes tases scectlcak ciccasteccta sent ma sles ciimsetecemee 64
Sodium:
PRU AR COMI ALLOW OM TCA ds ASLIN ae sees are Sela a sere Bee aepenaise alas afer Seeeaee ace ee ee eames 32
Chlomde\coutent, borings from Searles Lake; motesicse- 2252224. - doece eee eee Jee nee ecu eereeee 48-53
@itoniderdepositen Greateasin@ ss oss nab en aes sac siete miner als seine oe seco aoe ee ee cameras 17, 18, 42, 60
Chlondeyproducions sll veribeake Marsh's <<a ln See 8 pete aes ee ee ee ce ee 42
Chloride. (See also Salt.)
Ratio to potassium, in waters and soils, Great Basin.......-..--.----.--------------+----- 24, 25, 27, 87
Salts, products from brines of Great Salt Lake and Owens Lake...............-.--------------- 64
‘ Eprpuate deposits) Sevier Lake U tales) os senna abate seldom des eitieic- od aoe Sok cise oie 60
oils:
Amalysespiumidiand: arid Tell ONS see ses eae ete seen = = = = EES ae Smee oscitemwe 24-25, 78-79
Arid regions, retention and movement of soluble salts...............--..-------------------- 25-26, 66
Bureau, cooperation with United States Geological Survey in potash studies............------- 2,3
Soluplessalisnaccummlations<depths-. 2 &-cneee- nese te. oem acess eee oe eaeeee 26-27, 66-67
SohmiplesalisNanealyScsuetaates tate ae. se Pee ee ead ei Bae aE SA eS hes PE Noes 78-79
SVEIMORWALCTS wallalySOSe GrealsBasiie oe 20) Ane seep e a se nei ee sepa nee eros nclseonre 18-19, 35, 43, 60, 77
PL OS eG leat ASlIN AOC ON a2 ce=e aaa Baa eye Se AC, eee e baw. 3 ira eee ahh 7S ey CNS Pk ae 13, 18-19
SOLER MLAULOTIS eed ey a nay a eo eae Tne ange oerentes /Aadhdte omerin Ryan MeN Moise, Rc 7, 34, 41, 42
Slassiin@deposiicwGermanymoneiniac yale 00 Cis Lee Suet eel eke ee be eee eae 66
‘Streams, Great Basin region, description, run-off, etc.......-..---.-----------+------ 1, 4, 8-10, 27-30, 73-74
Suillnyarvegiin excl bat lOnsee is aes ee ae eee a teres cc cereal cis 2 Saha BEM eee eRe Lecoee Phas etatnaeeee 21-23
UMMICH MAKE MOLES» = sacnisen sere cena cce ee nnee ee Pera ON Gea SRE BN oie SNE te Tats St ne 8,33
DHUDLISO Malays as INN OLS: ee eens aetna bh amet 2 a Ne Yaa here: eve hi oo Ue Meee 8
MAS AIIBEVAVCT SEIT OLOS GR Pre coms eal ce Ia ne NST R RN Se So eo he ae ndtels Se eis Poe ences 8
sHeeISMMtarshGeSChip LLVeINOLES sacasy-ja) sro mee eS eIn Salo Cee Hie Sacer eae sieieisles Sie Sees ele Cente 1,33, 38, 39, 42
Temperature: -
rfectioniormation ousaline mineralses jae: 2 seis ce ese ees ses Soe wise a sce sce evisteietwememsee sec 69

HecondssGreat Basil so... cc cmb alec ed cneece ean cese See aeealee arin hers cla Ss a(slawinente Satomemt eens 4,73

96 INDEX.

Page.

DRenpography; Great Basin region .\......-- 22... - 5.56. .c ae encencesenees cence ae cee eee eee eee EE eee 4,73
Druckes' Meadows, ground Water... 2... 2.22202 en ence e eee cies en ee See ee eee 12,13
‘Truckee River, descriptive NOES... -/-.<-..-j.- =m mcace = oe deeue seus eee Rees 1, 8,9, 10, 24, 29, 30, 31, 62, 74, BL
Tufa deposits 6n lake SHOres, STeat, Basin 2. 2o0. ~ ace a an te wicln scien ganna eee see ere
TING RAVER Baa Olea cic’ acs cias cava tiie ae seu dened Salsa aba 5 ss Ssica sb as See RO AEE eee 10
Tuolumne Riv FOL, LUMN-OLL, CEC) oem a twtic cele mise nine ew cine ome een eee REE Ee Se ses ea els Se ee 10, 31, 81
TI HET CL ATLON a wit oe Sats wis Sere pciersisiic aioe teni iG sare mateo) alum a Sian oravela Siem =) CLS RTS Ge Re Tee oP Oo
Turrentine, J. W., citation on geological formations and saline segregates............--..---.----- 6, 49, 70
Utah:

Climatic records, ‘precipitation, ete., tables... ....caaceecsasemeocainaseieeesinie cle aae aaa seneee een teas 71-73

Hot springs, Water analysisn sec. < ccc cseacdecccnacaccacs swceciseesunuonnses tener one aee ae Eee 18,19

Pak NOt: conn wmsnoeabe cekaee sose ce clsacciscnccmsend bee hen ete eee Eee Dee eee Eee eee eee 9

Nitrate deposits, location

Soils; Salines; MAGUre Of so visi cece cisin no nice ac cas sciciemasiccisicce ene cebenee Seen ceee ene
Wan ETISo , CHATIONS go - inc nc tales a eeisicwtdinjcismaitiame a ciclo cciets g:oee sien Cee EE eae Eee ee eee ee
Van Winkle and Eaton, citations
Vegetation: :

Atbsorption of potassiumisalts from: soil water. = <<< --.c6ciemencoscueeeneeabeceses sees eee een eeee 22, 23

Great, Basin, NOLES 52 is cre. oejaid esis iwici ciciicseynioja.siniolajale(s a ceicinajeiviatciere mioictamioelalstee eee tee eae se tee cee ree 11, 23
Volcanic activity, relation to, Saline deposits. s.1.2 2 2. ccc Lejcons sac cocmasuciaes Bee ene eee eee 19-20, 66
Wadsworth, fopogranhy, NOLS. - os nne sqm sead ae)elalnia oa lalallala eee eee ae eater eee ett 4,5
Walker Basin, GLESC UNDE NVC LOVES Se eee le alle ee 1,3,7,9, 12
Walker, D. H, CHPATION S226 ool See seb eed sacs Goeue od cleiniSe Gielen ei cistereye Gate ere Oe eR eee eer eens 56
Walker Lake, descriptive NOLES ois. c scb cS sc nisin woe Guccc.cee calaceeatee ue eee Ee eee 9, 29, 53, 60, 61,62, 63
Walker River, descriptive TRO LESS jadeto rain sinrssiineie cine nice none eeiesi ee eae eee 1,8,9, 10, 29, 30, 31, 62) 74, a
Walther, J. J , citation ia im mia Siar miele lal anhelc ave mide eyhice este ieia! big w/e msep tere stata Srey rete a Ae ee ae
Water:

Artesian, suppliesjin Great Basin repion)* 2 asian pele oe esas eee seen ee eee ee 13, 58, 63

Fissure and rock, . Great, Basin TegiON . « -..)2<jais,01<jnra/mimro. sini sinpnning 3 sla eiela en eee ee CER eee ae 13

Ground, Great Basin region, valleys and sinks, artesian water, springs, etc. PLLiBah Bae Sees 12-13

Surfaces, Great Basin region, evaporation rate 10-12
Waters:

Hotspring, Great Basin rerion, analyses .25 2-0 4-ccnescsceceeeReaes aeeee eee eee eee eee

Lake, salts deposition, order.........-..--

River and lake, analyses and comparisons. +

Surface; collectiou) of salitese eee teen-- eee ee =a ee eee ae eee ee eee

Surface; Great Basin region, SOUTGeS, run-off, OtC ie oc a\osceieie ee oee em aee eee eee nee eeee “eo 73, 74

Surface and underground, peels is eiinre rte aiel purisrc fe into. c.ia inj lw oie a eS EELS Sete Re Se ee 24,77, 78
Weathering zone, reactions. .............----.--- Sars cininm Wa bieioreie ereyeerenGepelaSanele eee ee eee ee eee 20-27
Weber River, NOtES = cic beSnc Sec pean icre on cinicie Sinn aie dcisincle ele ease Ree se eee OEE EE eee tee 8, 29
Well, deep, Searles Basin, ee. analyses, tables...-..../20/ . Aedes soe ee ee eee ears 87-89
Wells, Great Basin regions, water CONGIONS ooo ok socks ccm etc ise aS eee 12, 13, 58, 63
Whitney and Means, PLEATHON 5 ooo snes ois wien Uomere oes Sones u a Eisai ee 5
Wannentucca Lake, descriptive Motes. msalstoadeeanis ooo nsieisiow ee dad eee eee eee 7, 29, 30, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63
Young G. J. gypsum analyses <\. oiiei oasis o aceiseemeeis ascii bce ecsie=-te eee eee Eee n eee eee 65
Yuba River, NNOTES: < oe os cinsioen dias dni crac oR R aha Bee CRIS IAE is iS tetera ete 28, 81

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_ Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
January 14, 1914.

TESTS OF THE WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH, AND BLEACHING
QUALITIES OF THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF COTTON AS
STANDARDIZED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.

By N. A. Coss, Agricultural Technologist in Charge of Agricultural Technology and
Cotton Standardization.

ORIGIN AND LOCATION OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

The Department of Agriculture is not interested directly in textile
work. Its interest is indirect and arises largely from the fact that
Congress has selected it as the governmental agent for the establish-
ment of the official cotton grades and for the study of cotton standard-
ization. Many of the experiments of the department are therefore
directed toward ascertaining certain facts that will assist in making
the official cotton grades more useful and more reliable.

The official cotton grades at present take cognizance of only two
of the important qualities which determine the value of cotton,
namely, (1) the color and (2) the amount of trash and waste matter.
Any complete system of standardization of cotton will, however,
have to take into consideration, among other things, (8) the length of
the fiber, (4) the strength of the fiber, (5) the clinging qualities of the
fiber, and (6) the bleaching qualities of the fiber. Most of these
qualities are of such a nature that they can be satisfactorily deter-
mined only by means of spinning tests, and it is for this reason that
the department for several years has been making spinning tests
with cotton in the mills and textile schools of the country. Experi-
ments have been undertaken, among other places, at the following
institutions and mills: Clemson Agricultural College, Textile Depart-
ment, Clemson, S. C., Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass., Mississippi
Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss.,
North Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical Textile School, Raleigh,
N.C., and at various mills in South Carolina, North Carolina, Missouri,
Virginia, Massachusetts, and Maine—about a dozen different mills in
all. The experiments consisted in spmning cotton of known history
into yarn under definite conditions as nearly as possible approaching
commercial conditions. The qualities of the resultmg yarn have
been tested, and by comparison the desired results have been secured.

21706°—14

2 BULLETIN 62, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In this way it has been shown how cotton is affected—that is, im-
proved or injured—when grown in certain ways or handled in certain
ways.

The last appropriation bill of the Department of Agriculture
was so amended in the Senate as to direct the Secretary of Agri-
culture to make tests as to the waste, tensile strength, and bleach-
ing qualities of the various grades of cotton as established by the
Government. |

These experiments are being conducted in part at the Riverside
and Dan River Cotton Mills, at Danville, Va., and are being so
carried out as to reserve at each stage of the manufacture a liberal
supply of the material. It is intended that this reserve shall be
used in making 50 sets of exhibits to accompany the full report.
Each exhibit will consist of 25 to 50 boxes or cases containing samples
of waste, sliver, roving, yarn, etc., of such size that their commercial
qualities can be estimated by those versed in the art. It is tended
to distribute these exhibits in such a way as to make them accessible
to growers, buyers, manufacturers, and educational institutions.

COTTON USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS.

In making these waste, tensile strength, and bleaching tests of the
official grades of cotton, only the grades Middling Fair, Good Middling,
Middling, Low Middling, and Good Ordinary have been used. This
method makes it possible to test a larger number of bales of the
respective grades and so gives a more accurate average. The qualities
of the intermediate grades may then be interpolated. Since there is
some difference in the spinning characteristics of eastern and western
Upland cotton, the test has been divided into two parts. From 50 to
60 bales of the two respective growths, or an aggregate of 100 to 120
bales have been selected; that is, 10 to 12 bales of each grade of both
Atlantic States Upland and Western Upland cotton. In order that
the tests may be comparative, each lot has the same length of staple— |
1 inch. There is probably more staple produced which is fifteen-
sixteenths of an inch to 1 inch than any other one length in both the
eastern and western Upland cotton. The term ‘‘ Western Upland”’
as here used includes practically all cotton grown west of Alabama,
except long-staple river-bottom cotton.

The cotton was secured in June, 1913, from the following places:

Greenville, 8. C., 6 bales, Atlantic States Upland cotton.

Seneca, S. C., 5 bales, Atlantic States Upland cotton.

Atlanta, Ga., 34 bales, Atlantic States Upland cotton.

Atlanta and Montgomery, 18 bales, Atlantic States Upland cotton.

New Orleans, La., 9 bales, Western Upland cotton. .

Mobile, Ala., 32 bales, Western Upland cotton.

Memphis, Tenn., 5 bales, Western Upland cotton.

Lesser-Goldman, Bt Louis, Mo., 12 bales, Western Upland cotton.

New Orleans, La., 2 bales, Western U pland cotton.

TESTS OF WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH, ETC., OF COTTON. 3

The cotton thus secured has been supplemented by a few bales from
other sources. This cotton was shipped early in July to Danville, Va.,
where all of it was stored on the same warehouse floor and allowed to
stand until October 1, so that the bales, in spite of their varied origin,
might come to the same condition as to moisture, ete.

Thirty-five pounds from each bale have been sent to the textile
department of Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson, 8. C., and 35
pounds to the North Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical Textile
School at Raleigh, N. C. Thirty pounds of each bale are to be
reserved for use in the preparation of record sets.

The 10 to 12 bales of each grade remaining at the Danville mills
have been thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand for a day or two
just before entering the beaters. A composite sample was taken from
each lot of 10 to 12 bales so mixed, and this was sent to Washington for
accurate tests of various kinds.

MILL CONDITIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

The same number of yarn (20-22) has been made at the mill from
each grade, using the regular mill machines and methods, with the
speeds, settings, relative humidity, and other factors the same for
each grade of cotton. The organization and other figures were deter-
mined after consultation with a number of representative American
mills, the officers of which generously undertook to examine and com-
ment on the figures first determined upon by the experts of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Messrs. D. E. Karle and W.S. Dean. In this way
mill conditions representative of American practice were secured, as

shown in Table I.

TaBLE I.—Organizations, speed, and settings used with regular mill machines for five
official cotton grades.

ORGANIZATIONS.!

Card.
Drawing Interme- . | Alte
= A 2 | Slubber : ‘Roving Spinning
Bic ob yarn: Lap, Sliver, See in ciate, hank. doubling.
ounces per | grains per eC ; e
yard. yard.

IVA3 SCO RS Sete aan 16 65 60 0. 55 Ls Gnse |aeete eres oo | 1
IG 22 Oe ee er 14 60 60 55 1.4 DaOM 1
Daa eas Ms SN see 13 52 §2 AT 1.16 3.33 1
PAS ese aa 12 50 50 75 1.7 5.4 2
ORG Mec Ae -8 10 45 45 80 PA.) 6.5 2

1 These figures, of course, do not refer to mills devoted to specialties.

+ BULLETIN 62, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe |.—Organizations, speed, and settings used with regular mill machines for five
official cotton grades—Continued.

SPEEDS (R. P. M.).

| No. 12’s No. 16’s No. 22’s No. 28’s
Machine. | from Good | from Low | from Mid- | from Good } from Mid-
| Ordinary. | Middling. dling. Middling. | dling Fair.

Opener beater (3-blade).............---.-.- 1,170 1,170 1,170 1,170 | 1,170
Breaker beater (2-blade)_--......-. Ser ee 1,460 1,460 1, 460 1,460 1, 460
ke Ee re eee eee 1, 260 1,260 1,260 1,260 1, 260
Intermediate beater (2-blade)............-.. 1, 460 1,460 1,460 1, 460 1, 460
Wan JS) 893 DA OS Se 900 900 900 900: 909
Finisher beater (2-blade). .-.......-------- 1,460 1,460 1,460 1, 460 1, 460
MOAN. 3.2 Peewee ae See ee 900 900 900 900 900
@ardicylinder. =. -< pe. 2 250 55a. 165 165 165 165 |, 165
Were 2 fo SR ae 13 13 12 12 12
Drawing, calender roll. - 52... .---25.--.2.- 315 315 315 315 315
Siwper if. Hs Th ee Ae Ee 195 192 192 175 130
Intermediate F. R.,9X43......--..-------- 182 182 160 157 _ 150
Brid-fram® Bt. (FXG. 28 2 535222 2 Pee ee ee 180) 130 | 130 120
Spanning, BL Ye. 2-2. eee 8 an oe 150 140 120 114 108
pie R es PPE RS SST SSS ee tS 7,500 8,000 8, 200 9, 000 9, 000
SETTINGS.

No. 12’s No. 16’s No. 22’s No. 28’s No. 36’s
Machine. from Good } from Low from from Good | from Mid-
Ordinary. | Middling. | Middling. | Middling. | dling Fair.

Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch.
Opener-feed roll to beater...........-.----- | ee ee ee
Grids from beater (top)....-.----- wore. Faed il 1 1 1 1
Grids from beater (bottom)...-.-....----..- = AAS Ts eee ee eg ees aan a) eal eo
Breaker-feed roll to beater -.........--.-.--- Bo. 2) TES Oe EN rere Pec pes Sepa: Sasives ce
Grids from beater (top)....---------------- 3 | Ps 3 4 Z
Grids from beater (bottom)...-.........--- Ly 1 1 1 1
Intermediate-feed roll to beater............ i 1 4 PS 4
Grids from beater (top)...-.-----.--------- 3 g 3 3 4
Grids from beater (bottom). ts 1 1 1 1 1
Finisher-feed roll to beater 1 i } t }
Grids from beater (top)... - oe 3 4 4
Grids from beater (bottom).............-.. 1 t 1 1 1
Card: J Gauge. Gauge. Gauge. Gauge. Gauge.
Feed plate to licker in..............-.- 10 10 10 10 10
Mote taives (top). 5 ose ses ast ese! 12 10 10 10 10
Mote knives (bottom)................. 10 12 12 12 12
Lacker info cylinder: 22025-2650 5<42- 10 10 10 10 10
Back plate tocylinder................. 22 22 22 22 22
Flats to cylinder (back). -..---.--..-.- 11 il ll ll 11
Flats to cylinder (center)-............- 10 10 10 10 10
Flats to cylinder (front)....-.-...-.... 9 9 9 9 9
Front plate to cylinder..............-. 29 22 22 22 22
Dofierte cylinders: FSA Bes ee 7 7 7 7 7
Doffer comb to doffer..........-...---- | 22 22 22 22 22
Licker in screen (front)...........-...- 125 125 125 125 125
Licker in screen (baek)..-..--- aE ht 2 22 22 22 22 22
Cylinder screen ee AE fay See 22 22 22 22 22
Cylindeér screen (center)... 2....-....2-] 70 70 7 70 70
Cylinder screen (front)..........-..--- | 125 125 125 125 125
Drawing (Ziprocesses)_ 23. 2 ee ee | 1%,13,1§ 1%, 14, u 1%, 13, iu 1%, 14,1 12, 14, tf
Binbherroliss2.-2- 2-226 Ua tee ee 14, 18 14,1 1h,1 14,1 14,1
Intermediate rolls... ._. nas, Been 1h, 12 18 id 12 14,1 14, 12
Fine fly frame rels.:....85.2)..Bp. ike. 14, 12 1g, 18 | 14, 13 | 14,1 14, 12
| Melt) elk Ids, 14

Spuuminyg roles. Ss ee Re Ree Ph 1ys, 13 175, 13

In spite of the fact that some of the grades would rarely be spun
into yarn of these sizes, it was thought best for various reasons to
spin all the grades into one size of yarn at the Danville mill. Thesame
cotton will be used in smaller quantities at the two textile schools
and spun as nearly as possible under the same conditions. At one
of the schools the mill tests will be duplicated; at the other a varia-

~ ae

TESTS OF WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH, ETC., OF COTTON. 5

tion will be introduced, in that each grade will be used to spin the size
of yarn for which it is best adapted, so that when the entire series
of experiments is completed the results will present as many sided a
view of the question as possible.

Approximately two bales of each grade have been bleached in the
raw and the same number of yarn made from each bleach at Danville.
With the exception of one bale of western Good Ordinary no diffi-
culty was encountered in bleaching.

About 25 pounds of waste, or as much thereof as is produced on the
different machines for the respective grades, have been marked
and sent. to Washington, where waste types will be prepared for the
determination of value. For careful examination, as well as for exhi-
bition purposes, the following types of waste have been collected from
each of the 10 tests:

About 25 pounds of opener and breaker lapper motes.
About 25 pounds of intermediate lapper motes.
About 25 pounds of finisher.

About 25 pounds of card strippings.

About 25 pounds of card toppings.
About 25 pounds of card flyings and motes.

A record of the white waste made in spinning the respective grades
has also been made, as well as the scavenger and clearer waste.
Hygrometers have been placed in the various mill rooms and read-
ings made hourly. A relative humidity of about 55° for the picker
and card rooms and 65° for the spinning room has been maintained
so far as practicable.

NATURE OF THE COTTON SECURED FOR THE EXPERIMENTS.

No serious difficulty was encountered in securing in the month of
June, 1913, sufficient cotton for both of these tests. It was, of
course, necessary, considering the nature of the experiment, that
each bale of cotton be of very uniform character and exactly of the
specified grade. It was not deemed wise to accept a lot of 10 or 12
bales which would merely average the specified grade. No bale was
accepted unless, when the bands were removed and the bale opened
up and sampled in 12 different places, it proved to be of very uniform
character. Purchasing cotton in this way is a very different matter
from purchasing an average lot for ordinary mill purposes, where
considerable latitude can be allowed so long as the average of the
purchase is about on grade. Nevertheless, as before stated, no very
great difficulty was encountered. In Low Middling Atlantic States
Upland cotton it was necessary to accept a few bales of a slightly
bluish cast, differing to a small extent in color from the box types of
the official grades. Samples drawn from the accepted bales have
been inspected by dozens of well-known experts from all parts of the

6 BULLETIN 62, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing regions of the United
States, and these experts without exception declared the bales to be
excellently selected.

While this cotton is now well through the mill, so that the success
of the experiment is assured, it is not yet possible to draw more than _
tentative and approximate conclusions on a number of points. It
seems safe, however, to make the following statements.

PERCENTAGE OF WASTE.

The two classes of cotton, Western Upland and Atlantic States
Upland, have yielded a visible waste of slightly different weight and
character, the average difference in the percentage of waste being
between 1 and 2 per cent, taking all the grades into consideration.
This difference obtained in the mill has been paralleled by carefully
made hand separations. In the hand separations, the average
difference in waste was about 1? per cent. On the whole, as would
be expected, the differences are considerably greater in the lower
grades than in the higher grades. The highest difference so far noted
was the following, but so large a difference appears altogether excep-
tional.

Visible waste (hand separated).—Atlantic States Upland Good
Ordinary, 12.49 per cent; Western Good Ordinary, 7.80 per cent.

Mill waste (visible) —The corresponding minimum difference was as
follows: Atlantic States Upland Good Ordinary, 12.57 per cent; West-
ern Good Ordinary, 10.08 per cent.

VALUATION OF THE WASTE. _

The value of the visible waste from the various grades has yet to be
determined, but from its character there can be little doubt that the
valuation figures for the waste of the two classes of cotton will be
approximately equal, weight for weight.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE YARN.

Preliminary and approximate figures have been obtained con-
cerning the tensile strength of the yarns. These tests show the yarn
from the two classes of cotton to be about equal in strength.

As regards the relative amount of visible waste in the different
grades, the figures are found to be more consistent than might have
been expected. The mill waste in the experiments to date varies
from about 4 per cent in Middling Fair to about 11 per cent in Good
Ordinary, and the various official grades tested fall into lne with
something approaching mathematical uniformity, as will be seen by
examination of the following graph (fig. 1).

TESTS OF WASTE, TENSILE STRENGTH, ETC., OF COTTON. t
LENGTH OF STAPLE USED.

It must be carefully borne in mind that the cotton used in these
investigations was all of the same length of staple. It will be seen
from an examination of the purchasing sources that most of the
Atlantic States Upland cotton has probably come from the Piedmont
and similarsections. An examination of the Census Bureau statistics
for the last five years indicates that about half of the Atlantic States
Upland cotton of the character used in these experiments originates
in these sections. The other half of the cotton used in the tests
came from the Gulf States and Arkansas.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE EXPERIMENTS WERE MADE.

Although the foregoing figures and statements are the result of
experiments on only one season’s cotton, they are presented with

- confidence in their approximate accuracy so far as they go. The

investigations have been carried out under favorable auspices and

HAND SEPARATION

10%

PERCENTAGE OF VISIBLE WASTE.

Percentages
$

TOW a esas he meet Good
Middling Ordinary

Good
air Middling

Middling
¥

Fig. 1.—Graph showing the percentage of visible waste in five of the official cotton grades. The waste in
this case was obtained by hand separation.

have been attended with good fortune. The only exception to this
has been that unsuitable weather occurred during a part of the spin-
ning. No detail received greater attention than that of suitable and
uniform humidity. Among other precautions taken was the halting
of the experiments for three months in order that the work might be
done during the most suitable spmning months for the region (Dan-
ville, Va.), namely, those of October and November. Hence, the mill
experiments began on October 1, 1913.

Unfortunately, however, the weather during the first weeks of .
October was about the most varied that had ever been experienced
at Danville. Everything was done to offset this disadvantage by
as careful control of the humidifiers as possible. . Furthermore, the
precaution of reserving 200 pounds of each grade somewhat short of
the spinning stage had been observed, and it was possible later to put
this weight of each grade through the spinning processes on the same
day, thus securing a relatively small amount of yarn more strictly
comparable than would otherwise have been possible. The final
figures will be ready for publication in the course of a few months.

8 BULLETIN 62, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUMMARY.

Tn accordance with the last appropriation bill of the Department
of Agriculture, tests as to the waste, tensile strength, and bleaching
qualities of the different grades of cotton as established by the Gov-
ernment have been carried on in order to ascertain certain facts which .
would make the official cotton grades more useful and reliable.

About 10 or 12 bales of each of the five grades Middling Fair, Good
Middling, Middling, Low Middling, and Good Ordinary, of both Atlantic
States Upland and Western Upland cotton of 1-inch staple, were
secured early in July, 1913. This cotton was stored at the Riverside
and Dan River Cotton Mills, Danville, Va., where the experiments
started on October 1. The Danville tests will be supplemented by
additional experiments made on a certain quantity of the same cotton
which has been sent to the textile department of Clemson Agricultural
College, Clemson, S. C., and to the North Carolina Agricultural and
Mechanical Textile School, at Raleigh, N.C.

The average difference in percentage of visible waste between
Western Upland and Atlantic States Upland cotton was found to be
between 1 and 2 per cent, taking all the grades into consideration.
The differences are considerably greater in the lower grades than in
the higher grades. The mill-waste figures have been checked up by
hand separation of composite samples, andthe figures from these
experiments are consistent with those obtained from the mill.

Although the value of the visible waste from the various grades is"
not yet determined, it appears certain that the valuation figures for
the waste of the two classes of cotton will be approximately equal,
weight for weight.

Preliminary figures show the yarn from the two classes of cotton”
to be about equal in strength.

The mill waste in the experiments to date varies from about 4 per
cent in Middling Fair to about 11 per cent in Good Ordinary, while the
figures for the other grades are more or less consistent.

At the close of these experiments exhibits made from the material
reserved at each stage in the manufacture will be made to accompany
the full report.

jse fede COPIES of this publication
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-
ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy

WASHINGTON : GOVEPRNMHNT PRINTING OF FLOM *: 1913

—--

BULLETIN OF THE

2) USDEPARINENT OfAGRICULIURE %

No. 63

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
March 28, 1914.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE SUCCESSFUL SHIP-
MENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA.*

_ By A. V. Stusenraucn, Pomologist and Horticulturist, H. J. Ramsey, Pomologist in

Charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage Investigations, and Luoyp 8. TENNy,
formerly Pomologist in Fruit-Transportation Investigations; assisted by A WE
McKay, B. B. Prart, CO. 8. Pomeroy, K. B. Lewis, G. M. Darrow, Marcarer
Connor, and J. F. Fernatp, of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Inves-
- tigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The citrus-fruit industry of Florida is preeminently first among the agricultural and
business interests of the State. According to the figures of the last United States
census there were 3,864,514 orange trees in the State in the spring of 1910, 2,766,618 of
these being of bearing age and 1,097,896 nonbearing. The yield of the 1909 orange
crop, as given by the census of 1910, was 4,852,967 boxes, valued at $4,304,987. From
the best sources obtainable at the present time,? the citrus crop of Florida during the
season of 1912-13 amounted to 28,428 carloads, or 8,125,465 boxes, of which approxi-
mately 5,769,079 boxes, or 71 per cent, were oranges; approximately 2,031,367 boxes,
or 25 per cent, were grapefruit; the balance, of approximately 325,019 boxes, or 4 per
cent, being tangerines, kumquats, and limes.

During the winter of 1894-95 there occurred in Florida two very severe freezes, which
wrought great havoc in the groves of the State and permanently changed the character
of the citrus industry. Present conditions date from that season to a great extent.
According to Hume? there were 5,055,367 boxes in the crop of 1893-94, and the output
for the following year would doubtless have reached 6,000,000 boxes. Exceptionally
low temperatures, interspersed with periods of warm, growing weather, proved fatal,
however, and a large number of trees were either killed outright or had practically all
of their bearing wood destroyed. Instead of 6,000,000 boxes, the crop of 1894-95 was
reduced to 75,000, asa consequence. Itwill be seen, therefore, that so faras production
is concerned, the Florida citrus industry is now just regaining the position which it
held at the time of the freeze of 1895.

LOCATION OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

Previous to the freeze of 1895 the citrus industry of Florida was largely centered in

_ Lake, Orange, and Marion Counties. After the destruction or serious damage to a large

number of the best groves in these sections some of the owners became discouraged and

1 Report on harvesting, handling, and shipping experiments made on a commercial scale through seven
shipping years, showing that decay can be materially lessened by greater care and the avoidance of
mechanical injury to the fruit.

2 These figures were furnished by the Florida Citrus Exchange.

3 Hume, H. Harold. Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Jacksonville, Fla., 1904, p. 4.

23103°—Bull. 63—14——_1 1

2 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

either went north to engage in other enterprises or sought locations for their new groves
farther south, where conditions were considered safer. Since many of the older groves
have been reestablished, the industry has become widely scattered over the State.
Plantings now extend in a narrow fringe along the east coast, from St. John County on
the north to below Miami, in Dade County, and along the west or Gulf coast they reach
from Citrus County almost to the southern boundary of Lee County. Extensive plant-
ings extend diagonally across the State from Volusia County on the east to Hillsboro, |
Manatee, De Soto, and Lee Counties on the west, including large sections of Brevard,
Orange, Lake, Sumter, Hernando, Pasco, and Polk Counties, in addition to those
already mentioned. Sections in Marion, Alachua, Citrus, and Osceola Counties also
are devoted to citrus fruits. Figure 1 shows a map of the State with the location of the
citrus plantings indicated
| by shading.
The difficulties of han-
dling and marketing crops
of fruit produced in groves
scattered over so wide a ter-
ritory are manifestly greater
than where the plantations
are confined to a more re-
stricted territory. Where
groves are located compara-
tively close together, as was
the case in many of the
older citrus districts of
Florida, a neighborhood
competition is stimulated,
especially in the produc-
tion of clean, bright fruit of
fine texture. There has
probably never been a re-
gion where so many varie-
ties of oranges have been
developed and tested as in
what, before the freeze,
were the old neighborhood
centers of production, or
where more strenuous ef-
forts have been made to pro-
duce fruit of fine texture
and flavor. Moreover,a
special effort was made to pack the fruit in an attractive manner and to have it reach
the market without decay. At present, with the groves so widely scattered through-
out the State, there is much less personal contact between growers, and the old neigh-
borhood competition in the production of fancy fruit has largely disappeared.
Although the industry has become better organized during the last few years, it is
extremely difficult to make effective any association which represents so many
diverse interests and whose members are so widely scattered. This situation has
proved a great barrier to the introduction of better handling and marketing methods.

ve
as

Fic. 1.—Map of Florida, with the location of the principal citrus
plantings indicated by shading.

HISTORY OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

It is believed that the orange was originally introduced into Florida by the Span-
iards, who imported a few sour oranges and gave some of the fruits to the Indians. The
seeds of these fruits, being distributed from village to village and finding congenial

Te Fe ec

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 3

soil and favorable climatic conditions in the hardwood forests and live-oak groves,
where the tall native growth protected them from sun and radiation, grew up into
seedling trees, and in time formed wild groves of immense extent throughout the
northern and central parts of peninsular Florida. Although sweet oranges were
known in Florida before the Civil War, they were not considered of commercial
importance because of the absence of transportation facilities. Commercial orange
culture dates back to between 1865 and 1870, when the success of the trees along the
banks of the St. Johns River began to attract attention to this industry as a good invest-
ment. Ag the profits were large from the first, many were thereby induced to engage
in the business, and the industry gradually expanded until in 1895 the production
had reached nearly 6,000,000 boxes.

Transportation problems and market conditions have changed considerably since
Florida reached its highest point in citrus production before the freeze. First of all,

- the citrus industry of California has been largely developed since that time. Through

the establishment of efficient transportation facilities and modern refrigerator-car
service, the California growers have been enabled to distribute their fruit over prac-
tically every State in the Union. In the early days of the industry, the Florida
orange growers did not have to meet the keen competition which has developed in
recent years, and therefore the condition of their fruit upon its arrival in the market
did not affect the selling price as much as it does at present. The market demand
for Florida oranges was strong, and fair prices were usually obtained in spite of the
presence of considerable decay. As the production increased just prior to 1894-95,
less favorable prices were being received, and at the time of the freeze efforts were
being made to extend the market both at home and abroad and to produce fruit of
better keeping quality.

The formation during that period of the Florida Fruit Exchange may be considered
as an effort among the growers to obtain better marketing conditions, induced, it is
thought, by the necessity of improving the quality and condition of fruit in the mar-
kets. Although the Exchange failed to accomplish the special object for which it
was created, it did prove that Florida oranges often failed to reach the northern mar-
kets in sound condition. Notwithstanding the general impression now current among
growers that the decay of oranges was unknown before 1894, it seems to be well estab-
lished that for many years the fruit has shown considerable waste.

A few reports taken from the current issues of the trade papers will serve to show
that even at that time the decay problem was of considerable importance. In the
issue of December 23, 1893, of ‘“‘The Florida Despatch Farmer and Fruit Grower,’
under the Buffalo-New York fruit-sales letter, a statement was made which is char-
acteristic of many others and serves to illustrate the wasted condition in which the
fruit often reached the market. This report reads, in part:

Very sorry to report that the fruit is still coming forward in poor condition. .. .

About 1,400 boxes, good and bad, mostly all of which showed more or less decay, aver-
aged $1.51.

Under date of December 2, 1893, the following report is given:
The dealers and handlers throughout the country are worn out with the constant

labor of repacking, in the effort to save something out of the ruins of the decay, and

to save the fruit from going bodily to the dump. Buyers are afraid to take hold,
because they have no assurance of getting an article that will hold together until
they can get rid of it. :

Out of 19 telegraphic reports, 12 mention fruit showing deécay, using such re-
marks as: ‘‘Both much decayed,’’ “‘Some lots in very bad order,”’ ‘‘Oranges mostly
decayed,” and ‘‘Very rotten.’’ It will thus be seen that the conditions which are ~
conducive to the occurrence of decay were present in the early days of the industry.

1 Mead, Theodore L. The orange. Article in Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, 1901, p. 1154.

4 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

With the extension of the plantings consequent upon the reestablishment of the
industry, and the resulting increase in production, existing conditions have been
largely responsible for the improper handling of the fruit, which has been shown by
later investigations to be the fundamental factor underlying the occurrence of decay.
Many of the new groves established since the freeze have been planted on pine land,
where it has been necessary to use heavy applications of fertilizers. Frequently the
fertilizers have been selected with the purpose of producing large crops rather than
fancy fruit, and this seems to have been at the expense of quality, thus partly account-
ing for the large proportion of rough and unattractive oranges now to be found in the
Florida crop. The production of large quantities of rather coarse and uninviting
fruit has in turn led to rough and careless handling, for, as a general rule, the more
attractive the fruit the greater will be the incentive to handle it carefully when
preparing it for shipment.

In addition to the freeze, unfavorable conditions have existed which have more or
less discouraged many growers and which have led to the production of inferior fruit,
with a correspondingly increasing tendency to place it on the market in a manner
not conducive to the best results. The control of the white fiy, which has spread
over practically every citrus district in Florida, has been a serious problem. Fruit .
which has been rendered unattractive through the attacks of this pest presents one
of the most discouraging problems which growers have to solve, for it is difficult to
make workmen who pick, grade, and pack unattractive fruit realize the importance
of careful handling. The sooty-mold fungus follows the attacks of the white fly,
covering the leaves and fruit with a dense black growth which detracts greatly from
the appearance of the oranges, and in order to prepare this smutty fruit for market,
cleaning is absolutely necessary. The effects of the cleaning processes upon the carry-
ing quality of the fruit will be described later.

The market demands high-grade, well-packed fruit. As long as the supply of a
commodity does not equal the demand, a poorer grade or a less attractive package
may yield satisfactory returns to the shipper. With keen competition, however,
and markets well stocked with good, carefully selected fruit arriving in sound condi-
tion, the packer of a poor grade of fruit which frequently arrives in bad order is ata
great disadvantage and suffers accordingly.

METHODS OF HANDLING THE FLORIDA ORANGE CROP.

The Florida orange begins to ripen in late October or early November, and the ship-
ping season extends until spring, some growers of late varieties even holding their fruit
on the trees until summer. Shipments are usually heavy during December, and in
the past approximately 50 per cent of the crop has been shipped before Christmas.
In fact, there has been a strong tendency to begin moving the fruit before it has reached
full maturity. This practice has been stimulated because it frequently happens that
these early shipments give satisfactory returns, and fruit moved at this time runs
no risk of being frozen later in the season. The practice of placing on the market large
quantities of green fruit of poor eating quality is very objectionable, however, and
does not stimulate future consumption of the product.

During the past few years the tendency has been toward lengthening the marketing
season. Instead of attempting to dispose of the balk of the crop before the holidays,
when a large proportion of the fruit has not reached full quality, the season has gradu-
ally been extended, so that Florida citrus fruits are now moved in large quantities
until the first of April,and even later. The influence of these changed conditions
upon the occurrence of decay and deterioration at the market end will be apparent in
the later discussion of the occurrence of decay at different times during the shipping ~
season.

eee ee

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 5
PICKING THE FRUIT.

Harvesting methods.—In harvesting the orange, it is necessary to sever the fruit from
the trees by means of clippers or shears, the common type being a sharp-pointed
clipper, such as is illustrated on the left in figure 2. Various other types are also in
use at the present time, two of which are shown in figure 2.

Since many of the orange trees in Florida are large, only a small proportion of the
fruit can be reached from the ground. The ordinary straight ladder, placed directly
against the tree, isin common use. In order to secure all of the fruit at the top or in
the center of the tree, the picker must stretch over a considerable distance, and he is
very liable to pull many of the oranges which he can not conveniently sever with his
clippers. Worse than this, however, it has not been uncommon to see the fruit on
the ends of the limbs shaken off and allowed to drop to the ground, later to be picked
up and placed in the field boxes along with the fruit properly handled.

Over the picker’s shoulder is thrown a basket or bag in which the fruit is placed as
clipped. The picking bag is sometimes an ordinary grain bag or gunny sack holding
about 30 pounds of fruit; formerly, some men used a specially constructed bag which
fastened around the body and frequently held nearly enough fruit to fill one of the
boxes. The canvas-covered basket shown in Plate I, figure 1, holds approximately
half of a box of fruit. Another type of picking receptacle, illustrated in Plate TI,
figure 2, has a hinged bot-
tom which may be let down
when emptying the fruit.
The most common bag now
in use is one made of heavy
canvas and open at the bot-
tom, so that the filled bag
can be placed in the box
and the fruit allowed to roll
out gently.

Field boxes.—The fruit is
poured from the picking re-
ceptacle into a field crate
or box. The box in gen-
eral use is about 28 inches
long, 12 inches wide, and
134 inches deep, has a capacity of a little more than one packed box of fruit, and may
or may nothaveacentral partition. Both typesare illustrated in Plate I, figures 1 and
2. The sizeof this box wasestablished through the practice of buying large quantities
of fruiton the tree at afixed price perbox. Originally this price was intended to be
per ‘‘packed box,”’ but since itismore convenient to keep the record of the fruit as it
leaves the grove, this type of field box, which holds enough fruit to allow culling and
atill give the buyer a packed box of oranges, wasdeveloped. Other kindsof field boxes,
some of which are superior to the old box, are in use to a-limited extent. Plate IT,
figure 1, shows a type of grocer’s delivery crate which some growers use for handling
their oranges.

The boxes in common use are constructed of such heavy material and hold such large
quantities of fruit that it is impossible to handle them with sufficient care. When
loading them on the field wagon or unloading them at the packing house, or even
when moving them about in the house, they oftentimes strike the floor with sufficient
force to cause some of the fruit to bound out. The objection commonly raised to
making boxes of lighter material is that the workmen will break them by rough han-
dling, especially when throwing them off the wagon in the field. It is a question,
however, whether the average laborer will not treat a lighter box more carefully than
he will a heavy iron-bound one, which tempts him to see how roughly he can handle it.

Fic. 2.—Three types of clippers used in picking Florida citrus fruits.

6 BULLETIN 63, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Plate II, figure 2 shows that the effort to make a field box strong enough to withstand
‘“‘bucking” is not always successful. While it is difficult to estimate the amount of
damage which may result from the use of such boxes, it is apparent that this is very
great.

An enumeration of some of the injuries received in picking will be found under
the discussion of the causes of blue-mold decay.

HAULING THE FRUIT.

The fruit is hauled from the grove to the packing house on ordinary farm wagons,
which are often springless, or on specially provided wagons belonging to an association.
The owner of the grove or the manager of the packing house sometimes personally
superintends this transfer, but frequently it is done by contract with the owner of a
livery stable. There is usually a fixed price for this service, one large contractor
receiving 2 cents per box per mile, which is about the average of what is paid in differ-
ent parts of the State. The drivers are often ignorant of the importance of careful
handling, and their methods of loading and unloading are extremely crude and rough.
It is not uncommon to see them sitting on boxes of fruit as they ride to the packing
house. The haul may be long and over rough roads (PI. III, fig. 1), some packing
houses handling many boxes of fruit from groves 12 or 15 miles distant, or even farther.
Ox teams are often used for such long hauls (Pl. III, fig. 2). It has even been the
custom, in the past, to carry many oranges loose in the wagon box, the unloading
being done with shovels or in other rough ways (Pl. IV, fig. 1). This practice has
been done away with, however, as it is recognized that good results can never be
obtained by such careless methods. Along with the numerous improvements which
have been effected during the past two or three years in the manner of hauling fruit
from the grove to the packing house, must be reckoned the State-wide movement for
better roads. ; .

PREPARING THE FRUIT FOR SHIPMENT.

Buildings and machinery.—Packing houses are usually located in villages and towns
along the railroad lines or in places accessible to water transportation. Many boxes
of fruit, however, are packed either openly in the groves or in houses located near the -
farm buildings and are then hauled to a shipping point. Little attempt was made
until recently to build houses especially designed for packing citrus fruit. The aver-
age building usually had a capacity for handling not more than one car a day, very
little machinery being used in the old houses and the boxes being made by hand,
frequently in some place outside the packing house. This building generally con-
sisted of but one room, the sizing machine being located in the center, a little below
the main portion of the house, in what is called the “‘pit.’”” One common source of
trouble, even in the new-style houses, is the attempt to save floorspace. The machin-
ery may be so adjusted that the orange has to follow a long and complicated path,
around abrupt angles, down gravity runs, and up unnecessary elevators, whereas
in a majority of cases the same end could have been attained at less expense by means
ofa moresimplearrangement. Simplicity should be the watchword in the adjustment
of all packing-house equipment. Some houses have gone to the other extreme of
doing practically all the work by hand, thus eliminating the expense of carrying belts
and other automatic devices. The character of the workmen is then of fundamental
importance, and it is doubtful whether, in the long run, hand work can be accomplished
with as little injury as results from the use of properly adjusted, simple machinery.

Fruit which was clean and did not require washing was formerly poured into a hop-
per and rolled by gravity in front of the grader to the sizing machine. The latter
was sometimes run by power, but more often it was treadled by the man who did the .
grading. As the oranges were sized they fell into different bins and from these were

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Fia. 1.—EMPTYING ORANGES FROM A PICKING BAG INTO A FIELD CRATE, SHOWING AN
INCORRECT METHOD, WHICH RESULTS IN THE SERIOUS BRUISING OF THE FRUIT.

Fia. 2.—FLORIDA FIELD CRATE WITHOUT A CENTRAL PARTITION AND ONE TYPE OF
SMALL PICKING RECEPTACLE OPENING AT THE BOTTOM TO AVOID BRUISING THE
FRUIT BY DROPPING.

PICKING RECEPTACLES AND FIELD BOXES FOR FLORIDA CITRUS
FRUITS.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE II.

NN ST

Th si ri
TENN TIT

wt : ere |

il wu

Fig. 1.—GrRocerRS’ DELIVERY CRATES USED BY SOME GROWERS FOR HOLDING ORANGES.

This crate supplies maximum yentilation and has no sharp corners or projections to
injure the fruit.

Fig. 2.—BROKEN FIELD CRATES.

The splinters, sharp edges, and projecting nails are common sources of serious injury to Florida
citrus fruits.

TYPES OF FIELD BOXES FOR CITRUS FRUITS IN FLORIDA.

Bui. 63, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. PLATE If.

Fic. 1.—HAULING ORANGES OVER ROUGH ROADS ON WAGONS WITHOUT SPRINGS.

The jolting and jarring and the driver seated directly upon the fruit result in serious injury.

FiG. 2.-HAULING ORANGES BY TEAMS OF OXEN HITCHED TO SPRINGLESS WAGONS.

TRANSPORTING FRUIT FROM THE GROVE TO THE PACKING HOUSE
IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U.S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—GRAPEFRUIT CARRIED LOOSE IN THE BED OF A SPRINGLESS WAGON AND PILED
IN THE GROVE.

Note that the wagon driver is in the act of throwing fruit from the wagon to the pile.

FIG. 2.—ONE TYPE OF ORANGE WASHER NOW IN USE IN FLORIDA.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. Wi

packed out (Pl. V, figs. 1 and 2). In most of the houses at the present time the fruit
is carried in front of the graders on canvas belts to the sizing machines, which are
usually run by power. The majority of the packers now wish to ship their fruit as
soon after picking as possible. Some, however, still keep it for a couple of days to
wilt or ‘‘cure,’’ as the process is called.

Cleaning.—During the past few years cleaning the fruit has become more and more
necessary because of the spread of the white fly. At the present time probably 75
per cent of the Florida orange crop is cleaned either by washing or by the sawdust
method. Untilsome method of controlling the white fly has been discovered, it will
be necessary to continue these processes and even to extend them to a larger propor-
tion of the fruit.

Various methods of washing are used, and many different types of washers are now
in operation in the State. Some of the machines developed and used extensively in
California have been installed, and other types have originated in Florida. The
fruit is either dumped into a small hopper leading to a tank of water or is emptied
directly into the water, and the cleaning process consists of passing the fruit, either
while in the water or while still wet, over or between rapidly moving brushes, which
remove the sooty coating from the skin (Pl. IV, fig. 2, and Pl. VI, fig. 1). A number
of washers are used in which the cleansing is done by means of sponges or rags.
After the fruit has been washed it is run through “‘artificial” forced-air blast driers
or else elevated to drying racks (Pl. VI, fig. 2) and when dried is ready to be graded
and sized. 5

Another method of cleaning citrus fruits, especially grapefruit, is with sawdust.
Large horizontal cylinders are completely filled with fruit, a few pounds of wet
sawdust are added, and the cylinders are then revolved for 8 or 10 minutes by hand
or other power. The movement of the sawdust over the surface of the fruit rubs off
much of the dirt and sooty mold. No drying is required after this process (Pl. VII,
fig. 1).

Grading —There are no set rules for grading oranges and grapefruit in Florida.
As a rule, only two classes are made, ‘‘brights” and ‘‘russets,’’ in addition to a
poorer grade which is shipped to near-by markets. The bright fruit is that which
is free from the effects of the work of the rust mite, a small mite which punctures
the oil cells in the skin of the fruit, causing the surface to become brownish in appear-
ance. The russet grade is composed of fruit more or less affected by the work of the
rust mite. Fruit affected with melanose, a disease common in many sections, is
also usually placed in the russet grade. The russeting due to the work of the rust
mites is quite characteristic of the Florida orange and has been almost a trade-mark
for the fruit, the general impression prevailing in the North that such oranges are a
distinct variety grown only in Florida. Consequently, this grade frequently brings
as much money as bright fruit. It has never been determined that the work of the
rust mites affects the quality of an orange or grapefruit. The number of mites
varies considerably in different localities and even in groves in the same locality,
and when present they may be largely controlled by the use of sulphur sprays or
by dry sulphur blown upon the trees.

A few packing houses in the State make more than two grades. The finest of the
bright fruit may be packed as “‘fancy,’’ or some of the brightest russets may be
Jabeled “‘golden.”’ There are no uniform rules in the State, however, and similar
grades of fruit from different packing houses may be sold under different names.
Moreover, all grading is without reference to the size of the fruit. As one man grades
a car or more of fruit each day, the work can not be done very thoroughly. There
is a strong tendency at present to establish more definite grades and to secure better
methods of grading (Pl. VII, fig. 2).

The sizes of Florida oranges vary from 80 to 420 fruits in a box, some fruit occa-
sionally falling outside even these wide limits. The common sizes are 126, 150, 176,

8 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and 200 oranges to a box. When only two grades of fruit are made, a double sizing
machine is commonly used, and both grades are sized at the same time (PI. VIII,
figs. 1 and 2).

The Florida grapefruits are packed with 28, 36, 46, 54, 64, 72, 80, or 96 fruits to the
box, the most desirable sizes being 46, 54, and 64. The ‘‘Standards” vary from 54
to 80. Fruits packed 46 to the box and larger are known as “‘large off sizes,’’ grape-

fruit being occasionally offered as large as 18 to the pack. This is more of a novelty -

than a commercial proposition, however. The ‘‘small off sizes” are those packed
96 to the box and smaller. Some of the regular orange-sizing machines can be
adjusted for the sizing of grapefruit, but few of them are wholly satisfactory, on
account of the variation in shape of the fruit.

Packing.—Many houses now employ girls and women as packers, although formerly
the work was done almost exclusively by men, who were usually paid by the day.
High-grade work is done on the average, and considerable care is taken to have
each orange put in its place with a little pressure. This makes a firm pack and one
which is smooth and of good appearance. The box is filled an inch or more above
the top, and when the cover is put on pressure is used to bring the fruit at the ends
even with the top of the box. A few shippers fill their boxes much higher than
this, thereby making necessary considerable pressure in order to nail on the cover.
This type of package, known as the ‘‘bulge pack,’’ was developed to meet the buyers’
demands for a full box of fruit on arrival in market. High packing is often an excuse
for poor packing, however, since oranges which are laid in the box loosely and without
pressure must be forced into place when the cover is nailed on, thereby increasing
the liability of crushing the fruit in the top layers. A pack which is of medium
height, with every orange: firmly in place, is less liable to be injured in transit than
is a high, loose pack, and_ the fruit will arrive in market with a more attractive
appearance and will remain in good condition for a longer period.

The ‘“‘nailer’’ takes the box after it is packed, and holding the cover across the
fruit with both hands, he gives the box two or three sharp jolts upon the floor, first
at one end, then at the other, before nailing it fast. Box presses are in use in a
number of houses in the State. Whether the nailing is done by hand or with the
aid of a press, care should be exercised to avoid injuring the contents of the top layer
against the sides and ends of the box. Some pressmen have the habit of adjusting
the covers after pressure has been applied by tapping the ends of the slats, but this
scratches or rasps the fruit on top and serious injury sometimes results. _The beveled
ends, sides, and center pieces which are coming into general use are of great value in
preventing injuries during the nailing operation.

The Florida shipping box for both oranges and, grapefruit measures 12 by 12 by 27
inches, inside dimensions, and has an estimated weight of 80 pounds when filled.
It is made with paneled heads, has sides of veneer in one piece, and is bound with
three straps of birch or other wood. Wire hoops are now used extensively in place
of the wooden straps. This makes a strong package, suitable for long-distance
shipments.

Shipping.—More attention than formerly is now being given to loading the fruit
in the cars. It has been the custom to stack the boxes loosely in the cars, those in
the lower tier standing on end and the rest placed lengthwise on top. On account
of the strength of the box and the comparatively short haul, the loading is done
rather carelessly, very little bracing being used, and often none at all. Although it
is not common for the boxes to reach the market in a broken condition, considerable
injury in transit is liable with a load of this kind. The better method now coming
into general use in Florida is to stack the boxes two tiers high on end, using a car
strip across each row and bracing the load securely in the middle. This insures a
minimum of broken boxes or other injury on arrival in market.

Bul, 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE V.

Fig. 1.—EXTREME TYPE OF LARGE HOPPER FORMERLY IN USE, THE SIZE BEING INDI-
CATED BY THE SIZE OF THE MOWING MACHINE AT THE RIGHT.

The fruit is emptied from outside through trap doors in the background, a wagonload at a time.

Serious injury is caused by bruising and by the twigs and other débris accumulating on the
floor of the hopper.

Fi@. 2.—ANTIQUATED MACHINERY FOR GRADING AND SIZING THE FRUIT.

Note that the sizing machine is being treadled by the grader. Note also the large hopper at
the rear.

INTERIOR VIEWS OF OLD ORANGE-PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—ONE TYPE OF ORANGE-WASHING MACHINE USED IN FLORIDA.

The fruit isalways in sight as it passes through the machine.

Fic. 2.—DRYING FLORIDA ORANGES IN THE SUN.

Serious injury follows the use of unprotected brooms, and bruising from rolling over and
dropping through steep gravity runs,

Bul. 63, U S. Dept of Agriculture PLATE VII.

FiG. 2.—GRADING BELT BUILT BY THE BUREAU WoRKERS FOR EXPERIMENTAL PURPOSES
TO REPLACE THE LARGE HOPPER SHOWN IN PLATE V, FiGure 1.

PACKING-HOUSE MACHINERY IN FLORIDA,

SERIE I ee Ey ee a ee RRR |

Bul, 63, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1.—TYPE OF ORANGE SIZER, HOPPER, AND BINS USED IN THE OLD PACKING Houses
: . IN FLORIDA.

FiG. 2.—ONE TYPE OF SIZING MACHINE IN A MODERN PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

ORANGE-SIZING MACHINES.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 9

The length of time in transit from central Florida to Philadelphia or New York
varies from four days to more than a week. There are several routes by which fruit
may be shipped to northern points. It may go “all rail’’ by freight, either in car-
loads or by local freight. Small consignments are sent by express to Savannah and
from there by freight to their various destinations, and some fruit is shipped by water
from both Jacksonville and Savannah. The rates to northern points vary somewhat
by these different routes. Jacksonville is the basing point, and the “‘all rail’’ freight
rate thence to Baltimore is 43 cents per box in carload lots. This rate to New York
is 46 cents, to Boston 51 cents, to Pittsburgh 52 cents, and to Chicago 53 cents. The
water rate from Jacksonville is 35 cents to New York and 40 cents to Boston. In less
than carload lots the “all rail’’ freight rate to Baltimore is 474 cents, to Boston 59
cents, and to Chicago 97.2 cents. These rates apply on shipments moving through
Jacksonville for points beyond. The rate is higher when the fruit is shipped to
Jacksonville, the freight charges paid there, and the shipments rebilled to points
beyond. In addition to the above charges the shipper has to pay the local freight
from his shipping station to Jacksonville. This local freight rate per box is 15 cents
from Orlando, 20 cents from Arcadia, and 26 cents from Miami.

During 1912-13 there were 321 boxes in the average carload. A few men shipped
400 or more boxes per car, but this practice should be discouraged. Such heavy load-
ing leaves no space in which the air may circulate and affords a splendid opportunity
for the development of decay in transit. The Florida car is smaller than the one used
by the California shippers and should contain not more than 360 boxes. The inside
measurements of the standard shipping car for oranges are 33 feet in length, 8 feet in
width, and 844 inches in height. The minimum freight weight of a standard car of
300 boxes is therefore 24,000 pounds, reckoning each box at the arbitrary weight of 80
pounds. The freight rate is assessed per box, the average rate on citrus fruits shipped
from Florida during 1912-13 being 65.7 cents per box of 80 pounds’ weight. A car of
oranges may contain boxes of oranges of all sizes, the fruit being generally loaded in the
cars “orchard run,’’ although some purchasers specify in advance the sizes desired.

Refrigeration and ventilation.—Prior to the season of 1912-13, nearly all of the ship-
ments of Florida citrus fruits were handled under ventilation. A few of the late
oranges, especially Valencias, have been shipped under refrigeration during the latter
part of the season when the weather was warm either in Florida or while the fruit was
in transit, but it is estimated that not more than 1 per cent of the shipments of citrus
fruits were iced in any season previous to 1912. The conditions surrounding the
citrus-fruit industry of Florida have been largely responsible for the lack of the proper
facilities for the shipment of oranges under ice. Before the reorganization of the
industry, following the introduction of modern handling and packing facilities, there
was little or no opportunity to utilize refrigeration in transporting the citrus crop to
market. A large proportion of the fruit was handled in local consignments to central
points, such as Jacksonville, Fla., or Savannah, Ga., and at these gateway cities carload
shipments were made up. In some instances the fruit was sent by boat to Jackson-
ville or Savannah and thence forwarded north by railroad. During the past three or
four years this practice has changed to a very great extent, and at the present time only
a small proportion (if any) of the shipments of Florida citrus fruits are assembled after
local shipment at the central points mentioned. Packing houses equipped with
modern appliances have been erected throughout the State. Full carloads are now
made up at these houses and the fruit is shipped north direct from the point of produc-
tion or packing. The opportunities for utilizing refrigeration have thus been increased,
as the fruit can now be loaded direct into iced cars instead of being first shipped locally
in unprotected ‘‘ ventilator’’ or box cars.

The prevailing opinion among fruit growers and shippers formerly has been that
Florida citrus fruits do not need refrigeration. Practically the entire crop is moved

23103°-—Bull. 683—14——2

10 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

during the winter and early spring months, when the prevailing outdoor temperature
is low, so low at times that the problem has been to protect the fruit from freezing rather
than to reduce its temperature by artificial means. During periods of extremely cold
weather refrigeration may bea distinct disadvantage rather than otherwise. With the
present refrigerator-car equipment, the insulation provided to keep the fruit cool
during transit must also be relied upon to protect the fruit from freezing. This it does
by retarding the cooling of the fruit and reducing its temperature very slowly, thus
enabling the car to reach the market before the contents are actually frozen. It is easy
to see that the length of time required to cool the fruit to an injurious extent depends
upon (1) the outdoor temperature, (2) the efficiency of the insulation of the car, and (3)
the temperature of the fruit at the time the car encounters extreme as conditions
in the North.

The present-day refrigerator car is only partially efficient during extreme weather,
There are many types of refrigerator cars with varying insulation, but none are able
to withstand extreme cold for any considerable length of time without the use of
' artificial heat, just as they are unable to keep the contents cool in hot weather with-
out the use of ice. It follows, then, that under ordinary conditions during cold
weather fruit which has been cooled by the use of ice during the early part of the
trip from Florida will be more liable to injury from freezing than fruit which has not
been so cooled before it is subjected to extremely cold weather. The appreciation of
this point is of great importance in discussing the refrigeration of Florida oranges,
because a very large proportion of the crop is moved during periods of excessively
cold weather in the North, although the temperature in Florida may be sufficiently
high to warrant the use of ice at the beginning of the trip.

The investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry have amply demonstrated that
Florida oranges may be transported to market under ventilation with a minimum
loss from decay, even during perieds of warm and humid weather, if sufficient care is
used to preserve the skin of the fruit in a sound, unbroken condition. None of the
experimental shipments commented upon in this paper were refrigerated. The use
of refrigeration during transit to market must not be considered as a means to offset
the effects of rough or careless methods of handling. Icing can not permanently
prevent deterioration. The low temperature only temporarily arrests the develop-
ment of the decay fungi. As soon as the fruit has been unloaded in market it warms
up, and decay develops very rapidly if a considerable number of the oranges have
been injured by careless handling. As a result such fruit soon gains a reputation for
very poor market-holding qualities. It isas important to have the fruit reach the con-
sumer in good condition as it is to have it arrive in the market sound.

A considerable number of shipments were iced during the season of 1912-13,
especially during January and during a later period of warm, humid weather, when
heavy decay developed in nearly all shipments. It is safe to say that the number of
cars handled under refrigeration during this season was greater than during all pre-
vious seasons together. Many of the shippers claim that they have been able to
place the fruit on the market in much better condition when shipped under refriger-
ation than when shipped under ventilation only. This conclusion is based upon a
comparison of iced and noniced shipments. It is probable, however, that the com-
parison was not always fair, for the reason that no systematic study was made of the
behavior of fruit of the same grade and quality under the two systems of shipment,
Nevertheless, the general opinion prevails among growers and shippers that icing has
resulted in material benefit to the fruit and has yielded increased returns. Refriger-
ation, therefore, bids fair to become an important factor in the omar and ship-
ment of the Florida citrus crop.

During the past season, with its periods of excessively high decay, the Florida
Citrus Exchange strongly urged its members to move their fruit north under refriger-
ation, The recommendations of the exchange officials, in brief, provided (1) that the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 11

ice should be put in the tanks 24 hours before loading the fruit, and preferably 48
hours previous, in order to properly cool the cars; (2) that the boxes of oranges should
be stacked near to the car and when the doors were opened the loading should com-
mence immediately and not consume more than one hour; (3) that the doors should
then be tightly closed and the car moved forward immediately. Since the refriger-
ating rates are per car and not per box, some growers loaded the cars very heavily
this past season, shipping 400 or 500 boxes per car, in order to reduce the refrigerating
charge per box. This left no room for ventilation or circulation of air, and as a result
decay was heavy, especially in the top tiers. Boxes should not be loaded more than
2 tiers high and no car should contain more than 360 boxes. These may be loaded
6 rows across, 30 boxes long and 2 tiers high, on end.

Many refrigerator cars were shipped under one-half icing during 1912-13. When
the fruit was very soft or from groves known to be diseased, full icing was found to be
necessary. Table I gives the refrigerating rates for half icing from Florida to various
points throughout the United States, these being in addition to the regular rates for
transportation. When the entire ice bunker is filled, the charges are increased 50 per
cent above those for half-bunker icing. For example, when the half-bunker rate to
New York is $50 per car, the full-bunker rate is $75.

Tasie [.—Rates per car for half icing from Florida to points in the United States, season
of 1912-13.

° |
To southern points. To eastern points. To northern and western points.
In State of— Rate. From Jacksonville. Rate. In State of— Rate.
(Cleimerh AS Pays ae Hyliics a $35. 00 || Taking rate of— $50. 00
JNE RODS Gea ee en oat 40. 00 43 cents per box....- $45. 00 50. 00
Tennessee (except to Chat- 44 cents per box....- 45. 00 55. 00
PAWOO LS) *- 255. send 2 45.00 46 cents per box...-- 50. 00 50. 00
To Chattanooga. ...-. 40. 00 48 cents per box..... 45. 00 55. 00
entucky =f. 2s00c.552.-- 45.00 50 cents per box..... 50. 00 55. 00
Mississippi......---------- 45. 00 51 cents per box....- 55. 00 55. 00
REXAGMeMnee esol) eS. 62. 50 52 cents per box..... 50. 00 55. 00
South Carolina...-......- 35. 00 53 cents per box..-.-| 55.00 62. 50
North Carolina.___......-. 35. 00 55 cents per box or 55. 00
Virginia (as to Lynch- higher aes See ee 55. 00 55. 00
burg, Norfolk, Rich-
mond, Roanoke, and
Portsmouth)...-.--.--- 45. 00

MARKETING THE FRUIT.

Noncooperative buyers.—Most of the Florida citrus fruits have been handled on the
market by fruit buyers and speculators. Large quantities have been bought on the
trees, either in bulk or at a fixed price per box, by local buyers who own packing
houses in near-by towns. There are many such buyers, and, although very few of
them are growers, they purchase enough fruit each year to pack and ship thousands
of boxes. The largest part of the Florida citrus crop has been handled in this manner
in recent years, the picking and hauling being done under the direction and at the
expense of the buyers. These men have regular customers to whom they make ship-
ments, and they also consign large quantities of fruit to commission houses. If a
grower desires to pack his own fruit, he may be able to sell it before shipping it, but
usually he consigns the cars to a commission man whose agent has solicited his trade.
If the grower is doing business with a reliable firm, the success of this method depends
largely upon having a good grade of fruit which is packed in an attractive manner and
reaches the market in sound condition. Since most ofthe commission houses operating
in Florida are located in the larger northern and eastern cities, the heavy shipments
of fruit to these points often cause the market to be glutted with Florida oranges.

12 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Several large selling agencies are now operating in Florida and are handling much
of the citrus fruit. These firms may or may not be directly concerned with the grading
and packing of the fruit. Although in a few instances they control this portion of the
work almost entirely, and so are able to offer for sale large quantities of fruit of a rather
uniform grade, their primary aim is to handle for the packers all matters pertaining to
the sale of the crop. They claim to be able to keep a closer watch on the markets
and on general trade conditions than an individual grower or packer can possibly do,
and, by means of competent sales agents throughout the country, to be able to control
the distribution of the product so as to avoid gluts and the resultant low prices. Their
selling charge may be a flat rate per box, but more often the business is conducted ona
percentage basis.

Florida Citrus Exchange-—The movement for cooperative marketing, begun during
the season of 1909-10, gained considerable headway among the citrus fruit growers
of the State and resulted in the formation of the Florida Citrus Exchange. The
organization was modeled after the California Fruit Growers’ Exchange, which has
been successfully packing and marketing a large percentage of the citrus fruits of
California for a number of years. During its first season (1909-10) the Florida Citrus
Exchange handled more than 1,000,000 boxes of fruit.

The Florida Citrus Exchange is composed of a number of cooperative associations
throughout the State. These are made up of individual growers who form a corpora-
tion, build a packing house, elect a manager, determine the grades under which
their fruit is to be shipped, and attend to all the business directly connected with the
harvesting, packing, and shipping of the fruit. The cooperative packing houses
located in any one of the several citrus districts of the State unite to form a subex-
change, whose manager has charge of the larger business interests of the houses in his
district, keeping in close touch with the central offices of the exchange, and advising
with them regarding the qualities and ‘grades of fruit in the various cars shipped, the
methods of packing employed, and all other matters regarding which a selling agency
should be well informed. A union of the various subexchanges forms the Florida
Citrus Exchange, which has its headquarters at Tampa. This is an incorporated body,
with a board of directors and officers for carrying on the business of marketing the
product. Representatives of the exchange, who are paid on a salary basis, are located
in the various trade centers and have charge of the sale of the fruit.

The fruit of the individual grower may be handled in the packing house as a sepa-
rate account; or it may be packed under certain grades, a record being kept of the
number of boxes of each grade made from the fruit of that grower, whose identity is
lost as soon as thisamount has been recorded. When the latter plan is followed, the
season is generally divided into periods of several weeks in length, called pools, the
receipts for all fruit shipped during each period being averaged by grades. The
individual grower receives a pro rata share of the proceeds, determined by the quantity
of each grade of fruit which he has delivered at the packing house during that pool.
In a few packing houses one pooling period extends over the whole season, and the
only average made is based upon the proceeds of the entire crop.

KEEPING QUALITY OF FLORIDA ORANGES.

The keeping quality of the orange is naturally good. Since the life processes of
the fruit continue after it has been severed from the branch, there is a prolonged
period during which an uninjured orange remains sound and free from all decay.
Ultimately, when the life span has been run, the tissues die and decay follows even
in uninjured fruits. The delay is long enough, however, to allow the average fruit to
be packed and placed on the market and to reach the consumer in sound condition,

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 13

HEAVY LOSSES FROM DECAY IN COMMERCIAL SHIPMENTS.

The losses from decay during transit have been very heavy in the commercial ship-
ments of fruit, and the experimental work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was under-
taken in Florida in response to the many requests for advice and assistance which
came to the Department of Agriculture. It is difficult to estimate what the actual
loss from this cause has been during past seasons. Several reliable commission men
who handle large quantities of Florida oranges each year have stated that averaging
the good with the bad years probably 10 per cent of the fruit decayed before reaching
the consumer. Experimental shipments made under the direction of this bureau
indicate that the loss may have been fully as heavy as this.

Since Florida’s orange crop averages 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes per year, the
decay of 8 or 10 per cent of this fruit entails an annual financial loss of at least half a
million dollars. Ten per cent of 4,000,000 boxes amounts to 400,000 boxes, on which
the picking and packing charges have been paid, with approximately $50,000 spent
for box material alone. The freight charges represent something like $200,000; and
these amounts, together with the commission charges, the value of the fruit discarded,
and the cost of repacking what is left, bring the total loss high enough to seriously
endanger the welfare of the industry.

REPUTATION INJURED BY DECAY IN TRANSIT.

Unfortunately, the financial injury is not confined to the fruit actually decayed.
It is impossible to estimate the loss which has resulted to the industry from the bad
reputation which Florida fruits have gained in the trade. While it is difficult to dis-
cover how far the low prices occasionally received have been due to this cause, many
fruit handlers in northern markets condemn very strongly the poor keeping quality
of the Florida orange and willingly admit their intention of using fruit of better
keeping quality if they can obtain such from other points. The situation of the
Florida orange grower would be critical indeed if it were not for the fact that fruit
handled carefully shows so much less decay than does fruit picked and packed under
careless commercial conditions.

HISTORY OF THE DEPARTMENT WORK IN FLORIDA.

Investigations by the Department of Agriculture, having in view the discovery of
the factors underlying the successful shipment of oranges from Florida to northern
markets, began during the season of 1907. The work, which was planned along lines
similar to those followed in the California investigations, included the determination
of the character and type of handling employed in the various operations of preparing
fruit for shipment and the discovery of the relationship between present methods
and the occurrence of decay. The object of the work of the department was to sug-
gest changes in the industry which should reduce the immense annual financial losses
of the Florida growers by enabling them to market their fruit in sound condition.

The first researches in Florida were conducted by Mr. L. 8. Tenny, who devoted
his attention to an inspection of the work done by various picking crews and individual
pickers, as well as to the character of work being done in the packing houses. It
required only a short time to indicate that what had previously been found to be the
case in California was also true in Florida, viz, that the fruit was receiving consider-
able injury in the course of its preparation for shipment. Conditions were, if any-
thing, somewhat more exaggerated, owing to the fact that the thin-skinned, juicy
Florida orange is of a more tender type and is more easily injured than the bulk of
the oranges grown in California. It is safe to say that the kind of handling which
would enable the California orange to go through the various picking and packing
operations without injury is not safe for the Florida product. The importance of
avoiding dropping or puncturing by long stems is most urgent when dealing with

14 BULLETIN 63, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

thin-skinned, juicy fruit. The necessity of handling with extreme care so perishable
a product as the Florida orange can not be too strongly emphasized.

After the determination of the character of work being done and the discovery that
considerable injury was being inflicted on Florida fruit, the investigations were so
planned as to determine whether it was practicable to handle the fruit with sufficient
care to prevent injury. At first demonstrations corresponding to those carried on in
California were made in the packing houses, using fruit selected for soundness and
similar lots showing injuries of various kinds. The effects of dropping the fruit and of
washing it to remove sooty mold were also demonstrated. These lines of work proved
conclusively that blue mold develops wherever the skin of the orange is injured in any
way, and that dropping is followed by serious decay, especially when the fruit falls
into a receptacle containing dry twigs, gravel, splinters, or other matter rough enough
to bruise or puncture the skin.

After the packing-house demonstrations, showing that sound, uninjured Florida
oranges are not affected with blue-mold decay, shipping experiments under com-
mercial conditions. were undertaken. These experiments consisted of forwarding
boxes of fruit of known history to Washington, where the percentages of decay were
carefully determined on the day of arrival and after one, two, and three weeks, the
fruit meantime being held under ordinary open-market conditions. -

These experiments were followed during five successive seasons, thus enabling the
investigators to determine the effect of seasonal influences. The data obtained during
1910-11 and 1911-12, when the work was undertaken on a more extensive scale than in
the former seasons, corroborated the early results without exception, and the carrying
quality of the Florida orange when packed and shipped in sound condition was
proved to be as good as that of the California product. An injured orange, whether
grown in California or in Florida, will decay whenever the conditions for the develop-
ment of blue mold are favorable. A sound orange in good, healthy condition, whether
grown in California or in Florida, is‘able to resist blue-mold decay.

BLUE-MOLD DECAY OF THE ORANGE.

Indications of decay.—The characteristic appearance of the orange decayed by blue
mold is too well known to need description. Every handler of citrus fruits knows blue
mold, which is by far the most common form of decay. The grower frequently sees it
in the oranges hanging upon the trees, when the fruit has split or has been injured by
thorns or twigs. He finds itin the fruit which has dropped to the ground. The packer
sees it in the cull pile or in the boxes of fruit left standing in the house for a few days.
The receiver of the fruit finds the decay as the boxes are opened, and frequently he
smells it before removing the covers.

The first indication of decay is a small area of soft tissue at some point on the surface
of the fruit. This increases rapidly in extent if the weather is moist and warm, and
within a day or two a bluish or greenish spot develops. If weather conditions continue
favorable, the entire fruit is rotted within a few days, and the surface is generally coated
with a bluish or greenish blue mat or powdery covering.

BLUE-MOLD FUNGUS.

Blue-mold decay is caused by the growth of a minute organism within the tissues
of the fruit. Laboratory experiments have shown this organism to be a fungus of the
genus Penicillium, which includes the familiar blue mold or mildew on bread, on the
surface of canned fruit, and on other vegetable matter. Growth takes place within
the orange, the bluish mat on the skin being composed of the fruiting bodies made up
of chains of spores, massed together in greatnumbers. The fungus isspread by means
of these spores, which, like the seeds of many higher plants, germinate and grow as
soon as they find lodgment under conditions favorable for their development. They

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 15
require heat and moisture, and when these are present growth proceeds at a very rapid
rate. The blue-mold fungus has not the power to penetrate the sound living tissue of
a well-crown fruit; hence, there must be a break or an abrasion of some kind in the skin,
through which the disease may find anentrance. When growth has once started, even
in asmall way, the fungus is capable of killing the surrounding tissues and thus produc-
ing material on which to grow. This process continues until the entire fruit is de-
stroyed. If, therefore, a fungous spore is present and lodges in an injured spot, the
initial step toward decay has been taken, and if the temperature and moisture condi-
tions during the next few days are favorable, the development of the fungus proceeds
rapidly and the orange is almost sure to rot. Many experiments have been made in
California and Florida packing houses in placing spores on fresh injuries, and, without
exception, the characteristic decay has resulted. On the other hand, large quantities
of fruit have been held under weather conditions most favorable to the development of
decay, and the results prove that fruit which has been so carefully handled as to pre-
serve the skin in an uninjured condition shows practically no decay even when the
surface has been purposely covered with spores. The development of decay is most
rapid during warm, moist weather, fruit packed during a cool, dry period frequently
reaching the market without much waste even though injuries are present. Under
changed atmospheric conditions, the same fruit may arrive in a badly decayed condi-
tion. During an average Florida winter there are usually periodical warm spells.
Reports of general heavy decay at the market end can almost without exception be
traced to fruit packed and shipped during these warm periods.

With this understanding of the nature and cause of the most common form of decay,
it becomes easy to see how the harvesting and handling methods may have an impor-
tant bearing on the keeping quality of the fruit. If these are such as to break the skin
or injure the orange, even slightly, favorable conditions for the development of blue-
mold decay exist and such decay is almost certain to result, as observation has shown |
that the spores of the blue mold are present practically everywhere. It is safe to say
that most of the decay occurring in Florida oranges while in transit is due to blue mold.
There is some loss in transit from decay due to other forms of rot, but this is usually
very slight as compared with the loss from blue mold.

CAUSES OF BLUE-MOLD DECAY.

Since the principal means of securing oranges of good keeping quality is by elimi-
nating mechanical injuries to the fruit, the occurrence of decay is therefore closely
connected with the handling methods in use in the grove and packing house.

Thorn punctures, which are made while the fruit is still on the tree, are among
the first injuries to which citrus fruits are subjected. ‘These are generally unavoidable,
as during every wind storm a certain percentage of the fruit is injured by being blown
against thorns. The puncturing which occurs when the fruit is being picked may be
prevented, however, although it is frequently difficult to handle the oranges with
sufficient care to avoid pressure against thorns or dried twigs when these are present
in large numbers. Fruit is often bruised when the ladder is placed carelessly in the
tree or when the sack is allowed to strike or is pressed against the branches or ladder.
(Pl. TX, figs. 1 and 2.) Moreover, filling the field boxes so high that the fruit pro-
jects above the top will result in crushing the oranges when the boxes are stacked
one on top of another. The oranges may be bruised on their way from the grove to
the packing house by being jolted over rough roads in springless wagons. The driver
of each wagon should be given a specially prepared seat and not allowed to sit upon
the fruit.

Among the most common forms of injury may be mentioned scratches made by the
finger nails of the pickers and packers, each of whom should be required to wear
gloves. It is comparatively easy for packers, especially if their finger nails are long,

16 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to seriously injure a large percentage of the oranges which they handle. Some packers
also do a great deal of harm by dragging the oranges around in the bins and by tossing
the off sizes into the neighboring bins. Abrasions due to the presence of gravel,
twigs, splinters, protruding nails, or other foreign matter in the picking receptacles,
field boxes, or packing bins may have far-reaching consequences.

Bruises caused by dropping the fruit in the ‘various stages of picking or packing
have been found to cause serious loss from decay. There are a number of places
where oranges may be greatly damaged by dropping. First of all, the picker may
toss them carelessly into his picking basket or bag. Careless pickers frequently
throw the oranges into the open receptacle by means of a shove with the clippers,
the fruit sometimes falling as far as 3 or 4 feet. Serious damage may also result from
emptying the fruit roughly into the field box. Plate I, figure 1, shows how the bag
or basket may be held too far above the box and the fruit allowed to fall too great
adistance. In case the bottom of the box is covered with twigs or small pieces of dirt
the injury is greater. A sack which opens only at the top and from which the fruit
must be poured into the boxes is likely to cause severe damage because of the bumps
to which the fruit is subjected. Usually no greater care is observed when emptying
the iruit into the field box and from that into the hopper of the washer, grader, or sizing
machine. The washing machine provides excellent opportunities for the infliction
of mechanical injuries and for infection from dirty water. This phase of the subject
will be discussed later.

Decayed fruit and trash should not be left in the boxes or allowed to accumulate on
the floor and under the packing bins. The slightest breeze will scatter great quan-
tities of blue-mold spores from these rotted oranges over all the fruit in the house.
A clean, well-lighted packing house greatly diminishes decay by reducing the chances
of infection. It has a beneficial influence on the workmen as well, offering a great
incentive to better work. Moreover, a clean packing house is a good indication of
the character of work being done throughout and indicates whether genuine efforts
are being made to improve the methods of handling.

The hopper into which the fruit is emptied has always been the source of much
injury to citrus fruits in Florida. In the old style of packing house, existing before
the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was begun, the hopper was frequently large
enough to hold a wagonload of fruit. Few, ifany, of these are nowin use. Even the
more desirable small hopper was constructed with such a steep gravity run that the
fruit was subjected to a seyere bump on reaching the bottom. In going through the
machinery or over the grading table other chances for injury occurred, and the final
drop into the packing bin was sure to add several bruises. The desirable hopper has
padded sides and allows the fruit to be emptied gradually by means of moving belts,
which carry the fruit to the washing machine or grading belt; it is not necessary for the
fruit to fall by gravity at any stage of its journey.

The most serious form of injury, however, is made by the clippers in removing the
fruit from the tree. These clipper cuts are not as prevalent in Florida oranges as was
found to be the case in the California fruit, for the reason that the Florida oranges are
round and do not have the depression at the stem end which exists in the Washington
Navel. Nevertheless, enormous damage has been done to the Florida fruits either
by cutting the skin near the stem end when severing them from the branch or by
puncturing them with the points. It is essential to have the ends of the clippers
rounded or blunted in order to eliminate the possibility of piercing the fruit.

The presence of long stems on the oranges may be reckoned as equally disastrous.
For this reason, in determining the character of work being done by a picking crew
or individual picker long stems are included as imperfections. A long stem is just
as serious, if not more dangerous, than an orange which has been injured in some way.
The latter decays, but this rot seldom affects a neighboring orange; whereas a long
stem has ample opportunity to injure a number of fruits in their progress from the tree

PLATE IX.

Bul. 63, U.S. Dept of Agriculture.

—*SNOINNEN|
ag OL NIVLYSD LSOWTY SI LO3S3Q SHL Ysaqddv7] SHL

@ ‘old

ISNIVOWY GAaSSaYd SI HOVS SHL NI LINY| AHL NAHAA

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AISSA1SuVO GAOV1Id suadavy—'! ‘SI4

AY¥SA 3YV SSY, AHL NI

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.

Fic. 1.—OLD PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

Showing a water tank made of an old wine cask and a pile of field boxes 90 per cent of which
were broken or splintered.

Fic. 2.—OLD PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

Showing the method of emptying the fruit into the hopper from outside,

TYPES OF OLD PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

Fig. 1.—A ONE-STORY COMMODIOUS BUILDING CONVENIENTLY ARRANGED FOR
HANDLING CITRUS FRUITS.

Fic. 2.—A Two-SToRY BUILDING WITH EXCELLENT FACILITIES FOR PACKING AND
SHIPPING CITRUS FRUITS.

EXTERIOR VIEWS OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.

Fic. 1.—AN OLD BUILDING FORMERLY USED FOR PACKING CITRUS FRUITS.

Note the crudeness of arrangement, the boxes of grapefruit stacked outside, and the many
broken field erates.

Fic. 2.—THE MODERN BUILDING WHICH HAS REPLACED THE ONE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1.

ANTIQUATED AND MODERN TYPES OF FRUIT-PACKING HOUSES IN
FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

Fic. 2.—GRADING CITRUS FRUITS BY LANTERN LIGHT AT MIDDAY. |

INTERIOR VIEWS OF TWO OF THE OLD PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

ee sey =
WHEN UNCERTAIN —¢ SE LOWER GRAD

FiG.1.—CORNER OF A WELL-LIGHTED BUILDING.

Showing the type of machinery used for grading citrus fruits. The interior of this building is
shown in Plate XI, Figure 2.

Fic. 2.—GENERAL VIEW OF A CLEAN, WELL-ARRANGED BUILDING.

Showing new equipment for handling citrus fruits.

INTERIORS OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

PLATE XV.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. Lif

to the packing box. A sharp, ragged fragment of stem projecting from the orange
will injure all the fruit with which it comes in contact in the picking bag, field box,
brusher, washer, or packing bin. When it is considered that long stems are probably
the most common imperfections found in the work of the Florida crews, the importance
of giving particular attention to the picking becomes apparent. In most instances
it is impossible to avoid leaving long stems, unless the so-called double cut is made.
This means that the fruit is first severed from the tree with a stem half an inch long,
which is trimmed off when the fruit is held in the hands of the picker. This enables
the workman to cut closely and carefully without danger of clipper cutting, and at
the same time it prevents him from throwing or ‘‘shooting” the fruit into the picking
receptacle. Actual experience shows that it requires very little more time to make
the double cut, and when the picker becomes accustomed to clipping in this way he
can operate practically as fast as with the old method, where he has to use care to
prevent clipper cutting. Of course, it takes longer to make a careful double cut than
to pay no attention to the character of the work performed. Since the picker is fre-
quently unable to see the stem when the orange is on the tree, he consumes much
time in adjusting his clippers in the right position. In making the double cut he is
not concerned with the placing of his clippers, simply reaching out and severing the
orange with a stem long enough to avoid contact between the fruit and the clippers;
then when he holds it in plain sight he can easily make a smooth, close cut.

EVOLUTION OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

The results of the bureau investigations emphasize the importance of having the
fruit arrive in market in good condition and of having it remain sound while in the
hands of the wholesale and retail dealers. Shippers are frequently of the opinion
that their interest in the condition of the fruit does not extend beyond the percentage
of decay found on arrival. It is realized that buyers can claim allowance for such
decay, and consequently shippers are usually anxious to prevent it. In their opinion
any decay which results after the fruit is purchased is the buyer’s loss. This impres-
sion is erroneous, for the decay which develops after the fruit is in market is just as
directa loss to the growersand shippersas that which appears during transit. Although
the shipper does not have to make a cash allowance for decay occurring during the
market-holding period, brands which fail to remain in good condition lose their reputa-
tion and ordinarily do not command as high prices as do those which are known for
their good market-holding quality. The wholesale and retail merchants want oranges
upon which they can depend to remain in sound condition. For such fruit they
are willing to pay a premium, while fruit which develops a high percentage of decay
before it can be sold has nothing but itscheapness to recommend it. A grower or
shipper who consigns carelessly or poorly packed fruit with the expectation that it
will remain sound until it gets into market deceives no one but himself. He may be
able to dispose of a few cars at fair prices, but the buyers soon learn what to expect
and prices fall accordingly. Fruit which develops a high percentage of decay while
in the market is the poorest kind of an advertisement, not only for the brand under
which it is packed, but also for the section of the State from which it is shipped.

In many cases growers and packers are anxious to do careful work, but they do
not realize how many factors there are in the handling operations which may cause
injury and therefore decay. They do not appreciate what careful handling means,
and they underestimate its importance until the results are demonstrated to them.
Injuries causing decay in citrus fruits while in transit and in market may occur from
operations through which the fruit is put from the time it is taken from the tree until
it is placed in the packing box. It is the prevention of these injuries in grove and

23103°—Bull, 63—14——3

18 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

packing house that makes up careful handling, and both grower and packer are con-
cerned in knowing how they are caused and how they may be eliminated.

At the time the department investigations were started the methods of handling
Florida citrus fruits for shipment were extremely crude. Growers did their own
picking, there was no uniformity of system, and the work was performed only indif-
ferently well. These statements are not meant to reflect in any way upon the standing
of the industry or to criticize the individuals who were concerned with the preparation’
of the fruit for market. Practically all of the imperfections were due to a lack of
knowledge on the part of the growers and shippers and not to their desire to slight any
of the important work. No one realized the effects of injury to the fruit, and few,
if any, believed that injury was being inflicted. Growers and packers frequently
greeted the department workers with the statement that practically no injury was
being done to their fruit, whereas later examination often showed 15 or 20 per cent of
their oranges to be injured in some way. The scattered nature of the industry was
largely responsible for the crudeness with which the work was carried on. The old
neighborhood competition in the production of high-grade, attractive fruit disap-
peared after the freeze, when the plantings were distributed so widely over central
and southern Florida. Groves were more or less isolated, and a grower was frequently
wholly ignorant of the type of work being done by other producers of citrus fruits.

When the department investigations were begun it seemed almost hopeless to expect
that the results of the work could be made effective. The importance of getting in
touch with every grower and shipper was realized from the start, yet without some
central organization through which these individuals could be reeened it seemed
impossible to expect that improvements in the methods of handling could be
inaugurated.

The changes which Ley taken place in Florida during the past five years are truly
remarkable. The old type of packing house has almost entirely disappeared (Pl. X,
figs. land 2). Modern houses, equipped with the newest machinery for handling ark
properly, have been constructed in practically every citrus district in the State (Pls.
XJTand XII), so that at the present time the industry is particularly well provided with
the mechanical appliances for doing good work. Plate XIV shows two views of clean,
well-lighted, modern packing-house interiors as contrasted with the dark and crowded
rooms of the old houses (Pl. XIII). The attitude of the growers and packers has
changed more.slowly, however. The department has conducted a large number of
field demonstrations in order to educate pickers to the necessity of careful work, and
although much has been accomplished in this line, as is shown by the tabulated
figures given later on, much still remains to be done. The introduction of better hand-
ling methods is largely a business problem. It has to do with the reorganization of the
forces of workmen and with the method of paying them rather than with the discovery
of the cause of a particular form of decay.

In California the occurrence of injury in preparing the fruit for shipment was asso-
ciated with the way in which the work wasdone. The pickers were paid by the box,
and naturally each man was ambitious to pick as many boxes as possible during the
day, irrespective of the character of his work. A premium was thus placed on rough
handling. Several large companies, employing hundreds of men, demonstrated that
by changing from the box-payment to the day-payment plan and by insisting upon
careful work they could practically eliminate all picking injuries. A change in the
plan of payment is not, in itself, sufficient to bring about better work, however; the
workmen must be properly organized and supervised, and each individual picker must
be held responsible for the character of his work. In California a change from the
individual grower doing his own picking to the plan of association picking crews
resulted in very great improvement in the character of the work. The same plan has
more recently been carried out in Florida with very beneficial results,

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 19

INSPECTIONS OF PICKING CREWS AND FOREMEN.

Careful inspections of the work being done in different parts of the State have been
made during practically every season since the work has been in progress. Table IT
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 3) show the average percentages of imperfections

found in the work of a num-

PER CENT. PER CENT PER CENT eee “
CLIPPER CUTS LONE STE/7TS PULLED ber of picking crews in the
4310-1911 WER 7.2 Zo AE 12.9 % ‘M@e2ee% course of the comprehen-

/911—(312 CHEB 3.3 Zo ER /8.3% WME27% sive field inspections made

Fic. 3:—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the by the depa HMTBSI SHEE SANTEE
work of a number of picking crews inspected during 1910-11 and $2tors during the seasons
1911-12. of 1910-11 and 1911-12.

TasLE I1.—IJmperfections in the work of a number of picking crews inspected during
1910-11 and 1911-12.

Class of imperfections. 1910-111 1911-12 2
Per cent. Per cent.
4.2 8i.83
12.9 18.3
2.8 Pf
1 Averages of 64 inspections of 51 crews. 2 Averages of 35 inspections of 34 crews.

Since the crews which were inspected were located in different sections of the State,
the percentages given in the table and graphically shown in figure 3 as the averages
of allinspections represent very closely the type of work being done throughout Florida;
they indicate the necessity for more careful attention to the details of picking and to
the organization of the picking crews. This seems the most difficult reform to bring
about, yet no permanent improvement in the carrying quality of Florida oranges will
be reached until the field-handling operations are completely changed.

It is also necessary to devote more attention to inspecting the work of individual
pickers. Table III and its accompanying diagram (fig. 4) show the results of the

CREW PAID CLIPPER LONG.

we BY CUTS «STEMS PULLED

4 Box BL0o% B0.6% 10.2%

2 aa Br2% Gia 2.3% 0:0 Ye

3 <&0x Wiss % ee /2./ YS MB 2./%
G DAY WEE s2 2 EB //.F % A 7.3%
5S 80% 1la2% Pine 20.2 % 10.32%

6 DAY HI2Z6% 30.6% 29 %
7 sox WH 23.0% Bro%

6 oar Mi /2.6 % ER 70%

Fic. 4.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of different picking crews
paid by the day and by the box, showing the variation in injury, 1910-11.

inspections of different picking crews in different parts of the State and are presented
to show that good work is possible. Crews Nos. 1 and 2 were.doing practically perfect
work, but the work of crews Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 was far from perfect. The percent-
ages of long stems for which these last crews were responsible ranged from 11.4 to 30.6
per cent.

BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tasie III.—Imperfections in the work of different picking crews paid by the day and by
the box, showing variation in injury, 1910-11.

Crew No.

Paid Clipper Long

by— cuts. stems.
Per cent. | Per cent.
Boxses 1.0 0.6
Dayee-ee 1.2 2.3
[BOxseuae 4.5 12.1
DWayerres 4.2 11.4
iBOxeenee vo 20. 2
Dayne 2.6 30. 6
Boxcecer 11.3 23.0
Daycset 9.5 14.6

Pulled.

Per cent.

The percentages shown in Table IV and its accompanying diagram (fig. 5), which
were obtained from two representative crews working in different parts of the State,
give the average imperfections in the work of different individuals and show how wide

a variation exists in the character of work performed.

CREW N2/ PAID BY THE DA CREW W9 2 P24ID BY THE BOX

ol pach Curs LONG STEMS COPPER COTS LONE STENTS
21 4/7 EE ED 99.9 VO / 0.5% CREDLE 20. / 7%
2\ 0.0% EE 3% 2) 2.6% OO 2.2. 7,
3Wi2/% LE 20.07% SH20% 8 EEMec%
9 Hl 5.7% | A 72.9% EE 2.27%
SHE <¢37 «8 oc 7% 5 E2e% 29%
6 EER 77 EE #8. CHi++% = 26.27.
; 7M ./% «=fos%
E SURE <.2% a 79%
(2icxeR 191 WAS FOREMAN OF THIS CREW) eg SEMEN <.27, EEE 2° %
; /0 GE 7.07, EEE “7.6 72
// GHEE 6.57, EE .2 7%
GA? EB 7.57 EES “2.77 averse EEE <5 Ee 7.5%

Fig. 5.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of two average picking crews,
one paid by the day and one by the box, showing the variation between pickers, 1910-11.

Taste 1V.—Imperfections in the work of two average picking crews, one paid by the day
and one by the box, showing variation between pickers, 1910-11.

Crew No. 1—paid by the day. Crew No. 2—paid by the box.
Date Clipper Long A Clipper Long
Picker No. cuts. stems. PGES oh cuts. | stems.
Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.

UT ince Soe aise sesiobs eee ote Sate Se 1.1 Sook Le ie ee, Chock os Goa eee 0.5 20.1
Pe So see Oo v eet DARA Sore See | 0 Bi Soll Dele Reieae edna es) o- tan 3 eee -6 23.6
CS See PAD ee ee 2.1 20;'0"||"Be se See... ae eee 2.0 8.2
Ameiak . Sareea he ten aa. oath! 5.7 1 | errs eee ec a 2.9 10.2
52 6 Sea See bh er oie 10.2 6.3 PSIG WSO. ot ead oss Se Se See 3.8 2.9
Ol eee saeco deenepemamen cee 11.7 FABLE GL Acc cck Se See ee 4.4 26.2
T ooiajete.o/coattigeloe eee ee Eee 6.1 a5
a MR Sie eg ib 6.2 17.9
AES r aeons coscie visas 6.2 20.1
LO. i: i .aip's 3.0 s,ce apse eae eee 7.8 14.6
AD ee bs ee eens 8.8 11.2
BVGTAROScntascccseec esse 4.5 15.7 AVOIARC. Jeo ace an eee 4.5 14.3

1 Picker No. 1 was foreman of this crew.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 21

The figures are interesting and important because of the fact that the pickers in
one crew were paid by the day while those in the other crew were paid by the box.
It will be noted that there is practically no difference in the average percentages of
imperfections in these two crews. In crew No. 1 the foreman was such in name only.
He made no examination of the work of the men under his charge, and his own work
was shown by inspection (he was picker No. 1) to be the poorest in the crew. He
showed 1.1 per cent clipper cuts and 33.4 per cent long stems.

The pickers in crew No. 2, who were paid by the box, were not working with
sufficient care to avoid all injury to the skin, yet the average of imperfections in
the work of this crew was no greater than in the work done by crew No. 1, which
was paid by the day. The simple change from the box-payment to the day-payment
plan is insufficient, therefore, to bring about careful work. There must be an efficient

PICKERS DOING GEST WORK.

FAID , CLIPPER LONG

PICKER &Y CUTS STESITS PULLED
N2l DAY 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

2 B0X 00% 0.0 % 0.0%

3 DAY 00% 0.0% B/L2%

F BOxX'IOS% 00% 0.0%

5 BoOxlo.ée% 0.0% 00%

6 DAY l0.6% 0.9% 0.0%

7 DAY10.7% 0.0% 0.0%
AVERAGEIO.F % 0.0 % 10.2%

FYICHEFS DOING POOREST WORPRK.
NV? / SOX EES //-, Gee SERA

79.5% 0.0%

2 &0X GREE 25.7 2. aaa ee 62.7 7, 832.2%
3 80x GEREN 2707 a 2.5 % B25%
4 Geox WEEE 3.6% eer 2% Bs5%
S 80x GG /0.8 % j ME 35.5% “104%
6 Box 43x ee HB 3.0%
7 DAY 00% Ee So. 3 2 BE se%
AVERAGE WR 76./ CEG 75.7 27, Bs3%

Tria. 6.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of seven pickers doing the
best work and seven pickers doing the poorest work, 1910-11.

field foreman whose duty it is to supervise the different pickers and who must be
capable of obtaining good work from them. He should watch carefully the output
of every laborer under his charge, should follow them to see what each is doing, and
should insist upon careful handling. It is practically impossible for him to carry
out these arduous duties if, in addition, he must pick fruit. It will be found
profitable to engage a foreman solely for the purpose of supervising the crew and to
insist that he give his entire attention to this work; if necessary, he should be pro-
hibited from picking any fruit.

The variation in the work done by different individuals is further emphasized by
the percentages shown in Table V and the accompanying diagram (fig. 6). The
average of the best seven pickers is practically perfect, while the average of the seven
pickers doing the most careless work shows a very high percentage of imperfections
of various kinds.

22 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste V.—Imperfections in the work of seven pickers doing the best work and seven
pickers doing the poorest work, 1910-11.

Seven pickers doing best work. Seven pickers doing poorest work.
Picker Paid | Clipper Long Picker Paid | Clipper Long

Ese occ Day 0 0 0 Lt .ee2224e Box... 41.4 79.5 0
A a Box 0 0 0 pa Sees er 3 do... 25. 4 62.7 3.2
A Sa Day 0 0 LD. Quire a oe do... 24. 0 21.5 2.5
Rees Box 5 0 0 4 eon ate do. 18. 6 30.8 3.5
(epilator be ge do -6 0 0 D eee eeaenee ee do... _ 10.8 38.5 4
UR ee eae he Day -6 0 0 Oiseece cee bee do... 4.3 56. 5 8.0
(Man Geae iseela| ee do 7 0 0 Cia yeas Day... 0 50.8 5.6
Average.|........ 4 0 a2 Avverage.|_....-2- 16.1 45.4 3.3

The importance of thoroughly inspecting the crews and of training the foremen to
insist upon careful work is further emphasized by the percentages shown in Table VI
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 7). These figures reveal very little difference in

CLIPPER CUZS LONG STLEIZS PULLED
SS SS ae C= oN
PAID BY THE DAY GE 3.7 Ye a 3.9 7% Mi 22%
GON Caper meex EE 24% 12.0 75 EE 2.095

PAID BY THE DAVYWHBR 2/ Ze Raine “5.2 % BO.7%
(IQWAWH2 Layo ye cot @o7% EEE 75% M2

Fig. 7.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of crews paid by the day
and by the box; average of all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

the averages of crews paid by the day and those paid by the box, proving that by means
of careful supervision a conscientious foreman can get as good work from pickers

under the box-payment plan as a more lax foreman can obtain under the day-payment
plan. ‘The efficient foreman is therefore the best solution of this problem.

TaBLe VI.—IJmperfections in the work of crews paid by the day and by the box; average
of all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

1910-11 1911-12

——

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Clipper cuts! 2 ys be eo er ee a eee eee BNF, 4.4 Ns 3.7
1 U5 AF Cha CE Dy ER IONE CN We 8 oi lh UN NE ue 9.9 13.8 15. 2 17.3
PGs SEs a Se Was prey Ae ee) Beye EE Nee Lee P48) 3.0 A 3.3
1 Average of 18 inspections. 3 Average of 8 inspections.
2 Average of 46 mspections. 4 Average of 27 inspections.

Table VII and figure 8 show the averages of imperfections in the work of five of
the best and five of the poorest picking crews inspected during 1910-11 and 1911-12.
CLIPPER CUTS LONG STEMS PULLED
(I

& 6G00D CREWS B44 % GB 3.67% lo.2%
/3/0-//
5S P00oR crews (EEE 6.9:. DRE 27. Ga 7.9% |

5 Go0D CREWS 40.8% MEE 6. 7% @12%
1911-12
5 P00R cREWs CHEE 72:7. Te eee OS / 7, EE 6.7 7

Fig. 8.—Diagram illustrating the average percentage of imperfections in the work of five picking crews
doing good work as compared with five picking crews doing poor work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

e:
i
:
5

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 28

Taste VII.—IJmperfections in the work of five picking crews doing good work as compared
with five picking crews doing poor work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

1910-11 1911-12

Class of imperfections. 2
Five good | Five poor | Five good | Five poor
crews. crews. crews. crews.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
oe 5

nN 5
ELS a G1" C1 Bee Sa a 4 8.9 0.8 Tink
Lie SGI sh Se Se Oe Ue 8 a re eee 3.6 24.8 6.4 32.1

BG nc Se ee CBE C OEE EE Bene Beene Renee Ser are 22 7.9 122 6.7

Along with the inspections of the work of the crews and the individual pickers, an
attempt was made to demonstrate the practicability of training workmen to use more
care. The workers of the Bureau of Plant Industry kept in close touch with the
foreman of a representative picking crew, taking pains to indicate to him the scope
and character of the inspections which it was desirable for him to make. In Table
VIII and figure 9 are shown the results of work of this character. The first inspection

UANUARY 1F ANMLARI- 20 MARCH A
CLIPPER CUTS LONG STETTS CLUPPER CUTS LONG STEPIS — GLIPPER CUTS LONE STIS
Z SSS SSE FSS SSS
No / HA S.2% EBScz 00% Gs.7c% B4/% 105%
N° 2G//% EE <-/% 007%, HEG6% fo5% 105%
S72 3 ao <2 / 7 8/07 Gee 9.27 $eo5% W20%
8 wp 44/2 GEE 2577 ER <s Ee % We <7 2.6 %
NOS B1o% WmssZ% | or 10.6%
NOE §06% M257 842% mi4e%
N27 hose% WHA3.<% fo5% 105%
AGE ES. 7s EEE 9.9 7 809% WES/Z% B0% §oe%

Fic. 9.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections found during three inspections of one
picking crew ranging from three to seven persons, showing great improvement.

was made on January 14, when the crew consisted of four men, the average of imper-
fections at that time being 5.4 per cent clipper cuts and 9.9 per cent long stems. The
importance of careful work was urged upon the foreman and crew, and when on Janu-
ary 20 a second inspection was made, a very material decrease was found in the per-
centages of imperfections. The crew had been increased to seven by that time, and
the average of clipper cuts was 0.9 per cent and of long stems 5.1 percent. Afteran
additional demonstration of the effects of rough handling, no examination of the work
of the crew was made until March 4, when the third and last inspection of the season
was made. The average percentages of the seven pickers composing the crew on
that date were 1 per cent clipper cuts and 0.6 per cent long stems. An examination
of the work of the different individuals shows that one man (picker No. 4) was doing
practically all of the clipper cutting, his average being 6.4 per cent; it will also be
noted that his average of long stems (2.8 per cent) was greater than that of any of the
other pickers. If it was impossible for this workman to improve the character of his
picking he should have been discharged. Without him the average percentage of
clipper cuts would have been reduced to 0.7 per cent and of long stems to 0.5 per
cent.

24 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste VIII.—Imperfections found during three inspections of one picking crew, showing
great improvement.

ee wicca tie tions ota S aademesinetewsch eh ee 5.2 3.6 0 4 Li 0.5
2 OES ae A So EOC 6 aR Se Ae eee Heat 6.1 0 3.6 -5 58)
Biawacns one see saws toe = seer ace cane bicwteeo 9.5 4.1 1.0 9.2 a5) 2.0
ee ea ee Oe oe ee nee eee ee ones thal 25. 4 4.8 4.8 6.4 2.8
Care EL Sy ea 1 SA SEO gh Fe PN ES Le hn at 1.0 4.5 .6 -6
Gos Ee oe CRS NSS ee ed eae ee Ea be Tye Ee ae .6 3.5 134 1.8
Mee eimai sake ates aan is Se eb mica mine Sl ee cee Ee eee .6 3.4 a) A)
PASVORQ EO aes ee h Lets eel we 5.4 9.9 9 5. 1.0 6

While these figures plainly demonstrate the practicability of training a crew of pickers
to do careful work, permanent improvement can not be accomplished without continu-
ous attention to the details of inspection and constant urging of the workmen to better
efforts. There are cases where picking operations were improved as long as the men
thought that inspections would be made; as soon as these were discontinued, however,
it frequently happened that the character of the work changed, and injuries again
became common. Continual vigilance is therefore the prime requisite for carrying
on, picking operations in such a way that the number of injuries can be held at a
minimum.

PROPER FIELD EQUIPMENT.

The efficiency of the foreman, and of the picking force in general is frequently
lowered by poor field equipment. In some instances associations of Florida growers
have spent large sums in building and equipping modern packing houses, while their
field outfits and methods have been neglected and consequently are so crude that
the expensive packing-house equipment is of practically no value in so far as careful
handling of the fruit is concerned.

A frequent source of injury is the clipper. Unless the shears are systematically
inspected by the foreman they soon become dull and loose at the joint, and clipper
cuts and long stems are almost sure to follow. It has not been uncommon to see a
crew of pickers using clippers so dull and worn that it was impossible to make a close,
clean cut. Clippers with rounded or blunted points should also be supplied in order
to run no risk of puncturing the fruit.

The type of picking receptacle used is fundamentally important. Next to poor
clippers, probably more injury is caused by poor picking sacks than by any other
form of equipment. The old type of gunny sack, holding from three-fourths of a box
to a full box of fruit, is still in use to some extent. Such a sack is so long that it is
almost impossible to avoid pressing it against the ladder and branches. Moreover,
it is made of such loosely woven material that the fruit may easily be punctured by
thorns or twigs, and it is so heavy and unwieldy when filled with fruit that the picker
can not always prevent injuries of this kind. The most objectionable feature, how-
ever, is the fact that the fruit must be emptied through the top of the sack into the
field box, and even with the best of care the oranges must drop a foot or more when
emptied in this way.

The best type of sack is one which opens at the bottom, so that it may be placed in
the field box before being emptied and the fruit allowed to roll out gently without —
any appreciable drop. The mouth should be partly closed, so as to make it impos-
sible for the picker to toss or drop the fruits into it. The material of which it is made

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 25

should be heavy enough to protect the fruit from thorns or twigs, and the capacity
should not be more than half that of a large, standard field box. With a bag of this
size and texture it is comparatively easy for the picker to protect the fruit from
bruising against the ladder or branches. The wicker basket in use in some districts
is supposed to prevent injuries from pressure, but it has several objectionable features.
It is, first of all, awkward to handle. The wide mouth is an additional disadvantage,
as it tempts the picker to drop the fruit; moreover, the large open baskets have no
equais as collectors of dry twigs, leaves, and other trash. Some baskets open at the
bottom, but from most of them the oranges must be emptied through the top, thus
entailing a considerable drop.

The defects of the ordinary field box have already been discussed. Smaller boxes
made of lighter material than those now used in most groves are to be recommended.

INFLUENCE OF CLEANING OPERATIONS UPON DECAY.
NECESSITY FOR WASHING.

On account of the wide distribution throughout Florida of the white fly and its
attendant sooty mold, the washing of citrus fruits has become a necessity in most
sections of the State. In some localities where the fly has not yet become prevalent
washing is practiced in order to give the fruit a higher polish and to improve its
appearance. The removal of dust and stains can be equally weil accomplished by
dry brushes, however, and the risk of infection is not so great. During the past few
years there has been a great increase in the proportion of fruit washed or otherwise
cleaned until now the practice is very general throughout the State. The investiga-
tions of the Bureau of Plant Industry included a study of the relationship of washing
or other cleaning operations to the amount of decay developing after the fruit is
packed, and the results indicate that the extent of the deterioration from decay varies
with the character of the work done in the cleaning processes. Asa general rule, any
operation to which the fruit is subjected increases the chance for injury and conse-
quent decay. Well-grown fruit, comparatively free from stain or rust, is sufficiently
attractive without being cleaned. Demonstrations with both California and Florida
citrus fruits have shown that receivers in eastern and northern markets can not dis-
tinguish between washed and unwashed packs if the fruit is at all clean when it comes
from the grove. From the viewpoint of the effect of any particular operation upon
the subsequent behavior of the fruit, the soundest policy is one which will reduce to
the lowest possible minimum the processes to which the fruit is subjected in the
eourse of its preparation for shipment. Washing is perhaps the severest treatment
that can be given to citrus fruits, and wherever it is not absolutely necessary in order
to render the fruit marketable it should be omitted. When oranges have been
exposed to attacks of the white fly, washing or some other cleaning process is
imperative because of the sooty mold, consequently a large proportion of the fruit
must always be subjected to this treatment. The importance of having the work
carried on in such a way that as little damage as possible will result becomes doubly
urgent when it is considered that the washing processes offer ideal conditions for the
spread of blue mold.

Wherever washing and subsequent drying are practiced, the combined operations
are the most complicated processes through which the fruit is put in the packing house.
They involve extra handling of the fruit and accordingly furnish additional oppor-
tunities for mechanical injury. The results of the bureau investigations clearly show
that decay in the packed fruit is largely due to injuries received or aggravated during
the operations of washing and drying, although it is difficult, if not impossible, to
indicate any particular point at which most of the injury takes place. The results
of the Florida experiments show that where injuries to the fruit were confined almost

23103°—Bull. 63—14—4

26 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

wholly to those received in the commercial field-handling operations the decay was
practically the same as in the case of lots where injuries were confined to those received
in the washing and drying operations. From this the assumption may be drawn that
the bad effects following washing are due not so much to actual injuries made in
passing the fruit through the machine as to the inozulation of injured and bruised
spots through the agency of dirty, infected water. There seems to be a definite
relationship between the type of field handling and the occurrence of decay following .
washing. Injuries made in the grove, punctures from long stems, or other damage
received as the oranges pass through the machinery are aggravated by the addition of
moisture, especially when the water is not clean. On the other hand, the quality of
work performed by the machinery is largely dependent upon the manner in which
the fruit is handled in the grove, and this consideration emphasizes the necessity of
careful and systematic methods, especially where washing must be employed. Fruit
which is handled in groves and packing houses with sufficient care to insure its packing
without injury usually shows much less decay after washing than the same or similar
fruit which has been treated less carefully.

Fruit which is covered with sooty mold must be thoroughly soaked before it is in
proper condition for washing. This introduces a prolific source of infection—tle
soaking tank. Unless the water in the soaking tank is kept sanitary by being fre-
quently changed, it soon becomes heavily charged with blue-mold spores, and i is
then one of the most dangerous features of the washing operations. As yet, no disinfect-

ant has been found which

CAREFUL COMMEF CIAL : 3
PICK AND PACK - PICK AND PACK proves effective against
blue mold. Extensive in-
vestigation of this phase of
Ww4AsHeS CE -/;. EE yo.2 22 «the subject has shown the

Sol mit BAe oars F bat wate spores to be so resistant

IG. 10.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mo ecay- :
after holding oranges, washed and not washed, for two weeks in that any. solution used to
a packing house; summary of all experiments, 1910-11. destroy them must be of
sufficient strength to injure

the surface of the fruit. The importance of maintaining the soaking tank ina sanitary
condition is therefore fundamental. Itshould be emptied frequently, and sprays of
fresh water should be directed against the fruit as it passes through the washing
machine. —

wor wasHeo 10% “ERE 3.6 %

RESULTS OF WASHING EXPERIMENTS.

Tables IX, X, and XI, and figures 10, 11, and 12 show the results obtained during the
season of 1910-11, when the washing experiments of the bureau were carried on in a
comprehensive and systematic manner, giving the average percentages of decay found
in carefully and commercially handled fruit, washed and not washed, respectively.
The fruit was packed as if for shipment, but instead was held for two weeks in the
packing houses and the percentages of decay determined by actual count. Table IX
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 10) present a summary of all the washing experi-
ments carried on during the season, including the work of 13 different types of ma-
chines, operated in 32 packing houses. The figures show the relative increase in
decay due to the washing operations alone in the case of the carefully handled fruit
and to the combination of causes in the case of the commercially handled fruit. The
carefully handled oranges, not washed, showed 1 per cent of decay after two weeks;
the washed, 4.1 per cent. In the commercially handled lots, the fruit not washed
showed 3.6 per cent of decay and the washed fruit 10.2 per cent. The figures
include the results of work done in many different ways, and while they summarize
the general effects of washing, some analysis of the data is necessary in order to bring
out the points of fundamental importance.

See eee ee

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. rar

TasLe IX.—Blue-mold decay after holding oranges, washed and not washed, two weeks
in packing house; summary of all shipments, 1910-11.

Careful Commer-
Treatment. pickand | cial pick
pack. and pack.

Per cent. Per cent.
SRNR AW EISHG leas arrest Sian eet eo feim cid = aio a core emcee Se emeibice wie oe eles eheee 1.0 3.6
VINES TNEG Se jh SC EOS GEES HGR CATERERS SOE OS ORI CEE SOS Eile ECGS Ie Me ete en RSE ae 4.1 10.2

1 Results of 37 experiments in 32 packing houses, in which 13 different types of washers were used.

Table X and its accompanying diagram (fig. 11) show the wide variation in the
amount of decay found in five houses selected for careful work, as compared with five
houses chosen for rather careless work. While the average percentages of decay in
the washed fruit of the five better houses were only slightly higher than the percentages
of decay in the fruit not washed, it will be noted that the cleaning operations in the
five careless houses increased the amount of decay to a material extent, even in the
carefully picked and packed fruit. The significant point to be noted in these results
is that the washing operations were conducted in the careful houses in such a way
that little or no harm ensued, while in the more careless houses they were followed
by serious injury. It is impossible to state definitely whether this result was due

to the use of different types GU SRR Nrle si hal LW A lil
of machines or to the more PICK AND PACK LIEK AND PACH
careful operation of the "7 #a«sweo fos% » os%

machinery in the five best Gitereniiy one BE «97

packing houses. It 18 worwasweo ME3% a inage Tea SOW NG aa 2%
probable, however, that WASHED EEE 07 5 SEATS
both factors were in some pre

degree responsible. Ob- wg. 11.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay ap-

servation has shown that pearing after holding oranges, washed and not washed, for two weeks
nipulation of in a packing house, showing high compared with low decay in care-

eeroless | me P ° fully handled and commercially handled fruit.

the best machinery is fre-

quently followed by as serious deterioration of the fruit as is the careful handling
of less desirable types of machines.

TaBLeE X.—Blue-mold decay after holding oranges, washed and not washed, two weeks in
u packing house, showing high and low decay in frurt carefully handled and commercially
ndled, 1910-11.

Careful |Commer-
pick and | cial pick
pack. |and pack.

Careful | Commer-
pick and} cial pick
pack. |and pack.

Packing houses and treat-

Packing houses and treat-
ment.

ment.

5 houses showing low decay: | Per cent.| Per cent. || 5housesshowing high decay: | Per cent.| Per cent.
Notiwashed!s...25-2222.-2 0.3 0.9 Notiwwashed. 22.2255. - 1. 7.1
Washed sooo fet baie: -6 1.9 Wrashedhiyir ie sae Gs oo oe 10.7 24.3

In order to bring out the relationship between field handling and packing-house
management, Table XI and its accompanying diagram (fig. 12) are presented. These
give the results of experiments made at the same time in two houses in the same local-
ity, the character of fruit handled in both houses being practically identical. Obser-
vation showed that the work of house No. 1 was careless, while in house No. 2 system-
atic management and careful methods prevailed. That the character of the fruit was
the same is shown by the fact that the lots carefully picked and not washed showed a
minimum percentage of decay in both cases. The fruit was held two weeks after

28 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

packing, and decay was determined by actual count. In house No. 1 the carefully
handled fruit, not washed, was held for two weeks with only 1.1 per cent of decay, while
the washed lot of the same fruit developed 14.1 per cent. The carefully handled
oranges, not washed and washed, showed 0.8 per cent and 1 per cent of decay, respec-
tively, in house No. 2. The commercially handled fruit, not washed, in house No. 1
developed 4.7 per cent of decay after two weeks, while in house No. 2 this class of fruit

showed only 1.2 per cent of
decay. There was 39.5 per

PAE Bac STON ACE
no {oer neasntD MT — cent of decay in the washed
MOUSE W ms n/m 335% lots of commercially han-
“3 NOT WASHED 40.8% @42% dled fruit from house No. il
SRS) WASHED B0% m43%

but in house No. 2 enly 1.3
per cent of the fruit handled
in the same way showed de-
cay at the end of two weeks.
The significance of the ef-
fects of rough field handling and subsequent poor manipulation of the machinery is
amply shown, and the practicability of carrying on washing operations with care suffi-
cient to reduce decay to a minimum is likewise demonstrated.

Fig. 12.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay
in oranges, washed and not washed, from two houses in the same
locality, after holding the fruit for two weeks in the packing houses,
1910-11.

TasLeE XI.—Blue-mold decay in oranges, washed and not washed, from two houses in the
same locality after holding the fruit for two weeks in the packing houses, 1910-11.

ze : Careful | Commer- . Careful | Commer-
Packing Houses and treat pick and | cial pick Packing houses and treat- cial pick | cial pick
pack. |and pack. 5 pack. jand pack.
House No. 1: Percent.| Percent. || House No. 2: Per cent. | Per cent.
Not washed... .-- See, =e 4.7 Not washediie fice een-- 0.8 1g)
Washed!; 2222522: eee ee eign Oesh)Sa3 Washede@. peepee eee 1.0 1.3

In the bureau investigations 12 different types of washing machines and one sawdust
cleaner were used. A few of the machines were of such evident impracticability that
they were rapidly going out of use, and of those which gave satisfactory results it is
manifestly impossible to name any one which is best suited for all purposes. The
quantity of fruit to be handled and the nature of the work to be performed are impor-
tant factors which must be considered in determining the value of any machine.
When purchasing this part of the equipment, it is important to choose the type of
machine which will do the best work from the standpoint of careful handling and
will eliminate, as far as is possible, the detrimental results of washing.

Some of the features which should be avoided in washing machines are as follows:

(1) Completely inclosed brushes. The fruit should be in plain sight at all times.

(2) Pressure on the fruit other than that afforded by the weight of the fruit itself.

(3) Opportunity for the fruits to tumble over or rub against one another to any great
extent.

(4) Any arrangement of brushes, mats, etc., which allows twigs, thorns, nails, etc.,
to become lodged in the runway through which the fruit must pass.

Any one of these features may be the means of much injury, especially in houses
where careful attention to the operation of the machinery is not given at all times, or
where the field-handling operations have been more or less careless.

IMPORTANCE OF DRYING.

Fruit should never be packed while moist or wet. Moisture is one of the prime
requisites for the development of decay, and, as the temperature of the fruit during
the Florida packing season is usually high enough to facilitate the germination of the

tat S

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES: FROM FLORIDA. 29

mold spores, the importance of having the fruit perfectly dry can not be too strongly
emphasized. Weather conditions in Florida are piractically never such that fruit
may be allowed to stand wet in the boxes for several days, although this practice
prevails to some extent in California. The wet conditions within the mass of fruit
renders ideal the conditions for the development of any mold, especially where the
packing-house premises are not strictly sanitary. Injured fruits handled in this
way frequently develop decay which has not advanced far enough to be detected
when the fruit passes over the grading belts and which might have been prevented
by prompt drying. Later drying or even icing in transit can not entirely arrest the
growth of the mold.

In some districts the sun rack (Pl. VII, fig. 2) is depended upon for drying the fruit,
and with favorable weather conditions this method is as effective as the use of many
of the so-called artificial-drying machines. The chief objection to this rack is that
frequently sufficient space for its proper construction is not available, and it is there-
fore not made large enough to accommodate all of the fruit or to insure perfect drying.
Moreover, the handling of the fruit on this rack is often very rough and conducive to
severe injury, unprotected, brooms or wooden implements being generally used to
dislodge the fruit or to spread it over the rack as it comes from the washing machine.
Another point of injury is where the fruit is allowed to run off the bottom of the rack
into the field boxes, from which it is again emptied into a hopper leading to the grading
machine. These various operations and the more or less rough type of handling greatly
multiply the chances for injury and increase the liability of blue-mold infection.

The drying of fruit in Florida is difficult at best, and the artificial drier seems to be
an ultimate necessity, at least from the standpoint of thorough work and careful
handling. Frequently weatherconditions are such that complete dryingis practically
impossible unless some artificial method is devised to evaporate the water from the
surface of the fruit. A properly constructed drying machine can be adjusted so as to
carry the fruit continuously from the washing machine to the grading belts, without
drops, gravity runs, elevators, or even the use of the human hand. A machine which
can thus be adjusted to carry on the work with proper care is more reliable than are
workmen of the type usually employed in a packing house.

The artificial drying of fruits is still in the experimental stage in Florida,and a machine
which will prove wholly satisfactory under all conditions has not yet been devised.
All the types of mechanical driers have yielded good results under favorable weather
conditions, and all have given more or less trouble on cloudy days or at any time
when the humidity was very high.

In the most effective driers now in use, an air blast is circulated around the fruit
in such a way that the moisture is more or less completely removed. The intro-
duction of artificial heat or some other means of drying the circulating air will greatly
improve the character of the work and will materially lessen the distance over which
the fruit must travel. Other things being equal, the more promptly the drying can
be accomplished the less chance there will be for the development of blue mold.

PACKING AND SHIPPING EXPERIMENTS.
EXPERIMENTAL CONSIGNMENTS DURING TWO SEASONS.

During the seasons of 1910-11 and 1911-12 comprehensive series of shipping experi-
ments were made in order to demonstrate the application of the results of the packing-
house tests made during previous years. More than 90 experimental shipments
of oranges were made from Florida in 1910-11, and 65 shipments were sent out in the
course of the work during 1911-12. These consignments were composed of fruit
from practically every orange-growing district in the State, including the Manatee
River district, the Pinellas Peninsula, and the Hillsboro County sections on the
west coast; the groves extending from Fort Myers to De Land in the interior; and

30 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the section: along the east coast from Daytona and New Smyrna to Miami. They
represented a great variety of conditions and formed a fair average of the character
of the fruit in the State, as well as of the manner in which it was prepared for market
under commercial conditions. Some of the best as well as some of the poorest houses
were represented in these tests, and a number of houses which may be classed as
average were also included.

Each shipping series consisted of six boxes of oranges; two of these were carefully
picked, graded, and packed by the bureau workers; two were picked by regular pickers _
but were carefully graded and packed; and the last two were taken from the ordinary
commercial run of the houses from which the experimental shipments were made.
The shipments were divided into two parts. In one the grading, packing, and ship-
ping were made on the same day on which the fruit was picked, or as soon after-
wards as possible, and in the other the same fruit was held for three or four daysin
the packing house before packing and shipping. The former were designated as
“immediate” and the latter as ‘‘delayed” shipments. All lots were sent out with
the regular carloads of fruit from the various packing houses, and the experimental
boxes were expressed to Washington from the northern markets to which the cars
were consigned. Each box was inspected on the day of arrival in Washington and the
percentage of decay accurately determined. The fruit was held for three weeks
under ordinary open-market conditions, and inspections were made at the end of
the first, second, and third weeks. The results obtained give a fair representation
of the average decay occurring in a commercial pack and show the percentage of
loss which can be avoided by more careful handling.

Plate XV illustrates the condition in which the three lots shipped from one packing
house using very little care arrived on the Washington market. Thecarefully picked,
graded, and packed fruit (on the left in the illustration) showed 4 per cent of decay on
arrival; the commercially picked but carefully graded and packed fruit (in the cen-
ter) showed 35.6 per cent of decay, and the commercially handled fruit (on the right)
had 65.9 per cent of decay. After intervals of one, two, and three weeks the three lots,
respectively, showed decay as follows: After one week, 4 per cent, 46 per cent, and
71.6 per cent; after two weeks, 11.5 per cent, 54 per cent, and 72.2 per cent; after three
weeks, 11.5 per cent, 57.1 per cent, and 72.2 per cent.

Table XII and figure 13 show the average percentages of decay found in the ship-
ments during 1910-11 and 1911-12.

TasLeE XIT.—Blue-mold decay in oranges carefully handled and commercially handled,

on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; average of all inspections,
1910-11 and 1911-12.1

Careful pick and Commercial pick | Commercial pick
pack. and careful pack. and pack.
Time of examination.

1910-11 | 1911-12 | 1910-11 | 1911-12 | 1910-11 | 1911-12

Onlarrival: 3.32.0.) Beh eee. ee eee renee: 6 4.0
ALUET A WORK oe BAe 7 gat oe aoe Bees: sive isa 9 4.3 22 10. 8 6.8
JAS er? WORKS 7 oe se ae Uh oe eee otaee 1.6 1.4 5.6 3.5 13.1 10.4
SAT era WORKS. uit. soteeee en ns comewmeabenene 1.9 aes 6.1 5.5 14.2 14.2

1 From 79 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 65 comparable shipments made in 1911-12.

Table XIII and its accompanying diagram (fig. 14) summarize the results of the two
seasons’ work and show the average of all experiments carried on during the two years.
In the illustration the results are marked as curves, using the percentages of decay
for the vertical lines and the times of arrival and of holding for the horizontal lines.
In this way the progress of the deterioration can readily be traced, and the influence
of the different systems of handling upon the occurrence of decay is strikingly
shown.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 31

The carefully handled fruit arrived in Washington during both seasons with less
than 1 per cent of decay, or an average for the two years of 0.6 percent. The commer-
cially picked but carefully packed fruit showed much more decay on arrival, while
a still higher percentage of decay had developed in the fruit picked and packed under
ordinary commercial conditions, The average percentage of decay which was de-
veloped in the carefully picked and packed fruit during a holding period of three
weeks was about the same as that shown on arrival by the commercially picked but
carefully packed lots. The fruit handled under commercial conditions throughout

Ge GS OS

PEP CENT DECAY

CIAL PICLEE

Cont EE Loa
“

1|\—C4REFULLICH AMD
D 6 oo ee
0.6 CAREFUL PICH AND PACHT

(J)
ON ARFIVAL 4 WELAT 2 WELAS 3 WEEAS
LATE

Fig. 13.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay in carefully handled and com-
mercially handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; average of
all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

had developed more than twice as much decay by the first inspection as occurred
in the carefully picked and packed fruit at the end of three weeks. The latter boxes,
with 2.1 per cent of decay, were still in good marketable condition after holding for
‘three weeks under ordinary market conditions, but the commercially handled fruit
had developed 5.5 per cent of decay on arrival, which was increased to 14.2 per cent at
the end of three weeks.

Taste XIII.—Blue-mold decay in oranges carefully handled and commercially handled, on
arrwal in Washington and after holding for three weeks; summary of the results of the
two seasons’ work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.'

Careful fone Commercial
Time of examination. pickand | “careful | Pick aud
pack pack. pace.

5 ; Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. :
TMC TERV cuore apa eos rc TRU er Lane AVE BN ERIN IE Ct Lats it MER RSRIB 0.6 2.0 ae
JANSEN SiGe) eyes Ea ee eo alae ee Pate ays UL A WC SL Tae 1.0 ane 8.8
AE AMRTO PANTO TS FRE U8 aE Le eh on a en aren ETC BA 15 4.5 11.8
ASNSHIGSP G3 NicASYS) ST ee ES rR NA iT DY ie ti UE 2.1 5.8 14.2

1 From 79 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 65 comparable shipments made in 1911-12.

32 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. —

These results strongly emphasize the very definite relationship which exists between
the type of handling given the fruit in preparing it for shipment and its behavior dur-
ing transit, and they show that the condition of the fruit after arrival in market de-
pends largely upon the character of the work done in the grove and the packing house.
They also show that the Florida orange, when properly handled, has excellent shipping
qualities and that practically all loss from blue-mold decay, such as has occurred in
the past, can be eliminated. This is the fundamental factor upon which will even-
tually depend the successful marketing of the crop as well as the extension of the
territory over which sound fruit can be distributed. The importance of having the
fruit remain in good condition after arrival in market is most urgent. Carefully han-
dled fruit which has good keeping quality will always command a premium over fruit
which has a bad reputation. The former will enable buyers to break up carloads and
to ship sound fruit to smaller markets over an area two or three times as large, while

r
K
a
0
Ng
q
sd
-_
PASE exe
3 FLAS: CAREFULS 955
Me —_——_—
Corn — 2)
2) : “4
2. ioe |
es
| \—caREFUL PICK AND PACE sstoom
foe 2
Qo ——
On 4 WELT 2 WELAS 3 WNELAS
ARANAL LATER LATER LATER

Fig. 14.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay in carefully handled and commercially
handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; summary of the
results of the two seasons’ work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

fruit of a less desirable quality must be consumed quickly in order to avoid further
serious loss. Moreover, aside from the actual saving of fruit, the reputation of a brand
which holds well on the market can not be adequately estimated in dollars and cents.

EFFECT OF DELAYED SHIPMENT.

Experiments with delayed shipments were made in order to determine the effect
of “curing” fruit before packing. One of the strongest traditions which existed
among packing-house men in the past was that curing was necessary in order that
the fruit might be in proper condition for packing. The slight wilting and consequent
softening of the oranges was supposed to enable the packer to place them more firmly
in the box. The results of the shipping experiments carried on during the two sea-
sons did not show that there was any advantage to be gained from curing. Contrary
to the general belief that cured fruit is less easily injured in packing, the average
decay in the delayed lots was considerably higher than in the immediate shipments.
Table XIV and figures 15, 16, and 17 give the average percentage of decay found in the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 33

immediate and delayed shipments during the seasons of 1910-11 and 1911-12. Suffi-
cient data have been accumulated to indicate that carefully handled fruit may be
cured without serious loss, but that wherever the fruit has been appreciably damaged
in the course of its preparation for shipment, decay is materially greater in the delayed
lots. The carefully handled immediate and delayed shipments during 1910-11 and
1911-12 arrived with 0.5 per cent and 0.7 per cent of decay, respectively, the differ-
ence being so slight that it may be neglected entirely. The commercially handled
immediate shipments showed 4.6 per cent of decay and the delayed ones 6.6 per

PEP CEN7 DECAY

ON BWELATS
ARRIVAL LATEP/ LATE”? LATEP

Fic. 15.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in im-
mediate and delayed shipments, 1910-11,

cent on arrival. After holding these lots of fruit for three weeks the decay in the
carefully handled fruit had increased to 2 per cent, while the commercially handled
shipments showed 13.8 per cent of decay for the immediate and 14.8 per cent for the
delayed ones. Once again the effect of careful handling upon the behavior of the
fruit after arrival in market is strikingly shown.

TaBLE XIV.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrwal in Washington and after holding for
three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled and in vmmediate and
delayed shipments, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Careful pick and pack. Commercial pick and pack.

Time of examination.
1910-11 | 1911-12 | AVeT@8* | yo10-11 | 1911-12 | Average

2 seasons. 2 seasons.

MMTV CGH TOS sects Nays elas ici aicisyos ecle 0.5 0. 0.5 6.4 2! 4.6

Melavedee ss Aece se ese ee ens meee ae ae sa ot 7.3 5.8 6.6
After 1 week:

MIMITHE GNA TO ee sso a eye teeing cela ced. 1.1 9 1.0 10. 4 BS C/ 8.1

1D ey ein 6X6 5 al SG eee Oa erg 1.2 1.0 i al 11.2 8.7 9.9
After 2 weeks:

MOTIVE CALC asso Ae ee alae Sateen esos 1.4 1.4 1.4 12.9 9.7 11.3

Melayca ees Hl 54 Bis Ge SU sae yok Ls 1.8 1.5 11,7 13. 4 11.7 12.5
After 3 weeks:

iyaniaa exe Icy eels ea a ate rales ena i i137/ F433 2.0 14.1 13.5 13.8

Welavediyese ek Gye e NU CMa ei 2S 21 2.0 PH il 14. 4 15.1 14.8

1 From 39 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 28 comparable shipments made in 1911-12,

34 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The prevailing opinion that fruit packed soon after picking or before it has had
time to cure will arrive in slack condition has not been borne out by the bureau inves-
tigations. When the fresh fruit is firmly and properly placed in the box, it is no more
liable to make a slack pack than is the cured fruit. It is probably true that the latter
can be more easily packed, for less effort is required to press it into the box. The
work of many rapid packers who make no effort to place the oranges firmly and who
rely upon the press to squeeze the fruit into place, is conducive to poor carrying
quality as wellas toslackness. Each layermust be properly placed. Wherethe press —
is depended upon to shove the fruit down into the box the force exerted reaches through
only two or three layers and often squeezes the oranges in’ these to the extent of break-
ing the skin or inflicting serious bruises. After the boxes are loaded on the cars,
jolting during transit loosens the improperly packed layers, and the fruit arrives on
the market in aslack condition. When every orange is firmly placed, however, there
is little chance that such slackening will result.

Moreover, fruit held loose in the packing house during warm, humid weather is
afforded an additional opportunity for blue-mold infection. Although some packers

(19.5

PER CENT DECAY

WTS.
DELAYED, SHIPITENT

ON 4 WEEO 2 WEES FD WELAS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 16.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in
immediate and delayed shipments, 1911-12.

consider this delay necessary in order to eliminate the injured oranges which have
begun to decay, experience and observation show that while graders are occasionally
able to discern and throw out such fruits, it is practically impossible to discover all
infected specimens. ‘The development of blue mold during the curing period accounts
for the advanced stages of the decay usually found in delayed shipments on arrival
in market.

The average length of time during which the experimental shipments were in tran-
sit from Florida to Washington was 10 days; as a rule, from 8 to 10 days are required
for Florida oranges to arrive at their destination. Several days may then elapse before
the fruit is sold, and a still longer period usually intervenes before it is placed in the
hands of the consumer. The 3-weeks’ period used in the Washington market-holding
tests represents approximately the length of time required to finally dispose of the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 35

fruit. When the fruit is held for 3 or 4 days in the packing house the period elapsing
between picking and final consumption is unnecessarily and even dangerously length-
ened. From this standpoint alone curing is unwise, as the delay increases the chance
for the infection of bruises or injured spots and facilitates the development of decay
before shipment and in transit.

\
Tt
rt
Q
9
1 Ta 7
i) DELAYED SLUM En = 6
MEDIATE SHIPMENTS:
Ov
ARRIVAL ' LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 17.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges, on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in
immediate and delayed shipments; average of the two seasons, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

A comparison of commercially handled immediate and delayed shipments from
two packing houses, in one of which the work was being done very carefully, while
in the other the handling was of a rather rough character, emphasizes the relationship
which exists between delay and the occurrence of decay while in transit. Table XV
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 18) give the results of commercial shipments from
these two packing houses during the season of 1910-11. The houses were located in
the same district and the fruit was similar in character.

Tapre XV.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for
three weeks, the immediate and delayed shipments from two houses, 1910-11.

House No. 1. House No. 2.

Time of examination, f i
Immedi- Delayed. Immedi-

ate. ate. Delayed.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

COS SPER fa lh ape Na A yee SR a Ay ce DO A 0 0 26.1 67.3
PAH C OTM WEE Kents itayera cia Urabe LAI fun AR RUE TS Ne ee Se 1.2 -6 40. 4 kee
PANIGOTEORWIEE Seats teres a clan enn Jee AEA Se AC ee UR ay il 1.4 42.6 71.9
ANIUGS SS, IGEN oe ate EAR 08 a0 eel sat cg A Ne nat GO 4.0 1.4 42.8 71.9

The fruit from house No. 1, which was carrying on the work in a careful manner,
arrived in Washington with no decay in either immediate or delayed lots, and after
holding for three weeks the immediate shipments developed 4 per cent of decay,
while the delayed ones had less than 2 per cent. In house No. 2, where the work
was being carelessly done, the difference between the percentages of decay was very

36 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

great. It will be noticed that even in the immediate shipments the proportion of
decayed oranges amounted to 26.1 per cent on arrival and at the end of three weeks
constituted 42.8 per centof the total. In the delayed shipments, 67.3 per cent of de-
cay had developed on arrival, and this wasincreased to 71.9 per cent after three weeks.
This is an extreme case, of course, and it is only fair to state that few housesin Flor-
ida were doing as poor work as this during 1910-11. The figures are presented to em-
phasize the contrast between commercial work performed under different conditions.

Table XVI and its ac-
companying diagram (fig.
19) give the results of im-
mediate and delayed ship-
ments of fruit from a single
packing house during the
period when high decay is
usually most prevalent in
Florida. The work done
in this house could not be
considered as first class.
For the sake of contrast,
immediate and delayed lots
carefully handled by the
bureau workers were sent
out at the same time as
the commercially handled
shipments. The carefully
handled fruit, shipped im-
mediately, arrived in Wash-
“ington with 1 per cent of
decay, while the commer-
cially handled oranges
showed 5.1 per cent. The
Oe (Week 2 WEEKS sexs caretully handled delayed
Fic. 18.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of lot had developed 3.6 per

oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three cent of decay on arrival,
weeks, in immediate and delayed shipments from two houses, while the commercially

1910-11. handled delayed shipment
showed 36.9 per cent at the same time. After holding the carefully handled fruit in
Washington for three weeks, the immediate shipment was still in very good market-
able condition with only 2 per cent of decay, whereas the percentage in the delayed
lot had increased to 6.3. The latter fruit was still marketable, although subject
to discount. Both lots of commercially handled fruit, however, developed decay
far in excess of any market allowance, the immediate lot showing 25.6 per cent and the
delayed 44 per cent. ,

grED_SHIFPITENTS. 4

TaBLE XVI.—Blue-mold decay of oranges in immediate and delayed shipments from one
house, on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks during a period of high
blue-mold decay, December, 1911.

Carefully handled | Commercially han-
fruit. dled fruit.
Time of examination.

Immedi- Immedi-
até, Delayed. ate. Delayed.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.
1.0 3.6 5.1 36.9

Citar iy te ee as eae 8 eee ae ce wean wees i
Atte a reek S ess ae etece st tee. 2s aon Seepage 1.0 4.6 16.5 38.0
Rear CGI Rae oe ee Ue nen ee chee eee cee see TR 5.3 3 39.4

pay
TIRE RE serene on cae ee os dete nae tebts aot aop ase aee 2.0 6.3 25.6 44.0

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 37

Unless unfavorable weather conditions prevail, a delay of several days is not serious
under a system of careful handling which insures the packing of the fruit in sound
condition, but it is far better to avoid delay as much as possible, even if the attendant
conditions are most favorable.

COMPARISON OF THE WORK OF DIFFERENT PACKING HOUSES.

Typical rough and careful handling. —The figures presented in Tables XVII to XX
and the accompanying diagrams include the averages of both commercial and experi-
mental shipments from a number of houses representing all classes of work. Extremes
of rough handling and con-

sequent very high decay ™ see
during transit, as well as
extremes of careful han- 4 sy il
5 d DELAYED =
dling accompanied by ex- conmmrcRelal MANESINS i= ==
cellent shipping quality,

were found in different
parts of the State.

Table XVII and its ac-
companying diagram (fig.
20) give the average per-
centages of decay occur-
ring during 1910-11 and
1911-12 in the commercial
shipments from 12 houses
using care and from a like
number of houses in which
the work was roughly done.
During both seasons the
percentage of decay in the
commercial fruit shipped
by the houses using care
was almost as low as the

PEP CENT OECAP

average forany of thecare- aca “arte OlareR Ae
fully handled lots, picked, Fig. 19.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of
graded, and packed by bu- _ oranges in immediate and delayed shipments from one house, on

arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks during a

reau workers. The prac-
P period of high decay, December, 1911.

ticability of conducting
commercial operations with sufficient care to eliminate decay is thus plainly demon-
strated. Theresults of the two series of shipments present a striking and consistent
contrast throughout both seasons. The averages of the carelessly handled commercial
lots were somewhat lower during 1911-12 than they were in 1910-11, but the proportion
of decayed fruit on arrival (10.9 per cent) is still too high for good commercial results.

TaBLE XVII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
Jor three weeks, in shipments showing high and low blue-mold decay in careful and in
commercial pack, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

12shipments show-| 12 shipments show-

ing low decay. ing high decay.
Year. Inspection. roe RT ig FeValG nea
ommer- ommer-
Careful. cial. Careful. Gel
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
EOC eres Wy OT ARE RV Ale py Us umm ae Ns Yl SL ee 0.1 0.4 0.4 14.6
EANTUOT ML WOO Ke). AKAs Lat, AAOURE ST Sie Se al Gee eae J2 8 -8 2262,
PNT ECT EZRWCOKG eset ere a ie panes 20 eC ine eae ae 1.3 ligt) 27.8
INSTR STR. BS GIS) SPU eta ll Th a LTO A ay 1.6 2.1 30.8
POI Dane Omnarrival oe suyes ey Rallye I Rah NS Se sil .6 Hest 10.9
JNSTETETE ES 5 GIGI see eae en UO ey ee a Ls 7/ 1.3 16.1
LAUTOTP ZEWECKSon teeta Mined a lke Ae Ree 2 Sed 8 od Du BAAD -6 3.0 Lee 20.5
PANT CTHOR VOCS apa mae en ieee id aye ny AUR Og Ly Ae ee 1.2 4.4 2.7 25.9

38 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table XVIII and figure 21 give the average percentages of decay of oranges from
two packing houses in the same locality working on practically the same kind of fruit.
The type of work in house No. 1 was good, but that in house No. 2 was rather poor.
These shipments were made at the same time, and the results of carefully handled
lots prepared by the bureau workers from the same houses are given for comparison.

IaH -

PEP CENT DECAY

(—le on

(D/,
woLine
CAVE commeERCiAl Lana = —F5e YAL
DECAY 6 GAY COMMERCH re

2 :
SHIPMENTS. SHOWING, LOW

Or 4
ON ARRIVAL 1 WEE 2 WEEKS PF WEEKS
LATE” LATER LATE

Fic. 20.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in shipments showing high compared with low decay in commerciat
pack, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

TasLe XVIII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after hold-
ing for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots shipped from
two houses in the same locality, 1910-11.

House No. 1. House No. 2.
Time of examination.
Com- Com-
Careful. mercial Careful. mierainl®

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

OU AITIV A. cers ooo ee ee Be ee eee eek ee a ae Se ea 4 2.4 0.3 . 21.3
ASTOR LAV COR KARIN RS he te ER Sle GOLA eae. Ma ree eee ana 1.5 4.5 3} 28.9
ATTOT 2 WW CORS oe osteo the ere cy on eS ee ee eee eee 1.8 5.7 an) 48.2
ATTEN WEOKS 2 Se) Sess PAE Me. et See ie Fy oe ee 2.5 5.7 oii 59.5

It will be noticed that the commercial shipment from house No. 1 gave practically
as favorable returns as the specially prepared shipments of the bureau workers, the
difference being only 2 per cent, both series from this house having less than the
commercial allowance of 3 per cent decay on arrival. The commercial shipments
from house No. 2, where observation showed the handling to be rather careless, had
developed 21.3 per cent of decay on arrival at Washington, while the fruit handled
by the bureau workers at the same time and shipped under identical conditions
showed 0.3 per cent of decay. After three weeks the commercial shipments from
house No. 1 averaged 5.7 per cent of decay, and those from house No. 2 showed 59.5
per cent, as against 2.5 per cent and 0.7 per cent, respectively, for the carefully
handled fruit.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 39

Relation of character of picking to decay.—A study of field handling in connection
with the occurrence of decay in commercial shipments was made in two packing
houses in Florida during 1911-12. It would be hard to find a more striking illustra-
tion of the effects of careless handling than that presented in Table XIX and in the
diagram (fig. 22). It should be borne in mind that all of these results were obtained
from lots of commercially handled fruit, no attempt being made by the bureau work-
ers to influence the type of handling. They merely inspected the field work and made
sure that the boxes selected for experimental shipment were representative.

PER CENT DECAY
X
ey
s\n
i
\

ov 7 WEEK 2 WEEKS BG WEEKS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 21.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots shipped from
two houses in the same locality, 1910-11.

Tn house No. 1, where the type of handling was fairly good, the proportion of clipper
cuts was 0.2 per cent; of pulled fruit, 1.6 per cent; and of long stems, 4 per cent.
The immediate shipments of this fruit showed no decay on arrival, while the delayed
lots had 3.7 per cent. After holding three weeks in market, 6 per cent and 8.2 per

-cent of decay developed in the immediate and delayed shipments, respectively.

Taste XIX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of commer-
cially handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, from
two houses in the same locality, 1911-12, showing the effect of careful handling on the
carrying quality of fruit.

A Picking inspections.
Class of imperfections. House House

iM : No. 1. No. 2.

:. - | Percent. | Percent.
i (CUORSETP ORM A BERN PER aE ae Ray Cd APU ee aR ea ma One HR a Oe 0.2 7.

l MOTCRS GETUIS Mere Ne tee eleratge Ce (ee Sele ea iete is ete eke eisai Maou mi i epera ei cars Ais UR 4.0 56.8
TETRIS eae Bee Ue ah i NS 1 Oc Tae ey a 1.6 Sil

40 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste XIX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of commer-
cially handled oranges on arrival in Washington, etc.—Continued.

Experimental shipments.

Mine Of eeancination: House No. 1. House No. 2.
Imme- Imme-
aunts. Delayed. diate: Delayed.

Per cent. | Per Cane Per cent. | Per cent.
0 3

Onarnival eos. ee ane weane & totcbins co Sine Gee me miss ete ee Serene 8.0 19. 4
ATE OT WEBI ons: tetas nineteen aa tian Sooo cies oe asi see aR ee ih) Dat 12.0 23.0
(ATL OD RRS emer tee at mente ate conc heaste eet coat eRee Panel 6.7 15.6 27.4
IRFEOHS WOKS! d= note Se cas cantons Jaciceeaheey~ nis cles eere since 6.0 S327) one 34.5

In house No. 2, which was selected for rough handling, the percentage of clipper
cuts was 7.4 per cent; of pulled fruit, 0.1 per cent;and of long stems, 56.8 per cent.
The immediate shipments from this house showed an average of 8 per cent decay on
arrival and the delayed shipments 19.4 per cent, these percentages being increased
to 22.4 and 34.5, respectively, after three weeks in Washington.

The relationship between the type of field handling and the behavior of the fruit
while in transit has been definitely established by numerous experiments during
several seasons. The experiment cited above fairly represents the general character
and results.

PICKING INSPECTION

CLIPPER CUTS LONG STEIIS PULLED
HOUSE PERCENT PER CENT FER CENT
ooo
NO.J = 22| 4.0 oa

N02 74 0D 56.5 RR en ee! O./|
EXPERIMENTAL SHIPIFENT SS

3E aa
32 : Sn =a
-_—
28 i
Ne ss —_ ene
S. —_—
§ 27 FED LY lb —— |
6 No CLE a 230 a4
Yoo pg ERE A
p =
kK 79.4 _-
2 /6 a
\y p MENTS. Sa 15.6
V 12 pan EAE US
q “ HOUSE? ES am 122
Yee — eee ee
Q ep : d
GO

YED SHIPITE M7 Ss
os
2.

rs 7S
HOUSE 21 WOPIEDIATE SULTEN.

NV 1 WEEK 2 WEEFE
ARRIVAL LATEF? LATE? Ae eS

Fig. 22.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-
mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in commercially
handled lots from two houses in the same locality, 1911-12, showing the effect of careful handling on
the carrying quality of the fruit.

The figures presented in Table XX and the accompanying diagrams (figs. 23 and 24)
are shown to indicate the practicability of improving the handling and shipping
conditions by giving special attention to the organization of the labor forces. The
packing house from which the data were obtained was reorganized at the end of the
1910-11 season; the machinery was simplified and every effort was directed toward
the introduction of better handling methods. Two experimental shipments were
made—one during 1910-11 and one during 1911-12, two lots being sent out each season.
The results of the inspections of the field work are given to show the great improve-
ment in the second season, the results of careful handling by the bureau workers
being also included for comparison with the commercial work done during the two
seasons,

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 41

Taste XX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of fruit on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, shipped from one packing house
during 1910-11 and 1911-12, showing decrease in blue-mold decay due to yreater care in
handling.

Picking inspections. Experimental shipments.
f
Class of imper- Time of exam-
Poniieus: 1910-11 1911-12 TAGIGHA 1910-11 1 1911-12 2
Commer- | Commer-
Jan. 17. | Mar. 3. | Dec. 13. Careful. ail Careful. cial
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Clipper cuts... -- 11.3 b 3 On arrival. ... 0.2 8.0 0.3 Tis
Long stems .... 23.0 11.9 10.4 || After 1 week.. -6 12.6 9 2.4
Bulleds so-5222- 1.0 5.1 1.4 || After 2 weeks. .8 15.3 Tez 2.8
After 3 weeks. 1.3 15.3 1.5 4.1
1 Fruit picked Feb. 1, 1911. 2 Fruit picked Dec. 13, 1911.

It will be noticed that in 1910-11 (fig. 23) the total imperfections in the field
handling amounted to 35.3 per cent at the first inspection and 22.7 per cent at the
second. Theaverage percentage of decay in the commercial shipments was 8 per cent
on arrival at Washington, the carefully handled lots developing 0.2 per cent. In
1911-12 (fig. 24) the field

work, while far from perfect, JANUARY 17 MARCH 3

was considerably improved, “””** ©4772 3 2S GE 5:7

the inspections showing 13.6 (0“¢ 976°; _—=—== Ra -°0 ERE /.9 74
per cent of imperfections. PULLED +0 % a 2s

ply, Hondled EXPERIMENTAL SHIPMENTS.
fruit showed 1.1 per cent of /6 15.8

decay on arrival, and the lots
prepared by the bureau
workers had 0.3 per cent.
After holding the fruit in
Washington for three weeks
the commercially handled
oranges developed 15.8 per
cent of decay during 1910-11
and 4.1 per cent during
1911-12. When it is con-
sidered that the variation in
the percentage of decay for

PEF CENT DECAY.

these two seasons may easily 92 CAREFUL HANDLING 13
mean a difference between — me we: —

: EAS
profit and loss in the sale of ARFIVAL LATER LATER LATER

the fruit from this house, the yy. 23.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in
data presented become par- _ picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on
ticularly impressive. It arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in fruit
sronidibe dificult to assem. shipped from one packing house, showing decrease in blue-mold

decay due to greater care in handling, 1910-11.
ble a stronger array of facts

than those brought together in this figure to illustrate the fundamental importance of
preserving the sound carrying quality of oranges. The significance of the connection
between field handling and the occurrence of decay during transit is definitely shown,
as well as the practicability of improving conditions by means of moresystematic man-
agement. This presentation should be sufficient to convince even the most skep-
tical that loss from decay in the shipment of Florida oranges is dependent upon the
character of handling given the fruit in field and packing house.

= =e

42 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RESULTS FROM A FINANCIAL STANDPOINT.

In order to emphasize the importance of careful work, the data may be analyzed
from a financial standpoint. The results are perhaps more impressive when expressed
in dollars and cents than when a statement is made regarding the percentages of
decay in various lots of fruit.

The difference between the average percentages developed in the carefully picked
and packed and the commercially picked and packed fruit during the season of 1910-11
was 6.4 per cent. This means that 1 out of approximately every 15% boxes shipped
during the season was unnecessarily destroyed by blue-mold decay, and that this
loss might have been avoided if the fruit had been handled with care approximating
that given by the bureau workers. It is only necessary to extend this line of reason-
ing. Out of every 100 boxes of fruit shipped, the avoidable loss was 64 boxes; there-
fore, on a basis of 3,500,000 boxes of oranges shipped from Florida during the season
of 1910-11 this loss aggregated 224,000 boxes, which at a fair f. o. b. price of $1.50
per box gives a direct money loss of $336,000.

In 1911-12 the difference in decay between the carefully handled and commercially
handled fruit was 3.5 per cent, or a loss of 1 box for every 284 boxes shipped. A fair

estimate of the total ship-
P1 CHING INSEE INSPECTION. ment of oranges during that
DECEMBER 1/3.

ie season is 3,750,000 boxes.
CLIPPER CUTS 18 Yo.

The loss on this fruit, at the

LONG STEMS [77S /0.7 Yo rate indicated, aggregates
PULLED BI % 131,250 boxes, which,
figured at prevailing prices,

may be valued at approxi-

EXPERIMENTAL SHIPMENTS.

< e mately $200,000. Perhaps
q pe , this is an exaggerated
S LUO cone method of analyzing the
M true condition of affairs,
f yet when one takes into

consideration the immense
Sacre ees Gee pd financial outlay necessary

to pick, haul, grade, and

Fic. 24.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in

picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in fruit
shipped from one packing house, showing decrease in blue-mold

pack these oranges, the
actual money loss is not far
from the amounts stated.

decay due to greater care in handling, 1911-12. The fi eures state Geobove

approximate the net loss to the growers due todecay. In addition, there isa large loss
due to the cost of transporting and selling. According to statistics recently compiled,
it costs from $1.75 to $1.93 to produce, prepare for shipment, and deliver in market
one packed box of oranges.! With this cost as a basis, the losses reached the stupen-
dous totals of $432,320 during 1910-11 and approximately $250,000 during 1911-12.

From the standpoint of the effect upon the reputation of the Florida product the
financial loss is even greater. It is impossible to give such a loss in actual figures,
for the value of a reputation for high shipping and holding quality can not be estimated
in dollars and cents. It is safe to say that the introduction of more careful methods
would not increase the cost of handling to any material extent. No figures are avail-
able for such an increase, but the extra expense would certainly be only a small frac-
tion of the actual money loss enumerated above. Leaving out of consideration the
desirability of a good reputation, these figures should serve to convince those people
who can appreciate values only from a financial standpoint that careful handling is
necessary for the success of the industry.

1Statements of J. C. Chase and W. C. Temple before the Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House
of Representatives, 1913.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 43

SEASONAL INFLUENCES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DECAY.

It has been the general experience that blue-mold decay is more prevalent in Florida
during the early months of the shipping season than it is later. Losses are most severe
in December and January, the former month as a rule having the highest percentage
of decay. So characteristic has this early deterioration been in the past that growers
have become convinced that the underlying causes are not confined to improper
methods of handling, and that the loss is due to some disease other than blue mold.
Careful observation on the part of the bureau workers has shown this impression to
be incorrect. An analysis of the circumstances under which fruit is handled during
December shows that at that time of the year the conditions for the development of
blue mold are particularly favorable. Rains are more or less prevalent and the hu-
midity is generally high. It follows, therefore, that the type of handling which might
suffice under favorable weather conditions will not then prove satisfactory.

In addition to bad weather conditions, the character of work done during the early
part of the season is undoubtedly less careful than what is practiced lateron. Shippers
are in a hurry to get their fruit on the market in time for the holiday trade, and most
of the workmen have not had sufficient experience. It seems impracticable, in
Florida at least, to hold field and packing-house labor together throughout the year
and to maintain a permanent organization. New pickers must therefore be trained
each season, the same being true in the case of the packing-house labor, although
probably to a less extent. These factors tend to lower the standard of early handling
operations.

All the experiments made by the Bureau of Plant Industry emphasize the impor-
tance of systematic organization of the labor forces and careful handling of the fruit
in every stage of its preparation for shipment. Every effort should be directed toward
maintaining the fruit in sound condition from the time it is picked until it is unloaded
at its final destination and placed in the hands of the consumer. During unfavorable
seasons, frequent thorough inspections of the various operations through which the
fruit passes are most.essential. Instead of lowering the standard at this time, it is
extremely important to approach the ideal as closely as possible.

In Tables XXI and XXII and figures 25 and 26, the percentages of decay occurring
during the months of December, January, and February in 1910-11 and 1911-12 are
presented. Table XXI and figure 25 show the decay in the carefully handled and
commercially handled experimental shipments on arrival in Washington during
December, January, February, and March, for both seasons. During December,
1910, the average percentage of decay in commercial shipments, on arrival at Wash-
ington, was 13.9 per cent. During December, 1911, the corresponding lots showed
9.4 per cent on arrival. The careful shipments during these months had 2.3 per cent
in 1910 and 1.3 per cent in 1911, respectively.

eae XXI.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
for three weeks, by months, in 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Careful pick Commercial Careful pick Commercial

Time of exami- and pack. pick and pack. Time of exami- and pack. pick and pack.
nation. SS See nation. JS
1910-11 1}1911-122/1910-111| 1911-122 1910-11 1/1911-122|1910-111 1911-122

On arrival: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. || After 2 weeks: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
December... 2.3 3 13.9 9.4 December... 4.3 2.1 21.6 14,1
January. ..-- 5 26 6.8 4.0 January..... 1.6 1.4 14.5 10.1
February. . 5 2 6. 2 1.6 February 1.4 1.0 12.4 9.6
March . =)... moka Nees as Sen aeeeure we Marche ees. EO} pers Cr eBoomoe

After 1 week: After 3 weeks:

December... 3.4 iL 7 19.1 12.2 December... 4.4 2.8 PP Fe) L752,
January...-- 1.1 9 11.4 6.8 January....- 1.9 2.2 15.8 13.5
February. 9 4 10.2 4.5 February iB) 2.0 13.3 14.2
March....... Gilszeeees! Taleeal sisters = Marchese. EO tae See OF Git eset ere

ee Beures io 1910-11 include 7 comparable shipments for December, 28 for January, 28 for February,

an or Mare

ieee figures for 1911-12 include 8 comparable shipments for December, 39 for January, and 18 for
ebruary. ~

4-4 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Averaging the results for December, 1910 and 1911, the commercially handled fruit
showed 11.6 per cent of decay on arrival and the carefully handled 1.8 per cent.
During the months of January, 1911 and 1912, the decay of oranges shipped under
commercial conditions was 6.8 per cent and 4 per cent, respectively. The corre-
sponding carefully handled fruit showed 0.6 and 0.5 per cent, respectively, or
practically the same for both years.

During February commercially handled fruit showed 6.2 per cent of deterioration:
on arrival at Washington in 1911, the percentage of decay for the following year being
1.6 per cent. The average of the February lots for the two seasons was 3.9 per cent,
Carefully handled fruit during 1911 and 1912 arrived with 0.5 and 0.2 per cent of
decay, respectively, the average for the two years being 0.3 per cent.

No experimental shipments were made later than February during the second season.
In March, 1911, the average percentage of decay in commercial shipments was 5 per
cent on arrival, the carefully handled lots showing only 0.3 per cent.

PER CENT DECAY

2.3 CAREFUL HANDLING
— AVERAGE. 2 SEASONS.

a
i. .
if CAREFUL 7y
AND ). E
LING (3 /f— 731 jo 4
oO

DLECE/T EL? SANLAPY FEL BRUART MARCH

Fic. 25.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival, by months,
during two seasons, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

These figures are significant in that they show a very high percentage of decay
during December, followed by a gradual decrease as the season advances. This is
true for both commercially and carefully handled fruit, although in the case of the
latter the loss was, without exception, below the usual 3 per cent commercial allow-
ance. It is scarcely probable that decay can be held below this point even with the
best system of handling, for it is practically impossible to eliminate every injured
orange or to carry on the handling operations in such a way that absolutely no injury
is done. The general principle that very slight injury will result in decay when
weather conditions are favorable for the development of blue mold is substantiated
by these figures, and the importance of extra care during the early months is again
emphasized.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 45

Table XXII and figure 26 show the average percentages of decay found in fruits
shipped during December, January, and February, 1910-11 and 1911-12, on arrival
at Washington and after holding for three weeks under ordinary market conditions.

- Tapie XXII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
for three weeks; average of the two seasons, by months, in 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Careful | Commer- Careful | Commer-

Time of examination. pick and | cial pick Time of examination. pick and | cial pick

é pack. j|and pack. pack. |and pack.

On arrival: Per cent. | Per cent. || After 2 weeks: Per cent. | Per cent.
December. ...:.---------- 1.8 11.6 December wets sees 3. 17.8
NIN AVeeresiemin= <i - cise ee 6 5. 4 AGAMA Bee doecerr rs aaeee 15 12.8
Webrilanys ce: -2-/--~-- -- - 3 3.9 Hiebruanys.2 ose ses-nce% -ee 1.2 10.5

After 1 week: After 3 weeks:

December.....-.--------- 2.5 15.7 December... 4522 3.6 19.7
IRRIA Ye peceneesoeesesonS 1.0 9.1 VANUVaryp meee eee 2.1 14.6
February ......--.-------- 7 7.3 WebRWALy a. ese see ceiseee 1.8 13.8

The commercially handled fruit, picked and shipped during December, showed
the highest average percentage of decay on arrival (11.6 per cent), and the increase
after three weeks was correspondingly higher than was the case for fruit picked
and shipped during January
and February. Commer-
cially handled fruit, picked
and shipped during Janu-
ary, arrived with 5.4 per
cent of decay, and that
sent out during February
showed 3.9 per cent on ar-
rival. The, shipments of
carefully handled fruit ar-
rived with an average of 1.8
per cent during December,
0.6 per cent during January,
and 0.3 per cent during
February, and after holding
for three weeks showed 3.6
per cent, 2.1 per cent, and
1.8 per cent of decay, re-
spectively. Allof the care-
fully handled fruit, even
that shipped during De-
cember, showed much less
decay aiter three weeks in :
market than the commer- p a
cial shipments during Feb- cemee a
ruary showed on arrival.

The superior shipping and

PER CENT DECAY

S WEEK 2WEEKS BWEEKS
LATER

market-holdine qualities of Fig. 26.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay in

ee hi di o aves carefully handled and commercially handled oranges picked during
carelully handled iruit are — December, January, and February; average of the two seasons,
evident. 1910-11 and 1911-12.

PRECOOLING.

The term ‘‘precooling” has been used to designate the prompt and rapid cooling
of fruit prior to shipment. The initial cooling of the product is accomplished very
slowly when the fruit is shipped under ordinary icing conditions, the ice of a refrige-
rator car not being able to cool the fruit with sufficient promptness and rapidity to

46 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

prevent the development of decay. Consequently, deterioration is often far advanced
before the temperature of the fruit is reduced to the point where these processes are
checked. Under a system of precooling, the ice of the refrigerator car is relieved of
the burden of initial cooling and is merely required to keep the fruit cool during
transit. :

Precooling is accomplished by means of special equipment, the refrigerating medium
being either ice and salt or special refrigerating machinery. When adequate equip-
mentis supplied, the initial temperature of the fruit may be reduced in a comparatively
short time. The work may be done in refrigerated rooms or chambers before the boxes
are placed in the cars, or it may be accomplished by circulating cold air around the
packages after loading. The comparative advantages and limitations of these two
systems can not be discussed here, but a few important points regarding the applica-
tion of precooling to the shipment of Florida oranges must be emphasized.

Precooling may not safely be depended upon to offset decay following mechanical
injuries due to improper methods of handling the fruit when preparing it for shipment.
It is, however, a valuable and legitimate means of insuring arrival on the market in
sound condition after each grower, packer, and shipper has done his share in properly
handling the fruit. Precooling, in order to be effective, must be accomplished
promptly and rapidly. A considerable delay in applying the process may nullify all
possible benefits and defeat the object for which the work is undertaken.

Icing has been practiced to a limited extent in Florida, but precooling has not as
yet been attempted. The value of this method of shipment in marketing Florida
oranges is largely problematical. Its advantages are likely to be overestimated if the
general distribution and application of the processes are attempted without careful
and systematic investigation. During the warm and humid weather usually prevalent
in Florida in December and January, precooling may be of considerable benefit, pro-
vided always that it-is not expected to offset the bad effects of careless or improper
handling. During warm and humid weather, such as occurred during the months
of December, January, and part of February of the season of 1912-13, oranges are
injured more easily than under ordinary conditions and are more subject to decay
from these injuries. Infection from the ever-present, blue-mold spores is almost
certain, and stem-end decay or other diseases may gain considerable headway. Rapid
cooling (precooling) may possibly delay the development of stem-end decay for a
week or more aiter the fruit arrives in market. While precooling and refrigeration
can not do more than to delay for a short time the occurrence and development of
this disease, such delay may prove of material benefit.

Precooling may reduce the quantity of ice consumed during the trip to market by
removing the necessity of cooling fruit at the beginning of the trip. Possibly during
the winter season, when the weather is cool or cold along the route, fruit which has
been precooled may be moved to its destination under the initial icing alone. Pre-
cooling is expensive, and unless a material advantage can be obtained thereby its
application can not be justified. Ifasum of money equal to the expense of precooling
is expended in insuring careful handling of the fruit during the course of its prepara-
tion for shipment, the returns will probably be more certain and more lasting.

STEM-END ROT.

In addition to the losses from blue mold, there has been considerable deterioration
of Florida citrus fruits after arrival in market due to the attacks of the stem-end decay
fungus. Unlike blue mold, this fungus does not apparently depend upon injuries or
breaks in the skin through which to gain entrance to the tissues of the fruit. Investi-
gation during the season of 1910-11, in cooperation with the Florida experiment
station, proved conclusively that the stem-end rot disease can not be controlled by

an ee

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 47

means of careful handling. The results of this investigation into the nature of the
fungus, its manner of growth, and its development have been published by the Florida
experiment station.!

SUMMARY.

The orange crop of Florida averages 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes per year, and it
has been estimated that, reckoning the good with the bad years, probably 10 per
cent of the fruit decays before reaching the consumer. ‘This entails an annual finan-
cial loss of at least half a million dollars. By far the most common form of decay is
that caused by the growth of the blue-mold fungus within the tissues of the fruit,
entrance being obtained only through some mechanical injury to the skin. The
first researches of the Bureau of Plant Industry indicated that, owing to improper
equipment in grove and packing house as well as to the carelessness of pickers and
packers and their ignorance of the essential factors of good handling, considerable
injury was being inflicted on the fruit in the course of its preparation for shipment.
Most serious of all are the injuries inflicted by the clippers in severing the fruit from
the tree and the punctures caused by the presence of long stems on the oranges.
Many bruises or abrasions, especially those caused by dropping the fruit, can not
be detected by packers and develop heavy decay in transit.

In most sections of the State cleaning the fruit has become a necessity, owing to the
wide distribution of the citrus white fly and the development of the sooty-mold
fungus which follows in the wake of that pest. At present probably 75 per cent of
the Florida orange crop is cleaned either by washing or by the sawdust method. The
Department investigations show that decay in transit or on the market is largely due
to injuries received or aggravated during washing and drying and that these opera-
tions may be conducted in such a way that little or no harm ensues or may be fol-
lowed by serious deterioration. The experiments of the Bureau of Plant Industry
during the past seven years prove conclusively that the condition of the fruit after
arrival in market depends largely upon the character of the work done in the grove
and the packing house; that it is possible to so conduct the operations of picking,
packing, and shipping as to inflict a minimum of mechanical injuries; and that unin-
jured Florida oranges can be placed on the market in practically sound condition
even in seasons of very high decay. Practically all loss from blue-mold decay, such as
has occurred in the past, can be eliminated.

The sizes of Florida oranges vary from 80 to 420 fruits in a box, the most common
sizes being 126, 150, 176, and 200 to a box. The Florida shipping box measures 12
by 12 by 27 inches, inside dimensions, and has an estimated weight of 80 pounds
when filled. The average shipment per car totals 321 boxes, loaded 2 tiers high. A
standard shipping car is 33 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 844 inches high; the minimum
freight weight of a standard car of 300 boxes is 24,000 pounds. The average freight
rate on citrus fruits from Florida during 1912-13 was 65.7 cents per box of 80 pounds
weight.

During the past five years the Florida citrus industry has been reorganized and the
changes have greatly improved the handling of the fruit. At the time the Depart-
ment investigations were begun the methods of preparing oranges for shipment were
extremely crude; there was no uniformity of system and the equipment was wholly
inadequate to the needs of the industry. Of late years the old type of packing house
has almost entirely disappeared. Modern houses, equipped with the newest machin-
ery for handling fruit properly, have been constructed in practically every citrus
district in the State, so that the industry is now well provided with the mechanical
appliances for doing good work. Further reforms will include improvement of field
equipment and more careful attention to the details of picking and to the organization

1Fawcett, H.S Stem-end rot of citrus fruits. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 106.

48 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the picking and packing crews. The men should be paid by the day instead of
by the box, and a conscientious foreman should carefully oversee the work of the indi-
vidual pickers. The bureau experiments prove that it is possible to train workmen
to use more care and to greatly reduce their percentage of imperfections.

More than 90 experimental shipments of oranges were made from Florida in 1910-11,
and. 65 were sent out in 1911-12, including fruit from every section of the State and
from good, poor, and average houses. Plate XV illustrates the condition in which
some of these lots arrived in Washington. The carefully picked, graded, and packed
fruit showed 4 per cent of decay on arrival, the commercially picked but carefully
graded and packed fruit showed 35.6 per cent, and the commercially handled fruit
had 65.9 per cent. After one week these percentages had increased to 4 per cent, 46
per cent, and 71.6 per cent, respectively; after two weeks they were 11.5 per cent,
54 per cent, and 72.2 per cent; and after three weeks, 11.5 per cent, 57.1 per cent,
and 72.2 per cent.

The carefully handled fruit arrived in Washington during both seasons with less
than 1 per cent of decay, or an average for the two years of 0.6 per cent for all the
experimental shipments. The fruit handled under commercial conditions through-
out had developed more than twice as much decay by the first inspection as occurred
in the carefully handled fruit at the end of three weeks.

That commercial handling may also be careful handling is demonstrated by the fact
that during both seasons the average percentage of decay in the commercial fruit
shipped from 12 houses using care was almost as low as the average for any of the lots
carefully handled by the bureau workers. In one packing house, where during
1910-11 the percentage of decay in the commercially handled fruit reached 15.8 per
cent after holding for three weeks in Washington, the handling operations were so
improved by the adoption of the bureau methods that during 1911-12 only 4.1 per
cent of decay developed in the commercially handléd fruit at the end of the same
period.

It has been the general experience that blue-mold decay is more prevalent in
Florida during the early months of the shipping season than it is later. All of the
fruit carefully handled by the bureau workers, even that shipped during December,
showed much less decay after three weeks in market than the commercial shipments
during February showed on arrival. The shipping experiments showed that care-
fully handled fruit may be ‘“‘cured” without serious loss, but that whenever the fruit
has been appreciably damaged in the course of its preparation for shipment, decay is
materially greater in the delayed lots.

Although not more than 1 per cent of the total shipments of citrus fruits had pre-
viously been iced, during 1912-13 a considerable number of commercial shipments
were sent north under refrigeration. No systematic study was made of the behavior
of fruit of the same grade and quality under the two systems of shipment, but the
general opinion seems to prevail among shippers that the icing resulted in material
benefit to the fruit. The investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry have demon-
strated, however, that Florida oranges may be transported to market under ventilation
with a minimum loss from decay, even during periods of warm and humid weather,
if sufficient care is used to preserve the skin of the fruit in an unbroken condition.

CONCLUSIONS.

In the light of the principles established by the workers of the Department of Agri-
culture in the investigations and experiments of the past seven seasons, viz, that the
condition of the fruit after arrival in market depends largely upon the character of the
work done in grove and packing house, and that it is possible to so conduct the opera-
tions of picking, packing, and shipping as to inflict a minimum of mechanical injuries

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 49

from which decay may develop, the following points are recommended to the attention
of growers and shippers of Florida citrus fruits:

-Workmen, especially pickers, should be paid by the day and not by the quantity
of work done.

More careful attention to the details of picking and to the organization and inspec-
tion of the picking crews is necessary. Each member of the crew should be held
responsible for the character of his work. An efficient field foreman should supervise
the pickers, watch their output, and insist on careful handling. He should be
prohibited from picking fruit himself.

Clippers with rounded or blunted points should be supplied. These should be
frequently inspected by the foreman to prevent their becoming dull or loose at the
joint.

; Picking sacks of heavy material, which have partially closed mouths, allowing the
fruit to be emptied from the bottom, and having a capacity of not more than half of a
large standard field box, should be used.

Pickers should not pull the fruit from the tree. All oranges should be severed by
means of the ‘‘double cut.”

Fruit should be placed carefully in the picking sack and not dropped or tossed in.

The picking sack should be lowered into the field box and the oranges allowed to
roll out gently without appreciable drop.

No fruit should be picked up from the ground and placed in the field boxes.

Smaller field boxes of lighter materials are recommended.

The fruit should not project above the top of the field box, and the latter should
be transported to the packing house on a spring wagon. The driver should be given
an especially prepared seat and not allowed to sit on the fruit.

Each picker and packer should be required to wear gloves.

Picking receptacles, field boxes, and packing bins should be kept free of gravel,
twigs, splinters, protruding nails, or other foreign matter.

The efficiency of the packing house may be spoiled by a desire to save floor space.
Simplicity should govern the choice and disposal of all equipment.

The desirable hopper is small, has padded sides, and allows the fruit to be emptied
gradually by means of moving belts. The fruit should not fall by gravity at any
stage of its journey.

Uniform and definite grading rules should be established for the State.

Wherever washing is not absolutely necessary in order to render the fruit market-
able it should be omitted.

Water in the soaking tank should be frequently changed, and sprays of fresh water
should be directed against the fruit as it passes through the washing machine.

The best type of washing machine has the fruit in plain sight at all times, allows
no pressure on the oranges save that afforded by their own weight, does not allow
the fruits to tumble over or against each other, and does not allow twigs, thorns,
nails, etc., to become lodged in the runway through which the fruit must pass.

Fruit should never be packed while moist. An artificial drier in which a warm
air blast is circulated around the fruit seems to be a necessity from the standpoint of
thorough work and careful handling.

The sawdust method of cleaning grapefruit is ineffective as well as highly injurious.

Loose packs of fruit are more liable to be injured in transit than those of medium
height with every orange firmly in place.

Decayed fruit should not be left in the boxes or allowed to accumulate on the floor
or under the packing bins in the packing houses.

Curing is unwise, as the delay increases the chance for the infection of bruises or
injured spots and facilitates the development of decay before shipment and in transit.

50 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

During unfavorable seasons, especially during December and January, when warm
and humid weather is prevalent in Florida, frequent thorough inspections of the
various operations through which the fruit passes are most essential. Instead of lower-
ing the standard at this time, it is extremely important to approach the ideal as closely
as possible.

Precooling may not safely be depended upon to offset decay following mechanical
injuries due to improper methods of handling the fruit when preparing it for ship-
ment, but it is a valuable and legitimate means of insuring arrival on the market in
sound condition after each grower, packer, and shipper has done his share in properly
handling the fruit.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
QF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
20 CENTS PER COPY.

- Vv

BULLETIN OF THE

1 USDEPARINENT OFAGRICULTURE ®;

No. 64

SK
oe

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
February 10, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED
DISEASES.

By W. A. Orton,
Pathologist in Charge of Cotton and Truck Disease and Sugar-P lant Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

During recent years there has been much doubt and misunder-
standing among plant pathologists and observant farmers concerning
the group of potato diseases variously referred to as wilt, leaf-roll,
leaf-curl, Fusarium blight, bacterial ring disease, etc., which in
different countries of the world appear to constitute problems of
increasing importance to practical agriculture.

This bulletin seeks to clear up the situation and to open the way
for more efficient measures of control by differentiating these pre-
viously confused diseases and fully describing the methods of diag-
nosis. The results afford a strong argument to pathologists for a
broader outlook over the field and for international as well as national
comparisons of conditions. The fundamental importance of thorough
laboratory investigations is not minimized, but the interpretation of
results in their relation to the basic principles of plant pathology and
to the general problems of agriculture require a better conception of
the different environmental influences to which crops are subjected
in the several States and in foreign countries.

To the practical potato grower to whose attention these new potato
diseases are brought, the feature of greatest significance will be their
effects in impairing the vigor of his seed stock and on the deterioration
of varieties. New evidence is presented that large but insidious
losses have been suffered, from seldom-recognized weaknesses in vege-
tative vigor and from diseases transmitted through the seed—losses
that threaten to be greater in the future unless active measures are
taken at once to secure more vigorous and disease-free strains or
varieties through seed selection and breeding.

Nots.—This paper is of interest to plant pathologists; it is suited to the potato-growing sections of the
North, West, and South.

22741°—14——1

2 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The more clearly this danger is made apparent to the growers and
the more general and concerted their efforts to combat it the greater
the likelihood that the final result will place the potato industry on a
higher plane than it occupies to-day. The same system of seed
selection and treatment and crop rotation that will free the potato
fields of wilt, leaf-roll, and curly-dwarf will at the same time not only
bring under control the blackleg and some other diseases, but will
insure the maintenance of the strains cultivated in their most vigorous
and productive condition and free from objectionable mixtures with
other varieties.

Past experience warrants these statements. The history of potato
pathology is a story of the gradual recognition and differentiation of
previously confused diseases and the introduction of control measures
that brought with them more progressive cultural practices. From
about 1845 the late-blight, Phytophthora infestans, occupied the cen-
ter of the stage and is still one of the most destructive diseases (Jones,
Giddings, and Lutman, 1912).!_ It causes heavy losses in nearly all
the potato districts of the world, especially in cool and humid seasons.
In the United States, however, there are many sections where Phy-
tophthora occurs somewhat rarely. An examination of a map pre-
pared by Dr. Erwin F. Smith and published in the Annual Report of
the Department of Agriculture for 1885 shows that the losses from
late-blight and rot were even then recognized to be mainly in the
northern tier of States. This has been confirmed by an annual plant-
disease survey of the United States, which has been made during the
past 12 years under the direction of the writer. This survey shows
conclusively that Phytophthora as a common parasite of the potato
is limited to the Northeastern States east of the Mississippi River,
with only sporadic outbreaks in southeastern trucking regions, in the
Puget Sound district, and occasionally elsewhere. This disease is
now successfully combated by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, and
it is to be expected soon that more disease-resistant varieties will
introduce a new era of late-blight control.

To the southward it has been found that early blight, Alternaria
solani (EK. and M.) J. and G., and tip-burn play a greater réle than
Phytophthora in the injury to the potato crop. Harly blight is
apparently not so common in the cooler and more uniform climate
of northern Europe. Nor does one find there that tip-burn is as
common as here, where high summer temperatures combine with
the injuries of flea beetles and other insects to cause excessive trans-
piration and its consequent marginal burning of the leaves. Here
also the logical line of attack seems to be the production of varieties
possessing heat resistance.

1 All references to literature are indicated in the text by the name of the author and the year of publi-
cation. For full citations, see the list at the end of this bulletin,

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 3

With the progress of pathological studies, other diseases were
recognized in the United States, some of which, like the southern
bacterial wilt or brown-rot (Smith, Erwin F., 1896), had doubtless
been long prevalent, if not actually endemic, in the United States,
while others, like the blackleg (Bacillus phytophthorus Appel and
related forms), appear to have been recently introduced into this

country from Europe.

APPEARANCE OF NEW TROUBLES.

About 1904 there began to come into prominence a group of potato
diseases hitherto not generally recognized as of economic importance.
In that year there was published by Smith and Swingle a bulletin
which described a wilt and dry rot due to Fusarwum oxysporum,
found in the District of Columbia, Michigan, and elsewhere. This
was the first important work of the sort in the United States, though
a disease that was very likely the same Fusarium wilt was mentioned
by Clinton in 1895 as “‘bundle blackening of tubers.’”’ No mention
was made of its relation to any disease of the plants, and it was con-
sidered ‘‘not a very serious malady.’’ The cause was said to be a
fungus ‘‘quite similar to’”’ the one causing dry end-rot.

The disease described by Stewart (1896), and thought by Smith
and Swingle to be probably the same, was stated by Prof. Stewart
at a recent meeting of the American Phytopathological Society to
be not due to a Fusarium.

In the year 1905 there occurred in Europe an outbreak of a disease

which was named leaf-roll (Blattrollkrankheit). This recurred in

1907 with such virulence as to excite general alarm, and the attention
of many pathologists and other agricultural workers was directed
toward its study and prevention. Leaf-roll has continued to cause
heavy losses in Germany, Austria, and elsewhere, though it has not

become as generally destructive as was feared. Its nature remains

a subject for debate. In the early years its resemblance to the
American disease described by Smith and Swingle led to the general
adoption of the theory that it was due to or associated with a Fusa-
rium. The evidence on this pomt was very contradictory, and
there have developed nearly as many opinions as there are investi-

gators.

}

In America little was done after the work of Smith and Swingle
until 1908, when an outbreak in an important potato district in

California was studied by the present writer and found to be the

same Fusarium wilt (Orton, 1909).
The writer continued his survey of the country in 1909 and 1910,
finding the Fusarium wilt very widespread. In 1911 he studied

_ potato diseases in Europe with the particular purpose of comparing
the American Fusarium wilt with the European leaf-roll disease.

4 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the same year there occurred in eastern Colorado, western Nebraska,
and adjacent districts a very serious outbreak of a potato disease
which was at the time locally attributed to Fusarium (Fitch, C. L.,
in numerous newspaper articles).

The many discrepancies and confused points in the description of
these diseases as presented in the European literature, in comparison
with American conditions, were further cleared up by the study
in 1912 of disease phenomena in a collection of seedling varieties
grown in Maine and New York by Prof. William Stuart, of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. Pure types of several of these troubles
were presented, thus greatly facilitating their diagnosis and differ-
entiation. ;

A visit to several other potato centers in Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and California assisted in verifying the con-
clusions reached, which are given in detail in this bulletin.

Briefly stated, it appears that several distinct diseases have been
confused to a greater or less degree by both American and European
writers, and the widely differing opinions and results are due to the
fact that none of the investigators had seen conditions in all the
countries. In particular, the American and European troubles had
not been compared. |

In the present article séveral types of disease are to be distin-
guished as of some importance, at least in the United States, viz:

Fusarium wilt.—A disease characterized by the wilting or prematuring of the -
plant, accompanied by a browning of the vascular bundles of stem and tuber, which
are infected by Fusarium oxysporum (Schlecht) Sm. and Sw. Widespread in
America, but not yet identified from Europe.

Verticillium wilt-—A wilt resembling the foregoing, often more rapid and with
fungus mycelium higher in the stem. Due to Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke and
Berth. Described by Reinke and Berthold in 1879. Present in both America and
Europe.

Leaf-roll.—An inheritable disease marked by rolling of the leaves, reduced yield,
and other symptoms. Probably not due to a parasite. Common in Europe and
lately appearing in America (Blattrollkrankheit).

Curly-dwarf.—An inheritable, nonparasitic trouble in which dwarfing of the vascular
elements is a prominent characteristic. Found in Europe and America (Krau-
selkrankheit).

Rosette.—A stunted or dwarfed condition of the potato associated with injuries
of the underground stems and roots caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia; most con-
spicuous in the western United States.

Mosaic.—A pathological condition marked by a mottling and distortion of the
foliage. Not previously described, but present in Europe as well as America.

It is not unlikely that future studies will enable us to add still
other diseases to this group, and it may become convenient to differen-
tiate more types of leaf-roll and of curly-dwarf from within the rather
wide limits established in this paper.

The disease described by Appel as bacterial ring disease should be
mentioned. It appears that in Germany this was formerly confused

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 5

with the leaf-roll group, but the writer has not seen this disease and
has been unable to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion concerning its
relationship to any known American trouble. The causal organism
has not yet been properly described.

A second bacterial disease of German potatoes is referred to by
Spieckermann (1911) as different from Appel’s ring disease. This
the writer saw at Muenster and found to be unlike any of the well-
known American diseases.

FUSARIUM WILT.

DESCRIPTION OF DISEASED PLANTS.

The distinctive characteristics of this disease are a rolling or wilting
of the leaves, premature death of the foliage, and the occurrence of
the fungus Fusarium oxysporum (Schlecht) Sm. and Sw. in the lower
part of the stem, in the stolons, and frequently in the tubers also.

In detail, the appearance of potatoes attacked by Fusarium wilt
varies according to the severity of the infection, the age of the plants,
and the variety.

The time of onset varies with the degree of infection. Where
diseased seed stock has been used, there is often defective germina-
tion and an irregular stand of plants of uneven size. As a rule,
however, the disease is not noticeable till the plants are a foot or
more high, and in most cases it does not become generally prevalent
till midsummer, while it is characteristic of moderate infections that
the plants die only two or three weeks in advance of their normal
time of maturity.

Wilting of the foliage 1 is to be observed in the more rapid ane of
the disease, but is less marked than in some other Fusarium wilts,
such as that of watermelon, for instance.

The name ‘‘wilt”’ has been retained because it is in common use
for this and related maladies, though the name ‘‘Fusarium blight of
potatoes” has also been applied. The foliage symptoms may be
described by either term. They are those of a plant whose water
supply has been gradually shut off by fungus invasion of the lower
stem.

The lower leaves droop and die first, the upper ones wither or wilt,
and the entire plant dies prematurely. (Pl. I.) The leaf-roll that
accompanies wilt differs from the true leaf-roll in that the former
lacks turgidity and the leaves die within a few days..

The color of plants in the first stages of wilt may be a lighter green
than is normal. This frequently turns to yellow, especially if the
progress of the disease is slow, when the entire plant becomes yellow
and the field takes on a very spotted appearance. It is different
with the true leaf-roll, where the yellowing is, in the American types,
more confined to the upper leaves and is accompanied on many

6 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

varieties by reddish or purplish tones, which the writer has not
observed with Fusarium wilt.

OCCURRENCE OF THE CAUSAL FUNGUS.

In the stem.—The lower portions of the potato stems show a brown
discoloration, which extends throughout the underground portion
and for several centimeters in the aboveground stems. The brown
color is by no means as pronounced as in cotton wilt or in the Verti-
cillium wilt of potatoes, nor does it extend upward through the whole
stem and branches, as in the two other wilts mentioned. The
Fusarium conidia are not formed in such abundance on dying or dead
stems as those of other wilt diseases.

Microscopic examination shows the presence of mycelium in most
of these browned stems, and cultures yield for the most part a single
species of fungus (J'usarium oxysporum), though other Fusaria occa-
sionally develop in advanced stages of wilt and bacteria as well, as
might be expected in such moribund tissues. These other Fusaria
have not been found to be uniformly associated with wilt, nor are
they inhabitants of the vascular bundles, ike F. oxysporum. A sharp
distinction may be made between this typical and widespread wilt
and the infrequent cases where other fungi which have entered through
wounds or cracks have so injured the hypocotyl that a wilting of the
foliage results. For example, Jamieson and. Wollenweber (1912)
produced a decay of potato stems followed by wilting of the foliage
through inoculations with F. tricothecioides, but these writers do not
believe or suggest that this fungus causes wilt in nature.

The amount of fungus in the vessels of the stem and the degree of
discoloration varies, but not always in proportion to the effect on the
life of the plant. It is not uncommon to find prematurely dead hills
in infected fields which show comparatively slight vascular browning,
while others remain living, yet when examined they prove to have
both stems and tubers heavily infected with Fusarium oxysporum.
This apparent resistance may be explained by the fact that such hills
are either accidental admixtures of later varieties, or bud sports,
called ‘“‘run-out hills.”’ In either case they are plants that remain
in an active vegetative condition longer and thus resist the effects
of the wilt. Still other hills are to be found which remain healthy
till the normal time for maturity and are also free from fungus infec-
tion, thereby supporting the hope that resistant strains may be
developed by selection. Unfortunately, the experiments have not
yet demonstrated that these hopes can be realized, for all of the
numerous selections made were attacked by wilt the following year.
This work was done at Middle River, Cal., in 1909 and 1910, principally
with the Burbank variety.

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. i

In contrast with the slow-developing cases described, one finds
many hills where there is actual wilting and rapid death of the plants,
due to the water supply having been cut off by the fungous mycelium
in the vascular bundles. Weekly examinations of fields during
August and September show that the plants are dying prematurely
and in increasing numbers as the season advances.

It will be brought out later in describing leaf-roll that the latter
does not cause’such a rapid and early death as the wilt, but that
plants showing distinct symptoms of leaf-roll in June may live till
harvest time.

In the root—The fungus appears to enter through the smaller
roots, and there are some indications that its injuries to the feeding
roots are the cause of the dwarfed and checked development of the

plant during the early stages of the disease. As a result of partial

destruction of the roots, the plants are easily pulled up, and the roots
are partly dead and brittle. As Smith and Swingle (1904) write:

All the smaller roots are so friable that they can be broken with almost no effort, and
some can even be rubbed to pieces between the thumb and finger. The main root
also is much more tender and brittle than that of healthy plants, and this condition
extends nearly to the line marked by the surface of the ground. Such diseased roots
are usually covered with a white, pink, or even reddish growth of mycelium, which is
distributed very unevenly and is much more conspicuous in some places than in others.
Microscopical examination shows that this mycelium invades all parts of the root,
though the bark is most affected.

It is possible, and from some recent observations it seems quite
likely, that some of this root injury is due to secondary invasion of
other species of fungi.

The underground stems on which the tubers are borne are nearly always attacked,
but they do not as a rule become so soft and brittle as roots of the same size. The
mycelium passes through the whole extent of these underground stems into the base
of the tubers.

In the tuber—The infection of the tubers by the Fusarium is in
well-marked cases almost universal. This is evidenced by the dis-
tinct browning of the vascular ring shown when tubers are cut across
at the stem end (PI. II, fig. 1). From these browned vessels Fusar-
wm oxysporum can readily be isolated. To quote again from Smith
and Swingle (1904):

Numerous cultures made from the extreme ends of the discolored portions of the
bundles very seldom failed to develop the fungus. These cultures were made by
carefully paring especially favorable pieces of diseased tubers with a hot scalpel,
heating it nearly to redness before each stroke and cutting out pieces a few millimeters
in diameter, containing a length of about two millimeters of the extreme end of the
discolored part of the bundle. These pieces were cut from the main part of the speci-
men with the hot scalpel and allowed to drop directly into a tube of sterile culture
media. Potato cylinders were used principally for media. Slant tubes of beef agar
(+15 on Fuller’s scale) also were sometimes used. One hundred and twenty-two

8 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cultures on potato and sixteen on agar were Made, and in all but two cases on the potato
and in every case on the agar the fungus appeared alter a day or two as a white myce-
lium, sparse at first, growing directly out from the blackened bundle, and spreading
into the media. Forty-two cultures on potato and four on agar were also made from

older parts of the discolored ring nearer the basal end, and of these all but one on the

potato and all on the agar produced a growth of the fungus.

The relation of these tuber infections to stem-end dry-rot will be
described more fully in another publication. A dry-rot of the tuber
was considered by Smith and Swingle to be caused by the same
Fusarium which produces the wilt of the foliage, but the recent
studies of Wollenweber (1913) have shown that Fusarium oxysporum
is a vascular parasite causing wilt and wintering over in the tubers,
where it produces a stem-end vascular discoloration, but no decay.
Tuber dry-rot is caused by one or another of the following fungi,
which follow Ff. oxysporum or infect through wounds, viz: F. coeru-
leum (Lib.), F. triothecioides Wr., F. discolor var. sulphureum Schlecht,
F. ventricosum App. and Wr.; and probably sometimes also the less
parasitic F. gibbosum App. and Wr., and F. subulatum App. and Wr.

SOIL RELATIONS OF FUSARIUM WILT.

The Fusarium wilts of cotton, watermelon, and cowpea occur
principally on sandy- and sandy-loam soils and are practically re-
stricted to them. - That stich is the case with the potato wilt is by no
means clear, though there is evidence indicating that light soils are
more liable to infection. The California tule lands, where wilt is
perhaps more prevalent, are reclaimed and artificially drained peat
islands, with a very light and friable soil, composed almost wholly of
organic matter. In Oregon, Utah, and Colorado, however, wilt
occurs on heavier soils, varying from sandy loam to clay loam.
Potatoes thrive best in light, deep, and well-drained fertile soils, and
it appears that the wilt is more likely to develop in any such good
potato soils than under conditions unfavorable to the crop.

THE PARASITISM OF FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM.

That the fungus Fusarium oxysporum is parasitic upon the potato
plant has now been proved with reasonable certainty. Smith and
Swingle established the fact of its constant occurrence in the vascular
tissues of plants suffering from the wilt disease, by means of very
numerous pure cultures. No inoculation experiments were under-
taken by them, but successful infections have since been reported
by Manns (1911) from the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station,
and cultures of the Ohio strain have been studied by Dr. H. W.
Wollenweber in comparison with a large number of others isolated
from collections made by the writer from different parts of the
United States or sent in by correspondents, and nearly all have
proved to be the species we continue to call F. orysporum Schlecht.

io ne

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Potato Fusarium WILT. A FRESHLY WILTED PLANT. (AFTER SMITH AND SWINGLE.)

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

4 Fic. 1.—STEM-END BROWNING OF POTATOES DUE TO FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM. TUBERS
| FROM WILTED PLANTS, BURBANK VARIETY, MIDDLE RIVER, CAL.

Fic. 2.—NeET NECROSIS OF POTATO, SHOWING NONPARASITIC INTERNAL DISCOLORATION
OF TUBERS.

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 9

The point of view toward the genus Fusarium has changed greatly |
since 1904. At that time Smith and Swingle reviewed all species of
Fusarium that had been described as occurring on the potato and
concluded that as far as the description went it was impossible to
distinguish these from each other or from the cause of wilt.
They therefore took the oldest name, Fusarium oxysporum, for
their species and considered the others, including F. solani, to be
synonyms. A little later, when the relation of Fusarium to leaf-roll
was taken up by Dr. O. Appel, of the Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt
in Dahlem, Berlin, he caused to be maugurated some morphological
studies based on his conclusions that, up to the present, mycologists
had not described Fusarium species in a way that permits their
reidentification; that the insufficiency of the characters utilized for
systematic description had led to a widespread belief that the genus
was exceedingly variable, and that they had been differentiated by
their host or substratum to too great an extent.

Appel therefore concluded that before a proper study of Fusarium
diseases could be made it would be necessary to learn more about
the fungi and to be able to distinguish the species with certainty
through their morphological characters. Much progress has been
made in this direction through the work of Appel and Wollenweber
(1910), whose monograph has laid the foundation for the separation
of the species by their morphological characters. Further publica-
tions by Dr. Wollenweber have thrown still more light on this hitherto
confused problem. (Wollenweber, 1913.)

It has already been found that the Fusaria are not so variable as
was formerly thought. Artificial cultures lend great help in the
work of identification, in which many characters are utilized which
- had been previously neglected, viz: The character of the curvature
of the conidia, constancy of septation, development of the basal and
apical cells of the conidia, etc.

It has also been shown that the pure cultures must be grown on
such media as will produce a normal development of the fungus.
Agar, for instance, is poorly adapted for the culture of Fusaria, as it
tends to produce constricted conidia. Vegetable media are best,
as a rule, and many plant stems are especially favorable for the
development of conidia and sporodochia in a normal manner.

A culture derived from mycelium gives a less normal culture than
one from conidia and must be grown till spores are produced to start
new and typical cultures. Young cultures are not favorable for
morphological study, as they contain many abnormalforms. Neither
are old cultures good, as they exhibit hunger forms not typical of the
species.

For these reasons many substrata must be tried and the cultures
grown to their best development, designated by Dr. Wollenweber as

22741°—14——2

10 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a “high culture.’ Color differences of both spores and mycelium are
. to be noted, and for the latter purpose potato cylinders and rice are
excellent.

The final result of this line of work will be a great simplification of
the Fusarium problem. The number of species in the genus will be
diminished and the parasitic forms can be identified, for the most
part, by their morphological characters. It has been found that the
genus is divisible into sections, on the basis of form of conidia and
other morphological characters, and that all of the wilt parasites are
included in the single section, Elegans. Thus far Fusarium oxyspo-
rum appears to be the only Fusarium causing potato wilt; and, as
already stated, this is not connected with the dry-rot of tubers, which
may be due to one or another of four or more other Fusaria. The
diagnosis of these tuber troubles will be treated more at length in
another publication.

CLIMATIC RELATIONS AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF FUSARIUM WILT.

Fusarium wilt is apparently a disease of warmer climates. States”
like California and Arizona, with high summer temperatures, and the
middle States, Ohio, Missouri, and Nebraska, which are near the
southern border of profitable main-crop potato culture, suffer much
more than the States of the northern border, where wilt is, at least,
uncommon. Most of the Fusarium wilt diseases of other crops are
southern in their range. Owing to the fact that other species of
Fusarium, such as Fusarium coeruleum and F. discolor var. sulphu-
reum also occur in the Northern States and have not hitherto been
clearly differentiated from F. oxysporum, there is some doubt as to
the actual range of the latter, especially in New York and New Eng-
land. Going westward, the wilt fungus is found farther north, and
it is likely that the disease will continue to spread northward.

In the States from New Jersey and Maryland southward to Florida
and westward to Texas the Irish potato is relatively a minor crop,
except in the trucking districts, where planting takes place in winter
or early spring, and the harvest for the northern markets occurs from
April to July, generally in advance of maturity. Fusarium has never
played a visible réle in these early crops, but has been found in the
second or fall crop.

As already stated, New England and New York are relatively free
from the disease. Suspected cases there have generally proved to be
the Verticillium wilt. The conditions in Pennsylvania are not as
well known to the writer, but are probably not far different from
those in Ohio, where Selby and Manns have found wilt to be widely
distributed. The latter says:

In this Fusarium blight we have the most persistent and destructive disease factor
with which the Ohio potato grower has to contend. Its subtle work in the past, though

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. tt

greatly reducing our yields, has been entirely overlooked. The seed potatoes through-
out Ohio are infected to a much greater extent than would have been supposed. This
indicates that much of our potato land is already carrying the fungus to a greater or
less amount, and as a result our yields are probably being reduced considerably.
(Manns, 1911.)

The writer has found many Michigan fields infected with wilt.
The original material studied by Dr. Erwin F. Smith also came from
this State. In Ilbnois and southern Wisconsin and in Minnesota
wilt appears to be present in the older communities, where potatoes
have long been grown, but in the newer districts of Wisconsin and
Minnesota the growers still have an opportunity to protect themselves
against this danger.

There are important potato districts in western Nebraska where
Fusarium wilt occurs, although the leaf-roll and the powdery dry-rot
(Fusarium trichothecioides) are also factors there. (Orton, 1913.)
All the older irrigated districts of the West are infected, and the newer
ones are rapidly becoming so, with the possible exception of the higher
and cooler valleys, concerning which definite information is lacking at
present. The wilt has been long present in Colorado and caused much
injury, especially when attempts were made to grow two or three
successive crops of potatoes. In Utah it is much the same, and the
newly opened districts in Idaho are rapidly introducing the fungus
in seed potatoes brought from older localities. Nor is the wilt con-
fined to the irrigated parts of the West. It also occurs on the “dry
farms,” and is not the least of the problems which the settlers in these
areas have to solve. The potatoes at the field station of the Bureau
of Plant Industry at Akron, Colo., have been attacked by wilt for
several years and the yield much diminished.

It is, however, in potato growing under irrigation that wilt plays
the largest réle. These lands are all high priced, from $200 an acre
up. The farmer has to carry fixed charges in the way of interest,
water rents, irrigation bonds, and the like that make it necessary
for him to grow a crop more remunerative than grain or alfalfa.
Sugar beets and potatoes are, in most cases, the only crops that
answer this requirement in these districts. The farmers naturally
desire to grow potatoes as frequently as possible, but are prevented
from doing so by the wilt, which forces a rotation.

In California wilt is the principal factor limiting the production of
potatoes in the famous delta district of the San Joaquin Valley.
(Orton, 1909). Here the reclaimed moor, or tule, soils are won-
derfully productive when first planted, but the yield of potatoes falls
off with each succeeding crop until very small yields are secured
unless rotations with barley or other crops are practiced. The
potatoes from these diseased fields show almost universal infection

with Fusarium oxysporum, which is there the principal, if not the

12 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sole, cause of the early maturity and diminished harvests. This tule
land for potatoes commands a cash rental of $20 to $25, while for
barley growing only $8 to $12 is paid, but after the second crop of
potatoes the less profitable crop must intervene (Irish, 1913).

One of the leading potato districts north of California is the Willa- .

mette Valley, in Oregon. Here wilt is present to a serious extent.
During visits in 1909 and 1910 the writer saw fields liberally dotted
with yellow and dying plants. This valley furnishes most of the
seed potatoes brought into California, and inspection of such potatoes
has revealed much stem-end browning.

It is certain that the Fusarium wilt is a nation-wide problem and
one that will have a marked influence upon American agriculture.
At present it causes losses which probably run into millions of dollars;
but, if in the end the growers are forced to adopt better rotation
systems, who shall say that the final influence of this disease factor
may not be beneficial? __

Estimates of the money losses from Fusarium wilt must be largely
speculative, as so little exact information is available. At the Ohio
experiment station in 1909 the result of the disease was that ‘‘the
station plats averaged 69 bushels per acre and the county averaged
186 bushels. The preceding 4-year average for the station was 180
bushels, while that for the county was 101-bushels.” The county
was also infected with wilt, as the same writer shows; but, disregard-
ing this and the fact that the station yield should have been nearly
double the county yield, and estimating that only 5 per cent of Ohio
fields were as badly affected, the loss totals over 870,000 bushels for
Ohio alone.

CONTROL OF FUSARIUM WILT.

The problem of control has not yet been worked out for Fusarium
wilt. The most promising lines of attack are three: (a) A healthy
seed supply, (6) rotation of crops, (c) the development of resistant
varieties.

The use of Fusarium-infected seed should be avoided even where
the disease is already in the land. It not only increases the severity
of the wilt trouble, but gives defective germination. Failures due to
decay of the seed potatoes after planting are especially frequent in
the West, as, for example, in Colorado in 1908 and in California in
1912. These are attributed to Fusarium, but the recent studies of
Wollenweber show that Fusarvum oxysporum does little more than
lower the vitality and afford an entrance for other organisms
which destroy the seed potatoes after planting. fF. trichothecioides
in the West and F’. coeruleum in the East are the best known of these
tuber-decay producers. To what extent other organisms are involved
remains to be determined.

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 13

TESTS FOR FUSARIUM INFECTION OF SEED POTATOES.

The most effective method of selecting seed stock free from wilt
is to examine the fields where it is being grown as late as possible in
the autumn, but before the foliage has died down or been frosted.
The wilt is more readily detected at this time than at any other
through.the premature ripening or actual wilting which it causes,
coupled with the characteristic brown discoloration of the woody
part of the lower stem.

Another indication much relied on is the browning of the vascular
ring shown when the stem ends of the tubers of diseased plants are
cut off. (PI. II, fig. 1.) This is an important test to apply, and it
is an excellent rule to reject for planting purposes all lots of potatoes
any considerable number of which show such a ring Cis ea louie, as
some other diseases produce a similar effect.

It is desired to emphasize here, however, that not all tubers from
infected fields show stem-end inom, The writer has hundreds

- of times observed tubers from wilted hills which showed no discolor-

ation or only a very slight one. The fungus had apparently not
gone far in its usual course down the stolons and into the tubers, yet
the fields were thoroughly infected, and the circumstances warranted
erave doubts as to the value of such tubers for planting. It is
probably inadvisable to endeavor to select, for seed purposes, from
stock containing a large percentage of infected potatoes, any fungus-
free tubers on the basis of this stem-end test when it is at all feasible
to secure for planting potatoes entirely free from suspicion. As a
practical farm procedure, however, growers should be urged to dis-
card all stem-end pieces which show any brown stain, and it is likely
that the greater part of the infection would be avoided if the stem
ends of the seed tubers were cut off and not planted.

Some confusion may result in the application of this stem-end
browning test by those unfamiliar with the subject, on account of
difficulty in distinguishing in certain cases a natural browning in
many potato varieties, like Irish Cobbler, for example, which have a
deep depression at the stem end into which the stolon fits. The cork
layer in these varieties may be bared by a shallow section through
the stem end and show a brown color quite natural to the variety.

It is necessary to cut deep enough to reach below the point where
the vascular bundles diverge from the stolon to form the tuber ring.
Any browning at this point is highly suspicious, but not positive
proof. The weakening of the plant by leaf-roll or other diseases may
hinder the formation of a cork layer at the stem and permit the en-
trance of saprophytic fungi which produce a discoloration. The dis-
cussion of this point in the European literature on leaf-roll will be of
interest.

14 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

That parasites.other than Fusarium oxysporum also produce stem-
end browning has already been mentioned. Verticillium albo-atrum
can often be differentiated by an experienced eye by the blacker and
deeper discoloration, though the plant symptoms give a better basis
for the diagnosis of this disease also. A stem-end browning is found -
in the late stage of blackleg, Bacillus phytophthorus Appel, etc., and
of brown rot, B. solanacearum Erw. Sm., diseases hardly less dan-
gerous than wilt.

Mention should also be made of a form of internal browning that
has been known to the writer for five or six years. It may be con-
fused with Fusarium ring discoloration, though it is probably more
closely related to the physiological trouble, internal brown-spot. The
term ‘‘net necrosis’’ has been suggested for the disease by Dr. H. W.
Wollenweber. It is characterized by the occurrence of narrow
streaks or dots of browned tissue outside of the vascular ring and
extending from the stem end into the tuber for a considerable dis-
tance or entirely through it. (PI. II, fig. 2.) These brown tissues
are free from fungi or bacteria. The cause is unknown. A fuller
description will be published soon.

The final conclusion of the writer on this point is that tuber-ring
discoloration, if clearly marked, should cause the rejection of potatoes
for seed purposes, .but that negative results from cutting tubers are
less valuable as proof of freedom from wilt than a field inspection
in autumn. A system of official certification of freedom from wilt
and other diseases would be of great value, if based on such field
observation.

SOURCE OF SEED POTATOES.

In all probability, the best seed for areas possessing a climate
where potatoes retain their vigor without renewal for long periods,
is that of the home locality. In many districts, however, and par-
ticularly those in the Central and Southern States, it is necessary to
bring in seed from northern sources. Many western districts seem
to have the same need, particularly those where Fusarium wilt
already prevails, and have not yet discovered a source of seed as
satisfactory for them as New England seed is to the South. There
must be developed somewhere in the West communities where grow-
ing seed potatoes will be a special industry and where every means
will be taken to produce a perfectly healthy article. The accom-
plishment of this aim well merits attention from a cooperative asso-
ciation of buyers and seed growers.

CONTROL OF WILT THROUGH ROTATIONS.

Rotation of crops appears to be the most effective means for lessen-
ing the injuries from Fusarium wilt. What is known regarding the
effect of rotation is from observation and general farm experience

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 15

rather than the result of definitely planned and carefully controlled
experiments. There is great need for such experiments.

In the San Joaquin district of California the principle is found to

be established that potatoes yield better after rotation with barley.
In no case known to the writer has the Fusarium wilt been eliminated
by rotation, but it seems that the amount of infection diminishes
after a few years to a point where a potato crop can again be grown.
In Ohio a 3-year rotation was not sufficient to prevent a general
epidemic on the station plats.
' A rotation of five to eight years could, however, be readily prac-
ticed in all districts, except those where the potato is the sole money
crop, and it is believed that such a rotation would make the losses
from wilt negligible.

The infection of the ground through potatoes left in digging is a
factor to be considered, and in warm climates like California, where
such potatoes grow as volunteers for one or two seasons or longer,
the disease is steadily carried over. Some means of ridding the land
of such potatoes seems necessary.

RESISTANCE OF VARIETIES TO WILT.

The results of variety tests of potatoes to date offer hope that the
future may give sorts resistant to Fusarium wilt, but there are none
at present that can be recommended as adapted for commercial
cultivation. There are now under trial in the Bureau of Plant
Industry several thousand seedlings, the best of which will later be
tested for resistance to this disease.

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON WILT.

Smith and Swingle made rather extended experiments on the
effect of fertilizers on wilt, with results that were entirely negative.
Nothing has since been observed that would materially support the
suggestion that the disease may be connected with a deficiency of
any element of plant food. It occurs in some of the richest western
souls, both irrigated and nonirrigated. In California the soils were
almost pure organic matter, and the reduction in yields that followed
the appearance of wilt was at first attributed to soil exhaustion, but
the fungus factor is fully sufficient to explain the results, and fertilizer
experiments that were made by the writer gave negative results.
Further work along similar lines has been reported by Irish (1913).

QUARANTINE MEASURES.

In connection with the seed problem, there comes into considera-
tion the desirability of keeping the disease out of those districts
where it does not yet occur. Does this warrant quarantine restric-
tions by State or Federal authorities? Would such a quarantine be
effective ?

16 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is the writer’s opinion that under present conditions this is not
a quarantinable disease. It is very widely distributed in the United
States, as already shown. It would be difficult to establish the
boundaries of infected areas, and almost impossible to apply quaran-

tine restrictions without serious injury to commerce. Nor is it

certain that the aim desired would be accomplished in this way.
There are so many avenues for the spread of plant diseases that it
often seems as if only ocean barriers were of avail. (Lounsbury,
1909, 1910.)

OCCURRENCE OF AMERICAN FUSARIUM WILT IN EUROPE.

The bulletin by Smith and Swingle had its influence on European
pathology, inasmuch as the leaf-roll epidemic, which began in 1905,
was at first believed to be a Fusarium disease. The fact that none
of the European workers had seen the American disease and that no
American pathologist familiar with wilt had seen the leaf-roll in
Kurope led to further confusion.

The writer now believes that there is no evidence that the American
wilt disease occurs in Europe. This statement is based on observa-
tions made in the course of a study trip through Germany, Austria,
and England in 1911.- No cases of typical Fusarium wilt were seen.
Furthermore, Dr.. Wollenweber, in the morphological studies later
mentioned, has been able to differentiate the Fusarium oxysporum of
Smith and Swingle from other potato Fusaria, and he finds this to be
distinct from any European form. Inasmuch as he studied critically
the Fusaria isolated from leaf-roll material while at Dahlem, Berlin,
this result 1s very significant and goes far to explain the difficulty
German workers have had in verifying the observations of Smith and
Swingle. Himmelbaur (1912) reports Fusarium to occur in much of
the leaf-roll material studied by him in Austria, but he has not
identified the species, and until this is done his results can not be
correlated with the results of American workers.

VERTICILLIUM WILT.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASED PLANTS.

The Verticillium wilt of potatoes is characterized by a wilting or
blighting of the foliage, resulting in the premature death of the hill.
The vascular bundles of the stem, the stolons, and usually of the
tubers, are filled with the mycelium of Verticillium albo-atrum. The
spores of this fungus often cover the dead stalks, so that they
become conspicuous from their gray color.

As observed by the writer in this country and in England in 1911,
plants attacked by Verticillium wilt generally die quickly. There
may be yellowing of the foliage, but the drooping and wilting has
been pronounced in most of the cases observed. The Verticillium wilt

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

VERTICILLIUM WILT OF POTATOES IN GREENHOUSE. CENTER AND RIGHT-HAND PLANTS
INOCULATED WITH PURE CULTURES OF VERTICILLIUM ALBO-ATRUM; LEFT-HAND PLANT
HEALTHY, NOT INOCULATED.

|
:
‘
}
|
,

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.—TYPICAL POTATO LEAF-ROLL IN SEEDLING No. 16472, ALEXANDER No. 1
RED X KEEPER. HOULTON, ME., AUGUST, 1912.

Fi@. 2.—POTATO LEAF-ROLL. ADVANCED STAGE IN SEEDLING No. 304, GEHEIMRAT
THIEL X KEEPER. HOULTON, ME., AuausT, 1912.

Bul. 64, U. S, Dept.

of Agriculture.

HoutTon, Me., JULY 29, 1913.

PLANTS OF SEEDLING No. 2171, SOPHIE X KEEPER.

PoTATO LEAF-ROLL.

et ma

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

POTATO LEAF-ROLL, SHOWING ENTIRE Row, No. 2171, SOPHIE X KEEPER, STRONGLY
AFFECTED, WITH ROW No. 2165 (AT THE RIGHT) AND OTHER ADJACENT ROWS
HEALTHY. HOULTON, ME., JULY 29, 1913.

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. Li

seen in Germany appears to be slower in causing the death of the
plants, a difference possibly attributable to temperature and rainfall
factors. The browning of the vessels is also marked, often extend-

ing to the tips of the stems and into the leaf petioles. There has —

been also a pronounced discoloration of the stem end of the tubers
in all the cases observed.

Verticillium wilt is often not strikingly different from Fusarium
wilt in outward appearance, though it may induce a more rapid
wilting. The presence of the mycelium and vascular browning in
the upper portions of the plants is indicative of Verticillium, as Fusa-
rium does not usually extend into the tips of the stalks. The profuse
production of conidia on the stalks, often before they are entirely
dead, is still more characteristic. The stain in the stem end of the
tubers is blacker, and in cross sections under the microscope the
vascular bundles are found to contain hyaline mycelium smaller
than that of Fusarium oxysporum. The final proof of the identity
of the disease comes, of course, when cultures made from the internal
mycelium yield Verticillium albo-atrum.

So far as observations go, Verticillium wilt occurs in scattered hills
here and there over the fields. The destruction of entire crops, such
as is frequently caused by Fusarium oxysporum, has not been seen.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

Verticillium wilt has been collected by the writer since 1909 from
the State of Washington (La Conner) to Maine, but only in the more
northern States. It has been seen in Vermont (Franklin County)
and western New York, but in neither case in abundance. The vari-
eties most attacked were Factor and Up-to-date, from seed originally
from England. It is believed that the Verticillium infection came
with the seed potatoes. The same fields planted to other varieties
in 1913 were free from wilt on August 1 and 4.

The writer collected the same disease in Olmskirk, England, Sep-

tember 11, 1911, and the fungus was isolated from a tuber (said to -

have come from Scotland) found in Reading, England. Its occur-
rence in Ireland is vouched for by Pethybridge (1911). It appears
to be common in Germany, judging by the frequency with which it
is mentioned in connection with leaf-roll investigations there. In-
deed, it was described by Reinke and Berthold as long ago as 1879,
and the writer saw it at Munster in Westphalia in October, 1911,
where it was studied by Spieckermann (1911), who pointed out the
difference between this wilt and the fungus-free leaf-roll. Verti-
cillium wilt is apparently a northern disease as compared with
Fusarium, though the ranges of the two undoubtedly overlap.
Pethybridge (1911) in Ireland describes this disease under the
name “‘leaf-roll,’’ distinguishing it from ‘‘curl,’’ the latter being the
22741°—14_3

18 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

trouble here described as ‘‘curly-dwarf’’ (Krauselkrankheit). He
emphasizes the rolling of the leaves, but does not mention that they
wilt. The discoloration of the vascular bundles of stem and tuber
is remarked, and experiments are cited which show that the disease is
transmitted through affected seed tubers.

The same author (1912) further illustrates the distinction between
curly-dwarf (‘‘curl’’) and leaf-roll, and reports having found cases
of leaf-roll in which no Verticilium or other fungus was present.
Tubers from such plants gave rise to healthy plants, whence it is
concluded that the occurrence of the true leaf-roll in Ireland is not yet
established.

These facts,. together with his personal observation in Great
Britain in 1911, led the writer to believe that no cases of true leaf-roll
or of Fusarium wilt have yet been proved to occur in Great Britian,
but that Verticillium wilt is not uncommon there.

Some confusion still remains concerning the parasitism of Verticil-
lium albo-atrum, masmuch as there are many reports of its occurrence
where the marked pathological effects here described were not present.
Reinke and Berthold report successful moculations, and Wollenweber
obtained infections in Friedenau, Berlin, which, in the light of his
later work, are to be considered as added evidence of the parasitism
of this species. The result of’a later successftil infection experiment
performed by Wollenweber with pure cultures in the Washington
ereenhouse is shown in Plate III. The parasitism of Verticillium on
other plants has also been demonstrated by him and will soon be
published in full. It is not to be understood that the relatively minor
role now played by Verticillium as a potato parasite in the United
States indicates that it is a disease that should not be feared, for, if
control measures are neglected, it might easily become epidemic and
as destructive as the Fusarium wilt.

The disease should be easily brought under control, however, by
seed selection and rotation of crops. Whenever a wilted hill is
observed in a field it should be taken up and both vines and tubers
carried out and destroyed. When cuttimg seed, any with a brown
stain at the stem end should be rejected. When a field is much
affected by this trouble, none of the crop should be used for planting,
and the ground should be given a longer rotation than usual.

LEAF-ROLL.

LITERATURE OF THE DISEASE.

No plant disease in this generation has been the subject of such
general discussion as that known in Germany as the “‘Blattroll-
krankheit,’’ herein named ‘‘leaf-roll.”” None has aroused greater
difference of opinion as to its nature and cause, and no other single
malady of plants is to-day receiving so much investigation by skilled

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 19

pathologists as this. Possibly no disease which has appeared since
the advent of Phytophthora infestans in the forties presents a greater
menace to potato culture.

The literature on leaf-roll has become so voluminous that few will
undertake to peruse all the contributions, which are, indeed, of very
uneven merit, and anyone who attempts it is likely to emerge with his
concepts of the disease more confused and hazy than at the start.

- This bulletin is intended as a guide in the diagnosis of leaf-roll and
a summary of present knowledge. It is the result in part of the
writer’s personal investigations, but much is owed to other writers,
and particularly to Appel and Schlumberger (1911), whose critical
summary of the literature on this disease is commended to all readers.

DESCRIPTION OF LEAF-ROLL.

Leaf-roll is a disease characterized by an upward rolling of the
leaves, by a decreased yield of tubers, and by transmission of the
diseased condition through tubers planted. Its symptoms vary so
much in detail that they can be most clearly outlined by separate
treatment.

The rolling of the leaves is the most constant and conspicuous
symptom of this disease. The leaflets curl or roll upward on their
midrib, often assuming a nearly tubular shape, and giving a plant a
staring appearance (Pl. VIJ). This rolling is sometimes restricted
to the upper leaves, while in other cases all or nearly all of the leaves
on the plant exhibit it. (Pl. IV, fig. 1, and Pl. V and Pl. VIII.)
This type of roll is distinct from the curly-dwarf condition described
on page 37, but a very similar roll may be induced by other causes,
such as wet soil, blackleg, and other diseases, as shown on page 26.

The color of the foliage changes with the advent of leaf-roll, but
these color-symptoms vary greatly, from cases where the leaves
assume an unhealthy, light-green color to those marked by pro-
nounced yellowish, reddish, or purplish colors. These variations
appear to depend in part upon the severity of the disease, but they are
also to a large extent varietal reactions. The Peachblow, for example,
develops considerable red in the upper leaves while the Pearl under
the same conditions turns yellowish green. In general, early stages
of leaf-roll may not be much yellowed, while more advanced cases,
and particularly those in the second or third year, 1. e., grown from
the tubers of diseased plants, are likely to be quite yellow with red-
dish or purplish tints. The development of reds and purples will
probably be found to take place in the different varieties according
to the natural pigmentation of the sprouts and stems. The greatest
variety of colors could be observed in the several numbers of the
collection of seedlings which became affected by leaf-roll. Appel
and Schlumberger state of this color character that, according to the

—__ a: —_
—

20 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

variety, it tends to be yellow-green or more reddish. With some
varieties there occurs also an almost violet color, as for example, in
the German sort, Hetmann. The intensity of the color varies in dif-
ferent years, and it appears that dry seasons bring a more intense
color than moist seasons.

The time of onset is early, as compared with Fusarium wilt. The

first case observed by the writer in Germany was in Giessen about
June 20. Reference to the German records will show that the date
when leaf-roll is first observed varies in different years. In 1907, for
instance, many varieties were strongly attacked as early as June 24,
while in 1909 the corresponding date in July saw less leaf-roll in their
experimental plants. The date when leaf-roll appears in this country
is not well fixed. Growers in the Greeley, Colo., district, where late
planting is the rule, report having noticed the rolling of the leaves
late in July. Leaf-roll did not develop last year (1913) in the
Mitchell (Nebr.) district until about August 15, whereas the preceding
outbreaks had come much earlier.

The effect on the plant is to check development. There is a lessening
or cessation of growth. The shoots remain short and the leaves
stand more upright. -

Tn this respect varieties differ. The following show the staring growth very clearly:
Magnum Bonum, Hetmann, Richter’s Imperator, etc., While Daber shows it but little.
On such stalks the leaves, flowers, and berries are frequently smaller. For example,
the berries of Hetmann on badly diseased plants in 1908 were only the size of peas,
while those from healthy stalks were the size of cherries. Badly diseased plants have
often no tubers or only a few. Such plants are either very weak and die early or the
foliage may be comparatively well developed and remain living to the end of the
vegetation period. (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911.)

The different degrees of leaf-roll are also shown in the illustrations.
Plate V shows large plants with the upper leaves strongly rolled,
while the plant in Pl. IV, fig. 2, is small and weak and represents
the last stage of leaf-roll, having doubtless come from a tuber pro-
duced by a diseased plant. There is, however, no such shortening
of stems and leaf ribs as occurs in curly-dwarf, with its resultant
deformation of the plant.

The duration of life of the plant in most cases appears to be
shortened by leaf-roll. This is a relative matter, since (in com-
parison with healthy plants) the leaf-roll cases may die earlier, as
would be expected of sick plants, or they may stand until killed
by frost, while (in comparison with the rapid death of American
potatoes attacked by Fusarium wilt) the endurance of leaf-roll is
one of the striking differences between these diseases.

The endurance of the seed yrece as a character of leaf-roll is an
interesting point frequently mentioned in the German literature.
When Schultz [Soest] (1905) called attention to the first outbreak of
leaf-roll, he laid special emphasis on the fact that the seed tubers

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 21

planted were still firm and sound at harvest time and that they were
even larger in size. This observation has been verified by others,
and the endurance of the seed tuber is considered by Appel and
Schlumberger to be one of the symptoms of leaf-roll, though they
point out that this varies greatly on different soils. They further
show that the enlargement of the seed piece is not a symptom of
disease, but that the same thing occurs with healthy plants. The
significance of these observations relative to the endurance of the
seed piece has not been made fully clear, though the discovery of
Quanjer that the phloem strands in the stems of leaf-roll plants are
shrunken and lignified suggests that the seed piece remains because it
can not be used up by the plant. Its endurance argues against the
relation of parasites to leaf-roll, since if the disease were caused
by fungi or bacteria at, the root, one would reasonably expect the seed
piece to be decayed. The writer is unable to state whether it is the
case also in the United States that the seed piece endures longer
with leaf-rolled than with healthy plants. Certainly sound hills
are to be found with sound seed, and many leaf-rolled plants have been
dug whose seed piece had decayed. According to the writer’s
observation, sound mother tubers are to be found as often in the
curly-dwarf disease as with leaf-roll.

The effect of leaf-roll on the tubers is strongly marked. In general,
the yield is very much reduced (PI. XIII, fig.1) Appel (1907) states:

The growing apprehensions find their confirmations at the harvest. The diseased
hills have numerous tubers very much smaller than normal, so that the yield is only
about half that of a healthy field. If one uses these potatoes again for seed, the greater
part fail to develop, and an uneven stand is the result. Others only germinate without
sending their shoots through the earth, but branch below ground and form a consider-
able number of roots, so that frequently the seed tuber lies in a more or less thick tangle
of roots and thin shoots. Stronger tubers succeed in growing, but the stem remains
weak, the leaves are from the beginning considerably rolled, and, according to the
variety, more or less colored. These colors are in this stage of all gradations from dark
red to blue-red. Few or no tubers are found in such hills, so that a complete crop
failure results.

Appel and Schlumberger (1911) say:

Badly diseased plants have often no tubers or only afew. When there is a setting of
tubers, these are almost always very small. They are borne frequently on shortened
stolons, or clustered on the underground part of the stem. This shortening of the
stolons is occasionally very commonly observed, as for example, in 1908, in Eisgrub
with the varieties Eduard Lefort and Long Six Weeks. This character is, however,
not constant. More often hills occur where the stolons are normally developed but
bear a great number of small tubers the size of hazelnuts.

A striking circumstance which must here be given special attention is that slightly
diseased hills under certain conditions give an exceptionally high yield, which, how-
ever, falls rapidly in succeeding years. Such an example was afforded by the variety
Modell during its cultivation in Grobzig. This sort had just come in 1907 from the
breeder, and had been distributed by the German Potato-Culture Station to its experi-
mental fields. It showed itself to be diseased on all fields, but, notwithstanding this,

—

:
1

22 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

gave in Groebzig a yield of 274 bushels peracre. The next year, however, the yield
decreased so much (the exact record is not known) that the breeder, Gen. Oekonomierat
Saiuberlich, discarded it as unworthy of cultivation. To what extent such varieties
not too badly diseased have their yield influenced by external conditions is shown by
a comparison of the yields of this sort on the different trial grounds of the German

Potato-Culture Station, which in the year 1907 were planted with the same seed from.

Holland. There were harvested in double centners per hectare:

Double | Double Double

No Trial ground. cent- || No. Trial ground. cent- ||No. Trial ground. cent-

ners. ners. ners.
TI Groebzige cess -s- 407.8 || 10 | Hadmersleben-..-.- 187-2.) LO" | Weoehmenceneee seen. 140.0
2 Greisitz 24. eee 2 2582 etl CHANT AU oe ae ee eee 182.6 || 20 | Erbesbuedesheim. . 131.8
Si aa VOCLOOs ana) pcs 245.6 || 12 | Marienfelde........- 181.0 || 21 | Gross-Saalau....... 130. 0
4 | Klein-Raudchen....| 228.7 || 13 | Klein-Spiegel....... 180.8 || 22 | Hohenheim........ 129. 6
5 ablomeen.. 2: aes 213.3 || 14 | Schaeferhof.......... 176.2 || 23 | Singlingen..-...__. 128. 0
6) Mreistatthese- ee sk 212.8 || 15 | Siegersleben......... 164.4 |; 24 | Dolgen._... teri 128.2
7 | Altneuhaus........- D9 7216) |LOG Matta ere eee eee oes 154.8 || 25 | Neckarau.......... 128.0
Sil OCtZIE S15 ck eee 192.0 || 17 | Althoefchen......... 151.2 || 26 | Gieshuegel......... 98.0
OuEINeudOries 2-36-55 so" 187.2 ||| 18 | Ostrowitte..- ---25-- 150.0 |} 27 | Altkluecken........ 78.2

Of the destructive effect of leaf-roll on the potato yield, this country
has altogether too good an example in the outbreak of 1911 and 1912
in Colorado. (See p. 31.)

Stem-end browning of tubers is no longer considered a reliable evi-
dence of leaf-roll, nor is there any other character by which the
disease may be detected through an inspection of the tubers. In
European potatoes more or less discoloration of the vascular tissue
is frequently to be found near the stem end, though this is never so
conspicuous, according to the writer’s observation, as the familiar
stem-end browning associated with Fusarium wilt in the United
States, except when Verticilliwm albo-atrum is present. When leaf-
roll first appeared Appel commented on its striking similarity to the
Fusarium wilt described by Smith and Swingle (1904) and wrote of
the German disease:

If one cuts through the stem ends of diseased tubers, one finds that the vessels for
one-half to 1 centimeter under the skin have a yellow discoloration. This discolor-
ation is at harvest time to be seen more clearly near the stem end, but later extends
until in spring it can often be traced into the eyes. Generally such tubers are less rich
in starch than the healthy ones.

This discoloration was then thought to be characteristic of leaf-roll
and evidence of the causal connection of a Fusarium with it. More
extended observations threw doubt on this point, and it is now gen-
erally agreed that stem-end browning of the tubers is not an insep-
arable feature of the leaf-roll. Appel and Schlumberger (1911) say:

The discoloration of the vascular bundles was at first understood to be a character-
istic of the leaf-roll, as announced by Appel on the basis of conditions observed in
1905 and 1906. This discoloration should consist in a partial browning of the bundles
of the stem and in a yellow color of the tuber bundles, which in mild cases confines

itself to the vicinity of the stem end but in severer cases extends through the entire
vascular ring. Later, however, in the year 1907, when the potatoes almost everywhere

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 3)

showed this appearance, the question was again investigated with an abundance of
material, and it turned out that the discoloration had no connection with the disease,
but that it might be produced by the weather conditions during the vegetation period.
It was further proved that the discoloration is not present in the most pronounced final
stages of the disease. Since the vascular discoloration is frequently associated with
the appearance of mycelium, it will be taken up again in the chapter on the causes of
leaf-roll. When Spieckermann states, as a characteristic symptom of leaf-roll diseased
plants, that the vascular bundles are not discolored, and in particular that there is no
yellow color of the vascular ring, he only means that this appearance can not be uti-
lized as a character of the disease, for the discoloration may naturally be present in
diseased plants just as in healthy ones.

HEREDITARY NATURE OF LEAF-ROLL.

The true leaf-roll is inheritable. The tubers from diseased plants
produce diseased progeny as a general rule. This affords a means
of distinguishing from genuine leaf-roll those temporary conditions
which give rise to a similar appearance of the plants. All those
who are best acquainted with the trouble agree as to the results of
planting diseased seed stock, though there are different explanations
therefor.

This point is one of capital importance in the control of the disease
and of great interest in its bearing on the nature of the disease. It
will be further discussed on another page.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LEAF-ROLL POTATOES.

It was early suggested by Sorauer that the leaf-roll potatoes ex-
hibited a more active oxidase reaction than the healthy ones. This
was determined by Griiss and later more thoroughly by Doby (1911,
1912), who proved that leaf-roll potato tubers gave a higher reaction
with respect to oxidase, peroxidase, and tyrosinase; also that they
had a slightly higher ash content and less starch and protein.

The full significance of these results is not yet understood. It
would seem that katabolism is more rapid in the diseased plants, yet
the biochemist could hardly determine by analysis which of the
samples given him were healthy and which diseased.

We hope that more light will be shed on this subject through the
early publication of the work of Dr. H. H. Bunzel, of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, who in 1912 and again in 1913 has made a study of
the leaf-roll material at Houlton, Me., using a method and apparatus
designed to give more accurate results than any previously available.
(Bunzel, 1912.)

NECROSIS OF PHLOEM STRANDS.

It has recently been pointed out by Quanjer (1913) that the physi-
ological and structural viewpoint has been neglected by investigators
of leaf-roll and that the small attention given has been principally
devoted to the xylem, in the search for fungi, rather than to the
phloem.

24 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

This author finds that the phloem strands of leaf-roll plants are
shrunken and the walls thickened and lignified, resulting in such a
disorganized condition that the translocation of elaborated food mate-
rials from the leaves to the tubers for storage is prevented or inter-
fered with.

This shrinkage of the phloem strands can be detected before exter-
nal signs of leaf-roll appear, but it is not present in false leaf-roll due
to mechanical injury, wet soil, bacteria, overfertilizing with kainit,
etc., nor in the curly-dwarf disease. It is discoverable first after the
young shoot from a diseased tuber has broken through the ground
and formed several leaves. Each new branch is in the beginning
healthy, but the diseased condition soon manifests itself. It can be
traced upward, as the plant grows, to the tips of mature diseased
shoots, and even to the petioles and midribs of the leaves and to the
flower stems, but not on lateral leaf veins. The same pathological
condition can be traced downward in the underground portion of the ©
stem to the mother tuber, but it rarely appears in the stolons and
never in the young tubers.

This shrinkage of the phloem affords an explanation of many of
the results of leaf-roll, including the thickened stems and formation
of aerial tubers, which takes place when the products of photosyn-
thesis can not be translocated. It may be connected with the
‘endurance of the mother tuber” and with the higher percentage
of nitrogen in the latter, since these compounds can not move so
freely in the shrunken phloem. The reduction of growth and the
lessened yield are attributable to the same cause. The rolling of the
leaves is a natural reaction of the plant to a stem injury or stoppage.

The observations of Quanjer led him to the conclusion that leaf-
roll is hereditary and not parasitic and that the presence of fungous
mycelium, bacteria, tyloses, and vascular discoloration are not char-
acteristic symptoms of the disease.

It is left undetermined how this phloem shrinkage is brought about.
It bas not yet been produced experimentally, nor have remedial
measures been found, but the need is emphasized, as pointed out by
Sorauer (1913), for more experimental work, under controlled condi-
tions, on the influence of the several natural environmental factors
on the potato plant.

NONCOMMUNICABILITY OF LEAF-ROLL.

That leaf-roll is not communicable from diseased to healthy plants
is the conclusion to be drawn from all available evidence. Appel,
Werth, and Schlumberger (1910) report grafting a great number of
diseased sprouts on healthy ones and vice versa. These were put in
the greenhouse and union took place. The scions gradually died,
however, after the plants were brought into the open air. During

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

PoTATO LEAF-ROLL. TYPICAL ROLLING OF THE UPPER LEAVES OF A GERMAN
VARIETY. (AFTER APPEL.)

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIIi.

Fic. 1.—LEAF-ROLL IN SEEDLING PoTATO No. 16518, ALEXANDER No. 1 RED X
KEEPER. WASHINGTON, D. C., AUGUST, 1912.

Fic. 2.—POTATO LEAF-ROLL, SHOWING ITS EFFECT ON TUBER FORMATION. STOLONS
THICKENED AND PRODUCING NUMEROUS SMALL TUBERS ONLY. MITCHELL, NEBR.,
SEPTEMBER, 1911. (PHOTOGRAPHED BY FRITZ KNORR.)

PLATE IX.

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

"WaLS 3HL 4O

aSvVq SHL LV YaLSNIO OL SYSENL AHL JO AONSGNSL
AHL SNIMOHS ‘OGvVYOTOD WOYS 110Y-sva7] OLVLOd—'s ‘Ol4

"GNNOS SI WALS 3HL HONOHLIY
‘SYaaN. IvIdayY GNV SW3LS GANSMOIH, HLIM
INV1d ‘OGvY¥O109 Wows OY-sJvaq OLVLOd—"} ‘9I4

PLATE X.

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

‘SOL ‘SL ssnony “a 'NOLINOH
‘SYaaN| JO SON3SaY GNV ‘35vIIO4 JO NoOILOnaay
‘ONIYUVMG ONIMOHS ‘4YVMQ-ATHND OLVLOd—'s ‘Bld

(laddyY Y314V)
"dA | NVAYS5) GSONVAGY “SYVMQ-ATHND OLVLOd—‘} “DI4

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 25

the four weeks during which they were under observation there was
no apparent influence of the diseased part on the healthy. Similar
experiments were performed by Schander (1912) with substantially
the same results.

The evidence in the seedling collection of this bureau is also
strongly negative. Certain varieties with clearly marked leaf-roll
have stood surrounded by healthy varieties without any indication
of the spread of the disease.

RELATION OF FUNGI TO LEAF-ROLL.

The first investigations of leaf-roll made by Appel in 1905 led him
to believe that it was due to a Fusarium similar to that described
by Smith and Swingle. Mycelium was found in the vascular bundles
of diseased plants, and cultures were derived from the stem ends of
tubers. The species of Fusarium was not determined with cer-
tainty, for at that time the identification of Fusaria by morphologi-
cal characters was not possible. The findings of Appel were verified
by many other workers, and for a time leaf-roll was generally at- |
tributed toa Fusarium. Some good authorities are even now strongly
inclined to this theory (K6éck and Kornauth, 1912).

It has, however, been abundantly proved that in many cases of
leaf-roll no fungus is present, and that these include the most ad-
vanced stages of the disease. The theory has been advanced by Appel
that these fungus-free cases represent the second stage of a disease,
the first stage having been due to Fusarium infection, and the weak-
ness caused by the fungus transmitted to the progeny. This hypoth-
esis has not been supported by the observed facts. It is greatly
weakened by the results of the writer’s seedling studies, which show
the earliest typical stages of leaf-roll to be fungus free and by the
fact that no inheritable leaf-roll follows Fusarwwm oxysporum in-
fections in America. The subject has been somewhat obscured by
the mass of polemic discussion, but it is now quite generally admitted
that the presence of fungous mycelium is not a characteristic of leaf-
roll.

The number of cases in Europe where mycelium has been found in
diseased plants is so great that some explanation is required. In
the opinion of the writer, the Fusaria that have been found in con-
nection with leaf-rollin Europe are of nonparasitic types which have
invaded diseased or weakened tissues. Where mycelium is reported
in the bundles, and especially where it is found up to the tips of the
stems, the first inference must be Verticillium albo-atrum, whose
hyphe, though thinner, may easily be mistaken for that of Fusarium.
Mixed infection with Verticillium may account for most of the present
confusion. This fungus is widespread in Europe, while it is now
quite definitely established by Dr. Wollenweber that the Fusarium

26 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

oxysporum of Smith and Swingle is different from any European
species yet known.

Leaf-roll diseased plants in America have been free from fungous
infection in so far as the writer’s observation goes, except for certain
eases in Colorado, which were plainly mixed infections with Fusa- .
rium oxysporum, and here many other plants in the same field were
fungus free. The external appearance of leaf-roll and wilt present
many differences already given in detail.

Other fungi than Fusarium have also been reported in connection
with leaf-roll, but for the most part without verification, e. g.,
Solanella rosea (Vanha, 1910), Phoma, Bacteria, etc. (Stoermer, 1910).
The burden of proof is now on those who attribute leaf-roll to fungi
to identify their organism through pure culture and- reproduce the
disease by inoculation. For a more extended Sean of this
phase of the subject, see Krause (1912).

LEAF SPOTTING IN RELATION TO LEAF-ROLL.

The occurrence of spots or flecks on potato leaves is not an inva-
riable symptom of leaf-roll, but is often observed in connection with it,
particularly in the severer types of leaf-roll. The spots observed by
the writer were small, dark-brown flecks in the tissues of the terminal
leaves, generally between the-veins. They have also been found on
plants not attacked by leaf-roll. These spots are apparently free
from fungi and are believed to be due to physiological causes.
Frank (1897) connected these spots with several types of what he
termed “ Krauselkrankheit,’” but Appel is undoubtedly correct in
pointing out that there is no connection between the spots and the
curly-dwarf or the leaf-roll. |

OTHER LEAF-ROLLS.

Typical leaf-roll must be differentiated from several similar appear-
ances, due to other causes, as follows:

(a) Temporary leaf-roll due to water-logged soil. There are not infrequent cases
in poorly drained land or in seasons of excessive precipitation when the potato plants
suffering from lack of soil aeration show this by a rolling of the leaves. This can,
however, be distinguished from the true leaf-roll, as the symptom disappears when
the cause is removed, while true leaf-roll is inherited. The plants, moreover, do not
undergo the same color changes. (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911.)

(6) A leaf-roll condition, usually of temporary duration, may be induced by heat
or drought, or by the use of excessive quantities of fertilizer, especially potash (Quan-
jer, 1913). In such cases the rolling may be more marked on the lower leaves.

(c) Blackleg (Bacillus phytophthorus) produces an upward rolling of the leaves,
with a yellow color. The later stages of this disease may at first glance exactly simu-
late leaf-roll, but as blackleg is invariably associated with a blackening and shriveling
of the base if the stem the two can not be confused after the plants in question have
been pulled up.

(d) Curly-dwarf is perhaps an allied malady, but differs in that there is a pro-
nounced shortening of the stem and branches, a crinkling or downward curling of

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. ae

the leaves, and normal color and turgidity. This is further described and illustrated
on page 37.

(¢) Wilt of both the Fusarium and Verticillium types may at certain stages bear a
slight outward resemblance to leaf-roll, but they are distinguishable by the occurrence
of the causal fungi, by the discoloration of the wood vessels of the lower stem, and by
the brown stain in the stem end of the tubers. These wilts cause the rapid death of
the plants attacked, or at the least an abnormally early maturity, while leaf-roll ~
plants live nearly as long as healthy ones.

(f) Rhizoctonia stem-blight, as it occurs in Colorado and other Western States, may
in one stage be easily confused at first sight with leaf-roll. (See under ‘‘Rosette,’’
p. 40.) The leaf-roll symptom may, in fact, be induced by stem injuries of various
kinds, but the disturbance is fundamentally different from true leaf-roll in that it
is not transmissible. Heribert-Nilsson (1913) has described such a leaf-roll, due to
hypocotyl injury by an insect, Agrotis segetum.

In Germany, leaf-roll was formerly included under the collective
term ‘“ Krauselkrankheit,’’ which is now being restricted to curly-
dwarf. Appel also separates a “‘bacterial rmg disease,’ which has
not yet been thoroughly worked out, and which can not at present
be identified with any American malady. (Appel and Kreitz, 1907.)
A new disease, to be described as “streak,” also enters to some
extent into the complex situation in America.

There is little likelihood of confusion with tip-burn, as this detene
is already so well known. The illustration, Plate XIV, shows the
characteristic browning and curling of the margins of the leaflets due
to excessive transpiration during hot, dry weather. Tip-burn is com-
paratively much less prevalent in the cooler climate of Europe than
in the United States, but 1t was observed by the writer in typical
form in Dresden during the hot, dry summer of 1911.

LEAF-ROLL IN EUROPE.

The leaf-roll disease of potatoes first came into public notice in
Kurope in 1905, when a small epidemic occurred in Westphalia and
other points in Germany. Appel found it in the same year in Den-
mark. It is his opinion that it had also prevailed many years before
but had been forgotten or confused with other troubles under the
collective term ‘‘ Krauselkrankheit.’”’ In 1907 a more general out-
break occurred in Germany, and much alarm was expressed (Arnim-
Schlagenthin, 1908).. The disease was reported on all sides. In
Austria the Government appointed a special commission to investi-
gate the disease. The experiments thus begun are still in progress.
Up to date four reports have been published: (1) Dafert, 1911; (2)
Kock and Kornauth, 1911; (3) Reitmair, 1912; (4) Kéck and Kor-
nauth, 1912. In these the reader will find recorded many data
which are only briefly mentioned here.

Among other investigations begun then or a little later, and in
addition to those of Appel and his assistants at the Kaiserliche
Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft at Dahlem, Berlin,

28 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

from whom so much has already been drawn, the ones deserying of
special mention are those of Dr. Schander, in the Kaiser Wilhelms
Institut fiir Landwirtschaft in Bromberg and of Dr. Spieckermann
in Muenster. So many others have written on this subject that it is
possible only to refer to the extensive bibliographies of Appel and
Schlumberger, 1911, of Kéck and Kornauth, 1911 and 1912
(Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit,
Nos. 2 and 5), and of Himmelbaur, 1912.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF LEAF-ROLL.

Much is lacking in the knowledge of the exact distribution of the
leaf-roll diseases, but it begins to appear that it is now, or soon will
be, a factor in potato culture wherever this crop is grown. Its
occurrence is certain in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland,
the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden, as well as in the United
States. It is probably in Norway, Russia, Bulgaria, and Roumania.
That it has not been reported in France, Belgium, and England may
be because of lack of sufficient observation. 'The somewhat limited
observations of the writer in these countries in 1911 failed to disclose
any true leaf-roll. The disease reported under that name from
Ireland is the Verticilium wilt.

In Germany the leaf-roll has been most widespread and injurious
in the west, e. g., in Westphalia and the Rhine provinces, though
since its first outbreak in 1905 the introduction of healthy seed stock
from other districts is reported to have restricted its spread. Leaf-
roll has been observed in nearly all parts of Germany, but in most
cases only scattered fields suffered.

In Austria, also, the disease seems to be present in nearly all dis-
tricts, including Hungary, though not always to a destructive degree.

OCCURRENCE OF LEAF-ROLL IN THE UNITED STATES.

Two developments of leaf-roll in this country have been studied
by the writer. One was in a collection of seedlings grown by Prof.
William Stuart, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the other was
a destructive outbreak in eastern Colorado and western Nebraska
during 1911 and 1912. The leaf-roll in the seedling collection, while
not of direct economic importance, afforded an opportunity to
diagnose the trouble and differentiate it from others and also sug-
gested a probable solution of the problem of control.

The western outbreak was, on the other hand, the cause of immense
losses and brought the leaf-roll problem, for the first time, to the
forefront in this country. That it will continue to be an important
economic factor in American potato production is indicated by its
discovery in two new localities in 1913. The writer found a field of
Irish Cobbler near Onley, Va., with well-marked leaf-roll character-
ized by rolled leaves with a reddish tinge and stunted growth. The

=a :

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 29

source of this seed was thought to be Maine. Dr. I. E. Melhus found
another field in northern Maine with 100 per cent leaf-roll, a note-
worthy occurrence when the extremely vigorous and healthy condi-
tion of the potatoes in that district is considered.

As stress will be laid, later in this bulletin, on the development of
leaf-roll in seedling varieties, in connection with the problem of
controlling this disease, it will be well to describe the collection which
formed the basis of the writer’s studies.

HISTORY OF THE SEEDLING COLLECTION.

In 1904 Prof. L. R. Jones, then botanist of the Vermont experi-
ment station, was sent to Europe by the Bureau of Plant Industry
to search for potato varieties resistant to late-blight, Phytophthora
infestans. He brought back about 100 varieties, which were placed
on trial at several points, including the Vermont experiment station
at Burlington, where Prof. Stuart began crossing the European sorts
with each other and with American varieties. Notable success was
achieved in 1909 in securing seed from a large number of crosses;
about 25,000 seedlings were raised the following season, propagated
that year in Washington, the following year in New York, and in 1912
in both New York and Maine.

It had been observed by Prof. Stuart that some of his seedling
varieties from earlier crosses exhibited sudden loss of vigor. Occa-
sional numbers which had in the beginning showed promise would
produce only weak or abnormal progeny.

DISEASE PHENOMENA IN THE SEEDLINGS.

Such was the condition found by the writer in the breeding fields
in Maine and New Yorkin 1912. These fields consisted of 10 and 16
acres, respectively, and contained over 10,000 seedlings of known
parentage, 5 hills of each sort.

As might be expected, these seedling potatoes showed every degree
of variation in plant characters, color and size of leaves, habit of
growth, etc., but in addition many showed distinct evidence of a
diseased condition, and indeed of quite distinct types of disease,
which are herein described as leaf-roll, curly-dwarf, and “streak.”

It is noteworthy that im neither field was there any trace of Fusa-
rium wilt, nor of Verticilltum wilt, blackleg, or mosaic disease,
although the latter three were common in adjoining fields. This is a
very important fact, since it strongly supports the argument that
these are distinct diseases. The reason for the nonoccurrence of these
troubles is that the seedling varieties, since their origin from seed,
had been grown from selected tubers, and no stronger proof is needed
that such diseases may be controlled in commercial seed growing by
the tuber-unit selection method, applied, if need be, to a seed plat of
limited area, from which the main crop is propagated.

30 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The sharp differentiation between healthy and diseased varieties
in adjacent rows, and other field evidence, indicates that the leaf-
roll and curly-dwarf are manifestations of physiological weakness
and associated with decline or loss of vigor of the strain. That
certain varieties show a greater tendency to such degeneration
phenomena is evident, and the still more marked development of
these troubles on certain seedlings emphasizes their relation to the
varietal problem. That many other seedlings in the same field
exhibited unusual health and vigor seems convincing evidence that in
this seed selection and breeding the way lies open for the complete
solution of this problem of leaf-roll control.

Of 59 of these diseased seedlings selected at random as typical
examples in 1912, 29 were affected with leaf-roll and 30 with curly-
dwarf; and of 22 selected in 1913, 7 had leaf-roll and 15 had curly-
dwarf. The parentage of these is indicated in Table I, for its bearing
on the question that will be asked as to whether certain combinations
of varieties have a tendency to produce leaf-rolled or curly-dwarfed

offspring.
TaBLe I.—Parentage of diseased seedlings.

__. Number Number
diseased with— diseased with—
Parent varieties. Parent varieties.
Leaf- | ‘Curly- Leaf- | Curly-
roll. | dwarf. roll. | dwarf.
Geheimrat Theil x Keeper..-.-.-- 2 2),|| Apollo >< SilverskiniS =f -pe-ee-eee UN eesesriac
sophie < Keepersis. as... e= is 11 3 Gem of Aroostook X Round Pink- ;
President Kriiger * Keeper 1 Ll SH @YGi. seeck cee seeemaee 5 1 5
Delaware xX Keeper: 3. -osene-eees|ee cei ore 2 Dae > dkeepenss 4 eereey 2 ness. | eee 1
Norcross X Keeper. ...-.---. VW dace: Barly Hureka << iKeeperseseseeces peenenee 1
Gem of Aroostook x Keeper...--- if 4 Be Abundance X Irish Seed-
Alexander’s No. 1 Red X Keeper... 1 4 Linge) 55). d Fa eee eee cee ce 3 5
Round Pinkeye x Keeper....--..|.-----.- 2 INiessedor sNo.1Red X Trene: } Ness 3
irish’ Cobbler s< Weepers ree ses|sececcine IP} Mamily S@lmenete ress sereciest eee 3 soca
Green Mountain x Keeper....-...|.-----.- 2 |) Garnet Chili x Silverskin.....s..-|_-..-.-- 2
Keeper < Round Pinkeye: 22.022). 52... - 1 || Irish Cobbler < Trish Seedling. ...].....-.- 1
Keeper << /Silwerskine se saesee ee seen See 3 || Apollo X Irish Seedling..-.......]..-..--- 1
Sophie Irish Seedling. -......-- CO Bee ees
Tho tal oy cidiejah isis tee ier 36 45

Delaware X Round Pinkeye.....- 1 1

A much more detailed analysis of the characteristics of these
varieties and their seedlings is really required to answer this question.
It is clear, however, that some varieties, like Keeper, are poor parents.
A large number of successful crosses with Keeper were secured by
Prof. Stuart because it produced an abundance of pollen, but the
offspring of these have been so unsatisfactory on account of their
tendency to curly-dwarf and leaf-roll that the variety will not be
used again for crossing.

From different crosses having the same varieties as parents
there have come seedlings, some of which were leaf-rolled and some
curly-dwarfed. No. 16472, illustrated in Plate IV, figure 1, is a
perfect type of leaf-roll in a cross between Alexander’s No. 1 Red and
Keeper, while No. 16503, shown in Plate XI, figure 1, is an equally

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 31

good type of curly-dwarf in another cross between the same parents.
No cases are recorded where both leaf-roll and curly-dwarf were
found in the same seedling number, but there are several instances
where diseased and healthy plants occur in the same row. The
results of 1913 are more striking in their proof of the hereditary nature
of leaf-roll and curly-dwarf. This field contained 20 hills of each
variety, planted with 10 tubers, each cut in half, and the two halves
of each seed potato dropped in adjoming hills. As a general rule,
all the 20 hills were uniformly diseased, as shown in Plate VI,
illustrating No. 2171, one of the best types of leaf-roll in the collec-
tion. ‘Two plants from this row are shown in a closer view in Plate V.
Compare also Plate XII, showing the uniform affection by curly-
dwarf of Nos. 821 and 822, which are hybrids between Sophie and
Keeper.

In several cases in 1913 only a portion of a variety was affected,
but with few exceptions the two hills originating from one tuber
behaved alike. Row No. 1763, for instance, had two hills with
leaf-roll, then four normal, then two leaf-rolled. Row No. 1613
had the first pair of hills normal, the second and third leaf-rolled, the
fourth and fifth pairs normal, and all the remainder leaf-rolled.
Other examples of similar inheritance of curly-dwarf are cited on
page 38.

WESTERN OUTBREAK OF LEAF-ROLL.

For many years there has been an important center for potato
production in Weld County in northern Colorado, known as the
Greeley district. More recently a considerable acreage of potatoes
has been grown on the North Platte River in western Nebraska.

Since the average rainfall at Greeley is not large, all potatoes
must be grown under irrigation. The potatoes generally receive
sufficient rain in the spring to keep them growing until July, when
irrigation is begun and repeated as needed. Rotations of crops have
been generally practiced. A common one is, alfalfa two or three
years, potatoes, beets, and grain. The methods of culture have been
considered good, and large yields were secured for years. It has
been estimated that 35,000 to 40,000 acres are annually planted to
potatoes in the Greeley district. The total yield per year was stated
by Bennett (1907) to be 9,000 to 14,000 carloads, or 4,000,000 to
6,000,000 bushels. This crop has been the greatest factor in pro-
moting the prosperity of this section. The leading varieties have
been Pearl, Rural New Yorker, and Early Ohio.

Some difficulties had been experienced from diseases of potatoes
previous to 1910. The greatest stress had been laid on the Rhizoc-
tonia stem-blight, a trouble which assumes a peculiar form in this
western country. (See under ‘‘Rosette,”’ p. 40.) Potato culture has
been, in fact, restricted to the lighter soils, the physical condition of

32 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which is further improved by plowing under alfalfa just before plant-
ing potatoes, and by the practice of extremely deep cultivation with
special implements.

Scab of the tubers has not been uncommon, and in some seasons
there has been a late summer occurrence of nae blight, but the most
important disease has been perhaps the Fusarium wilt (Fusarium
oxysporum). This fungus was widely prevalent throughout the dis-
trict, and its effect on the crop could be observed with especial clear-
ness in fields where potatoes had been grown for two or three con-
secutive years. Stem-end browning is common in Greeley potatoes,
but the loss from Fusarium dry-rot has not been large. Crop rota-
tion kept the loss from wilt down to a point where the disease caused
little concern, though it is possible that a longer rotation would have
been better.

These details concerning the prevalence in Coloma of Rhizoc-
tonia and Fusarium have been given at this point because they were
at first charged with the losses due to leaf-roll.

During the season of 1911 there was an outbreak of a potato
disease which practically destroyed the crop in northern Colorado
and western Nebraska. The shipments from the Greeley district
fell from an expected 7,000 to 200 cars. The average yield of the
3,190 acres in the Mitchell (Nebr.) district was only 14 bushels per
acre that year, as compared with 103 in 1909, 39 in 1910, and 102 in
1912. The cause of this extraordinary falling off in yield was the
leaf-roll disease, though it was at first locally thought to be Fusa-
rium and Rhizoctonia combined with the effect of the very dry and
unfavorable weather of spring and early summer. It was predicted
that with normal weather conditions and some improvements in
cultural practices the disease would not be likely to recur (Corbett,
1912). In 1912, however, very favorable conditions for growing
crops prevailed. There was an abundance of moisture in the soil in
the spring and favorable temperatures throughout the season.
Nevertheless, the disease again prevailed, nearly as severely as before.
The shipments from Greeley were about 700 cars, with half the
normal acreage. The Scottsbluff section came through with better
results; for, although the leaf-roll appeared in June and threatened
a repetition of the 1911 experience, there was a revival of the crop,
after some midsummer rains, and a fair yield.

It now seems indisputable that the Colorado and Nebraska disease
is the same type of leaf-roll observed in the Maine and New York seed-
lings and that this is the trouble called ‘‘Blattrollkrankheit” by the
Germans. There have been variations in the symptoms observed,
but it appears that this is also the case in different parts of Germany
or between different varieties there. The American trouble exhibits
the rolling, the yellow color, and all the important characters de-

Bul. 64, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

Fic. 1.—PoTATO CurRLY-DwarF. A DISEASED AND A HEALTHY PLANT OF THE SAME
VARIETY, SEEDLING No. 16503, ALEXANDER No. 1 RED X KEEPER. HOULTON,

ME., 1912.

Fic. 2,—POTATO CURLY-DwarF. AN ADVANCED CASE BETWEEN TWO NEARLY NoR-
MAL HILLs. No. 13372, HOLBORN ABUNDANCE X IRISH SEEDLING. COMPARE
PLATE XIII, FiGURE 1, WHICH SHOWS THE YIELD FROM THESE HILLS. HOULTON,
MeE., 1913. |

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE XII.

-DwarF, SHOWING ITS TRANSMISSION THROUGH SEED TUBERS AND VARIETAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE IN SOPHIE X KEEPER

PoTaTo CURLY

, ALL DISEASED, AND Nos. 820 AND 823 (ON THE RIGHT AND LEFT, RESPECTIVELY), UNIFORMLY

Hysrips Nos. 821 AND 822 (IN THE CENTER)
HEALTHY. HOULTON, MeE., AUGusT, 1912.

Bul, 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

g/FOZS LEQT-LO//

Fig. 1.—POTATO LEAF-ROLL (BELOW) AND CURLY-DWARF (ABOVE), SHOWING THE
YIELD OF HEALTHY AND DISEASED HILLS OF THE SAME VARIETY. HOULTON, ME.,
SEPTEMBER, 1913.

W456 Curly-dwarr

02 Healthy a JOAZ Curly-

FiG. 2.-POTATO CURLY-DWARF. COMPARISON OF THE YIELD OF HEALTHY AND
DISEASED HILLS OF THE SAME VARIETIES. HOULTON, ME., SEPTEMBER, 1913.

PLATE XIV.

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(0Y-4va7] HLIM NOsIuvdWOO HOS)

'9 'q 'NOLONIHSVMA LV HAWWNSGI,) NI NMOUD S301LVLOd JO NOlLoway YaH1LVaM-LOH Vv 'NuNg-dl | OLVLOd

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 38

scribed, and the effect on the plant is the same, though possibly in
the western cases there have been more pronounced abnormalities
in stolon and tuber formation than are described in the German
literature. These effects are illustrated in Plate VIII, figure 2, and
Plate IX, figure 2, which show the numerous stolons, often thick
and white, bearing many small tubers, frequently strung along like
beads. The few tubers which attain any size are generally clustered
around the base of the stem, as in Plate IX, figure 2, This clustering
is characteristic of leaf-roll. Kornauth and Reitmair (1909) say:
‘“‘The stolons are greatly shortened. Many times the tubers are
attached directly to the stem.”

AERIAL TUBERS.

Aerial tubers are very frequent, and there is often a thickening of
the upper stem and leaf petioles which seems to be another result
of the plant’s efforts to store starch above ground. (Pl. IX, fig. 1.)
This is a distinct phenomenon from the formation of aerial tubers
due to lesions on the stem caused by Rhizoctonia, for the leaf-roll
cases show no trace of fungous injury. Neither of these characters
is constant, however. Mr. Fritz Knorr informs us that ‘‘in 1911 the
ereater percentage of the plants took on this stoloniferous character
and a smaller portion developed the aerial tubers; this year (1912) the
reverse was the case. We had but few of the stoloniferous plants
and very many of the aerial tubers.”

These are reactions of the plant to the abnormal physiological
conditions accompanying the leaf-roll, which are in turn influenced
more or less by moisture and food supply and by weather factors. It
is easy to understand how aerial tubers are produced by the fungus
Rhizoctonia, which causes lesions on the stem near the soil line and
thus prevents the translocation of starch from leaves to tubers, for
we can produce the same result by a mechanical injury, 1. e., ‘‘gird-
ling” the stem or by rooting a cutting from a potato shoot in such a
manner that no node is covered by soil and stolons can not, in conse-
quence, be formed.

In those leaf-roll diseased plants which form aerial tubers there
are no below-ground fungus lesions, and some other force, such as the
phloem shrinkage described by Quanjer, must be acting to hinder the
storing of starch in the tubers.

There is evidence, as mentioned im the paragraph on the relation
of enzyms to leaf-roll, which suggests that there may be unusual
katabolic activities gomg on in the diseased plants, which would
consume the carbohydrates formed in photosynthesis, leaving little
or none to be laid by in the tubers during the period of leaf-roll
prevalence. If, at a later date, under the influence of favorable
weather, for example, an excess of starch was again formed in the

34 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves, but some physiological defect prevented its prompt transloca-
tion to the below-ground tubers, it would be laid up in thickened
branches and aerial tubers.

An interesting and important line of study in pathological physi-
ology presents itself in the determination of the ways in which leaf-
roll potatoes differ from healthy ones. Doubtless a better knowledge
of the nature of leaf-roll will lead to a determination of its cause. Up
to the present but little more has been done than to diagnose leaf-roll
more accurately and separate it from other maladies with which it has
been confused.

CAUSE OF LEAF-ROLL.

The hypotheses as to the cause of leaf-roll are numerous but exceed-
ingly varied. They have indeed only one point in common—that
all are as yet unproved. It has been argued by one that leaf-roll
results from the use of unripe tubers for seed; by another, that it is
due to the employment of matured tubers for seed; while a third
believes that seed from prematurely ripened plants is a cause of leaf-
roll. The disease is attributed by some to a lack of mineral elements
in the soil, while others advance evidence that it is caused or agera-
vated by an oversupply of these same mineral elements. Poor
cultural methods, lack of seed selection, and varietal degeneration are
other suggested causes. ‘The struggle between those who believe
leaf-roll due to fungi and those who think it nonparasitic is nearly
fought out, with the victory apparently in sight for the latter. Many
signs now point to the plant breeder as the one who will finally
triumph over this malady.

The present-day opinions on the cause of leaf-roll may be briefly
reviewed. (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911.)

The relation of fungi to leaf-roll has already been briefly summa-
rized. Much more on this pomt will be found in the writings of
Himmelbaur, of Kéck and Kornauth, and of Appel and Schlumberger.
(See “ Bibliography,” pp. 44-48.)

On the question of using mature or immature seed, Hiltner (1905)
is the leading advocate of the stand that the immature seed stock
gives an abnormal growth. On later evidence, he limits this to
those potatoes which are prematurely ripened by drought or other
untoward circumstances. Against this is to be balanced the very
extensive use, with good results, of immature tubers for planting. In
Scotland, particularly, this is held to be the best practice. Hiltner
(Appel and Schlumberger, 1911) further holds leaf-roll to be the
result of excessive applications of fertilizer of unbalanced composition
at the wrong time. He considers that the concentrated salts, espe-
cially potash salts, enter the roots and cause a disturbance in nutrition.
Through the presence of these salts in the vessels, the water in them
is prevented from rising. He thinks that these salts also favor the

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 35

entrance of fungi into the vessels. In this connection it may be
noted that no fertilizers are used in Colorado, but that, according to
Headden (1910), an abnormally large amount of nitrogen is present
in these soils.

Experimental evidence on the effect of fertilizers is brought forward
by Osterspek (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911), who comes to the fol-
lowing conclusions:

(1) The leaf-roll occurred most severely where no fertilizer was used.

(2) The second degree of severity was where the potash salts were left out.

(3) The absence of phosphoric acid favored the leaf-roll to a lesser degree, though
still perceptibly.

(4) The use of a complete fertilizer, with nitrate of soda, superphosphate, and
potash salts, tends to reduce the prevalence of leaf-roll.

(5) A second application of nitrate of soda after stable manure or after a complete
commercial fertilizer reduced the leaf-roll.

Many practical growers have attributed leaf-roll to defective
cultural conditions, poor soil, ete. Stérmer (1911) also subscribes
to this view: “Through such means as the selection of the smallest
potatoes for seed stock, poor preparation of the soil, excessive appli-
cations of commercial fertilizers, heating of the potatoes in the silo,
etc., a degeneration of the stock may be brought about and with this
the leaf-roll.”” However, he has not yet exact proof of this. He
believes that a hereditary leaf-roll may be caused by soil influence,
“that one and the same potato may degenerate or remain healthy,
according to the place where grown.”’ He reports having succeeded
in bringing up the vigor of a weak stock by growing it in one year on
a poor, sandy soil. This leads us to the consideration of the problem
from the varietal viewpoint.

VARIETAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE TO LEAF-ROLL.

The first appearance of leaf-roll in Germany was on the variety
Magnum Bonum and was considered as an evidence of varietal
deterioration (Schultz [Soest], 1905). Magnum Bonum is one of the
older varieties. It has also been one of the most popular and, since
its introduction from England, has become one of the most widely
cultivated potatoes in Germany and Austria. It has everywhere
proved the most susceptible to leaf-roll, but those who take this to
be proof of the general ‘‘running out” of the variety have to meet
several counter arguments. Healthy stocks of Magnum Bonum are
still to be found. The leaf-roll attacks many other varieties, and it
occurs even on plants grown from seed.

As to the relative susceptibility or resistance of American varieties
there are almost no data. The Pearl, in the West, seems more lable
to the trouble and may have to give way, like the Magnum Bonum.
In Germany, however, extensive records are already kept by the
German, Potato-Culture Station (Von Eckenbrecher, 1912) and others.

36 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It is not thought worth while to reproduce here the tables and sum-
maries of these variety tests. The varieties grown in Europe are
almost entirely different from those grown in the United States, and
repeated experiences have shown that few of them will thrive here if
introduced. In general, the indications are that varietal differences
in susceptibility to leaf-roll do exist, but that the tests need to be
carried on longer before any conclusions are drawn respecting given
varieties. It seems certain that leaf-roll is not a result of ‘‘running
out” of varieties through old age, for many quite recently originated
strains are affected. More striking still is its occurrence im seedlings,
which has been observed by several workers.

There have been unusual opportunities to study the occurrence of
leaf-roll in the Stuart collection of 10,000 seedlings, where perhaps
the most striking feature was that the leaf-roll was confined to certain
numbers. The five hills of a kind would be uniformly affected, while
those on either side were perfectly healthy. Clearly, the disease is
not due entirely to soil or climatic influences, and certamly there was
no indication of fungous infection. The marked contrast between
diseased and healthy rows is well shown in Plate VI, in which the
left-hand row is a hybrid (No. 2171) between Sophie and Keeper, the
healthy row on the right bemg from the same cross (No. 2165).

An interesting suggestion is put forward by Hedlund (1910), that
leaf-roll is a pathological, adaptative mutation, and, further, that sce
acquired characters are not inherited the leaf-roll character must be
latent m normal potatoes.

CONTROL OF LEAF-ROLL.

No measure offers more hope of success in controlling leaf-roll than
the use of better seed stocks. Three means may be used to bring
this about: First and simplest, the importation of seed potatoes from
districts where the disease is unknown. ‘This affords relief but may
not greatly raise the standard of quality. Second, hill selection, to
pick out from weak varieties strains that will withstand the disease.
This has been done already by Von Lochow (1910), who took several
types from the variety Professor Wohltmann and bred them in pure
lines. The result was that certain of these pure strains showed sus-
ceptibility to leaf-roll, while others remained entirely or nearly free
from it. Third, new varieties may be bred from seed. This, while
requiring the most time, may be the best means for meeting the
requirements where whole districts are attacked, as in the Colorado
outbreak. That such good varieties can be produced one can hardly
doubt after seeing the departmental collection of over 10,000 seed-
lings with its infinite variety of disease-resistant qualities.

It is the prevailing opinion of European investigators that leaf-roll
is inherited—i. e., that the tubers from diseased hills will produce
diseased progeny. Cases are cited where the first crop after the

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 37

appearance of the disease was normal, but later harvests fell to
nothing. No reliable results are available in this country. Con-
flicting reports come from farmers in the Greeley section; but, as no
pathologist accustomed to the diagnosis of leaf-roll saw either crop,
the relative amount of disease in home-grown and outside seed
remains unknown.

It seems a wise precaution to use only selected seed from such
sources as Minnesota and Wisconsin for planting next year where
leaf-roll occurred last season. It may be that the disease will not
appear on crops from home seed, but the chances are that it will.

The introduction of new and more vigorous varieties affords a
still more hopeful means of ultimately controlling the situation. The
problem of finding the best source of seed is the most important one
now confronting potato growers in the region affected by these
troubles. What is needed are selected stocks, true to name, with
vigor unimpaired and free from disease. The present difficulty is
that it is almost impossible to find such potatoes in large quantities.
Where growers have made experiments with outside seed they have,
as a rule, made their purchases in the open market or from middlemen
who have filled their orders with uninspected stocks, for which reason
no conclusions can be drawn from any experiments to date.

There is fortunately a movement to organize among potato growers
in the principal Northern States, and this is backed by their State
experiment stations in a way that should in time make a supply of
reliable seed available.

It would be well to follow the example of Germany, where a
system of official inspection is being inaugurated, through which
growers and purchasers may be assured that the crop from a given
estate is free from leaf-roll. Such a certificate can be granted only
after an inspection of the growing crop. The importance of such an
inspection in midsummer by a representative of the purchaser or by
an official expert can not be overstated. It is entirely impossible to
determine the vigor and freedom from leaf-roll of a stock of potatoes
after harvest.

The practical phases of such a system of seed inspection and
certification will be discussed more fully in a later publication.

CURLY-DWARF.

Under the name ‘‘curly-dwarf’’ there is to be differentiated from
the leaf-roll a peculiar disorder, characterized by a dwarfed devel-
opment of the potato plant, accompanied by a pronounced curling
and wrinkling of the foliage, which has been compared to Scotch
kale and Savoy cabbage. It is known in Germany as “ Kriusel-
krankheit.’”’ The accompanying illustrations from photographs
(Pls. X and XI) show the typical appearance of this disease more
clearly than the printed description.

38 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The stem and its branches, the leat petioles, and even the midribs
and veins of the leaves all tend to be shortened in many cases to a
very marked extent, and particularly in the upper nodes of the
plant, so that the foliage is thickly clustered. The diminished
growth of the leaf veins, in proportion to the parenchyma, results
in a bullate, wrinkled leaf, often strongly curled downward. There
seems also to be a tendency to form more secondary branches than
is normal, and as these remain short and have curly leaves the com-
pactness of the plants is more striking. The stems are also very
brittle.

COLOR OF THE FOLIAGE.

The color of the foliage in curly-dwarf is typically a normal green,
except that in very severe or advanced cases there is a lighter green
or yellow color sometimes accompanied by brown or reddish flecks
in the leaves where the tissues are dying. Typical curly-dwarf is
readily distinguished from leaf-roll by the wrinkled or downward
curling of the leaves, the normal color of the foliage, and the firmness
of the leaves, which do not lack turgidity.

The tuber yield of curly-dwarf plants is greatly curtailed. Severe
cases have no tubers, and many such have been observed. In others
a few small potatoes are formed. ‘This difference in productivity is
strikingly shown in the photograph reproduced in Plate XIII, figure 2,
of the yield from curly-dwarf hills compared with adjoining healthy

The nature and cause of this disease remain unknown. No evidence
of fungi or other parasites have been found. There is neither brown-
ing nor mycelium in stems and tubers, but the curly-dwarf is trans-
mitted through the seed. The hereditary nature of the trouble is
attested by the German authorities, and it has been observed by the
writer in the case of some hill selections made by Prof. Stuart in
1911 and planted in the Arlington greenhouses that winter. The
tubers from diseased hills all developed into curly-dwarf plants, while
those from healthy hills remained normal. Equally good evidence of
the transmission of this diseased condition through the tubers was
afforded by the Stuart seedling collection of 1913, which, as described
under leaf-roll, was planted in 2-hill tuber units. No. 4033 had 4 pairs
of curly-dwarf and 5 pairs of healthy hills in the following order: Two
normal hills, 2 curly-dwarf, 2 normal, 2 curly-dwarf, 2 normal, 2 curly-
dwarf, 2 normal, 4 curly-dwarf,2 normal. No.13016 had the first two
hills normal, the next two curly-dwarf. No. 13372 had 4 normal hills,
then 4 curly-dwarf, 1 normal, 1 curly-dwarf, and 2 normal. No. 14637 _
had hills Nos. 1 and 2 normal, and 3 and 4 curly-dwarf; and these
examples might be multiplied many times. The few exceptions where
single hills developed the disease may be due to an error in dropping
the seed or to planting a small tuber whole.

Ca as

; = oe

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 39
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION.

In Europe curly-dwarf is apparently not sufficiently common to
have any economic significance. The literature on this subject must,
however, be interpreted with an understanding of the confusion of
terms among the older authors, who often used the word ‘‘Krausel-
krankheit”’ as a collective term for curly-dwarf, leaf-roll, bacterial
ring disease, and still others (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911; Frank,
1897; Kithn, 1859). Evidence is also found in the old English
literature that a varietal deterioration called ‘‘curl’’ was frequent
even in the nineteenth century (Dickson, 1814; Shirreff, 1814;
Townley, 1847; Foster, 1905). It is impossible to know whether
this trouble was leaf-roll or curly-dwarf; but the thought suggests
itself that there have been periods, or cycles, of decline in potato
varieties, followed by the rejuvenation due to introduction of new
sorts. Jt may be that such a period of decline is now beginning, as
manifested by the appearance of leaf-roll and similar troubles in the
principal potato countries during recent years.

In the United States it is probable that curly-dwarf plays a lange
role in the deterioration of potatoes. It is commonly met with in
New England and New York fields, though not always recognized, as
the larger plants overshadow and conceal the weaklings. The writer

-has sought this type of deterioration in potato fields in many States

from Maine to California, and has found it to be not infrequent in
occurrence, but that its presence in the average field is limited to
scattered plants, usually less than 2 per cent. Field-to-field inspec-
tion in important potato districts has, however, resulted in the dis-
covery of some fields where a larger percentage, even half or more of
the plants, showed curly-dwarf. Some of these fields showed weak-
ness in other ways, through failures to germinate, blackleg, mosaic
disease, and general lack of vigor.

In another instance a strain of potatoes was banne grown by a pro-
gressive, careful farmer, who had adopted the hill-selection method
to increase vigor and suodineiremees, yet a considerable proportion
went down with curly-dwarf in 1913, three years after the selection
ceased. The 1912 crop was normal in appearance but was subjected
to severe drought. This is of interest in connection with the belief
that prevails in some quarters that dry years induce this type of
trouble. The same grower shipped a portion of his 1912 crop to a
southern State for the early spring planting, and much curly-dwarf
appeared in the fields of the purchaser.

It seems evident that this is a physiological disorder, resulting in
a permanent deterioration of the stock. It may develop at any time

_as a result of conditions not yet fully understood, and the vigor of the

affected strain apparently can not be restored.

40 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This is a problem in varietal decline that should receive earnest con-
sideration. The prevalence of such weak plants should be ascer-
tained in any stock intended for propagation, and measures undertaken
to provide disease-free seed potatoes in sufficient quantity to meet
all demands.

There are all grades of the condition above described, from pro-
nounced types of curly-dwarf to those approaching norzai vigor. It
will furthermore be apparent that this is a difference inherent in the
varieties or strains under observation. Schander has described a
related condition as the ‘‘Barbarossa disease,’? so named because
it is characteristic of the German variety Barbarossa, In every
potato field are found some weaklings, or plants which are merely
small, without any curled leaves or dwarfed stems, and without the

fungous lesions described under “ Rosette.”’ The extent to which these

small plants represent a permanent deterioration in the vigor of the
stock, and thus a condition related to the curly-dwarf, is a problem
not yet settled. Certainly such weaklings should be eliminated when
improved seed is desired.

CONTROL OF CURLY-DWARF.

Since potatoes from diseased hills can not be restored to vigor, all
such should be rejected for planting. The occurrence of any consider-
able number in a field may be taken as evidence of a general decline,
requiring that the entire stock be given up and new seed substituted.

It has already been demonstrated by Prof. Stuart that we have in
the method of tuber selection outlined by Webber (1908) a means
by which all diseased potatoes may be eliminated from a stock,
since when all tubers are cut into four pieces and these planted in
adjacent hills all those which show inherited weakness may be
eliminated and only the strongest and most productive selected.

ROSETTE.

Phases of leaf-roll and curly-dwarf marked by dwarfed growth
and the formation of aerial tubers have been described. These symp-
toms may, however, result from another cause—the stem lesions
due to Rhizoctonia, and no attempt to differentiate potato troubles
can be successful which does not take into considera‘ion the varied
effects of thisfungus. It must be recognized that Rhizoctonia appears
to be a more active parasite in America than in Europe and to play a
greater réle in the Western States than in the Eastern.

Since this article is written primarily to effect a diagnosis of

potato troubles, it will not be necessary to review the facts already

well known to pathologists relative to the occurrence of Rhizoctonia
on its various hosts or to discuss the relationship and parasitism of
the several known strains. This subject is being fully reinvestigated

PLATE XV

Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

CELEB} ‘OHVG]
‘SWousr ‘MVHS "G 'H Ad GSHdVYDOLOHd) “3DVITO4
AHL NO LO3d4dq SLLSSOY SHL ONIONGOYd NALIO
‘SAaLS JO 3aSVq SHL LV SNOISS] VINOLOOZIHY—'S “DIA

"6061
‘YSGWSaldasS “HSVAA ‘YSNNOO VW] ‘WAALS SHL
JO 3SVG SH1L LV SNOISS7 OL 3NQ SYREN L IWIeAYy
SNIMOHS ‘OLVLOd NO LO344q VINOLOOZIHY—"}] "SI4

PLATE XVI.

Bul. 64, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

HLIM NOSINVdWOD HOS)

(‘, ayundl4
"LNV1d OLVLOd VNSUN”Z AHLIVAH—'S “SIS

"C1L6L ‘ASNOHNASZYD

NOLONITYY NI ALSIYVA VHSYN>A

"3SVasiq OIVSO|[| OLVLOd—"} “SI

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 41

by Dr. H. A. Edson, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It is, how-
ever, important to mention that types of potato disease are not
infrequently encountered which simulate in one character or another
the leaf-roll, the curly-dwarf, and sometimes blackleg, but which
is believed to be associated with Rhizoctonia, although it must be
admitted that the proof is somewhat scanty.

This fungus is almost ubiquitous on potato tubers in its sclerotial
form; small black mycelial masses superficially attached to the epi-
dermis without evidence of parasitism may be found on tubers from
every State. In other cases a russet scab or cracking is attributed to
the same fungus, and lesions are formed on the underground stem and
stolons. The fruiting stage, Corticuwm vagum solani Burt (1 ypochnus
solani Prill), is tamed on the green stem above ground and is inenely,
a superficial nonparasitic layer over healthy tissues.

The reaction of the potato plant to Rhizoctonia infection depends
upon the part attacked. If this be the stolons, the young tubers are
cut off, and this process, taking place in the heavy irrigated soils of
the West, is held by Rolfs (1902, 1904) to be the cause of that type of
potato failures in which large overgrown vines produce few or only
small tubers. If the lesions encircle and girdle the main stem near
the soil line, the result will be the formation of numerous aerial tubers
(Pl. XV, fig. 1) formed as a result of the destruction of the phloem
and the prevention of carbohydrate translocation. The same result
would follow mechanical girdling. This type of injury sometimes
results in a leaf-roll that is hard to distinguish from the genuine leaf-
roll until the plant is pulled and the stem injury noted. Such plants
were conspicuous in the Red River Valley in Minnesota in 1913.
There may have been a complication with blackleg there, but there
was no leaf-roll. Inthe San Luis Valley of Colorado, also, the Rhizoc-
tonia injury is reported by Edson and Wollenweber to take a form
strongly simulating leaf-roll.

Rhizoctonia lesions on the young hypocotyl, such as are figured
in Plate XV, figure 2, cause a dwarfed growth described by Selby
as rosette. The condition figured by him closely approaches curly-
dwarf, and the question is well worth raising in the case of stunted
plants bearing Rhizoctonia lesions whether their vigor had not been
impaired prior to infection.

One can pass through potato fields in Ohio and Wisconsin, for
example, and on pulling the small, weak, or rosette plants find
many, but usually not all, with these stem lesions. So far as the
writer knows, no one has planted the tubers from such hills to learn
whether the weakness is transmissible. The case for Rhizoctonia is
weakened, however, when one finds the stem lesion on vigorous, out-
wardly healthy hills as well as on the rosette examples. The subject
clearly needs further investigation.

42 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MOSAIC.

The potato mosaic is an abnormal condition of the foliage charac-
terized by a spotted or mottled appearance of the leaves, portions of
which are lighter green in color and with thinner, less perfectly devel-
oped parenchyma than the normal. In the later stages, brown flecks
of dead tissues may appear. These light-green areas vary consid-
erably in size in different cases, from definite patches of 5, 10, or 20
millimeters, with fairly distinct demarcation between diseased and
healthy tissues, to an indefinite punctate type where a thin yellow-
green spot of leaf tissue merges gradually into the apparently normal.
The latter has been the more common on potatoes in the writer’s
observations to date, while the former is more frequent in the mosaic
diseases of tobacco, tomato, and other plants. Reference to Plate
XVI, figure 1 will make these points clearer than pages of text. There
are phases of mosaic where it might be inferred that the plants under
observation were of varieties having naturally irregular, curled, or
wrinkled foliage, were it not for the contrast with the healthy plants
alongside. (Pl. XVI, fig. 2.)

Cases of potato mosaic have been observed with the abnormal ©
leaf areas so large and so clearly marked as to suggest variegations,
such as are familiar-among ornamental plants. True variegations
occur somewhat rarely in potato foliage, but the writer has seen one
variety all the plants of which had variegated green and yellow-
white leaves. This sort, appropriately named the ‘‘Harlequin,”
was grown in 1911 in a variety test on the experimental grounds
of the Landwirtschaftliches Institut at Goettingen, Germany. As
might be expected, it was sas in vigor as compared with the
other varieties.

The effect of mosaic on the growth and development of potato
plants is quite marked. Most conspicuous is the irregular, distorted,
or wrinkled foliage. This effect is manifestly due to the imperfect
development of the diseased portions of the leaf parenchyma. The
plants are also smaller, except in the mildest cases. The effect on
the yield was tested by harvesting 80 mosaic hills and 80 healthy
hills of the Green Mountain variety, on September 10, 1913. The
yield of the diseased plants was 94.4 pounds; and of the healthy,
120.8 pounds, a difference of 22 per cent.

Typical potato mosaic can not be confounded with typical curly-
dwarf. The former is marked by abnormalities in the leaf paren-
chyma while the especial characteristic of the latter is the restricted
development of the vascular elements. There do occur, however,
some intergrading forms that present puzzles that will doubtless be
cleared up later when both diseases have been more fully studied.

No references to potato mosaic have been found in the literature.
It was first observed by the writer in 1911 in a field at Giessen, Ger-
many, where it was not uncommon, especially on some varieties.

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 438

In 1912, it was exceedingly prevalent in some fields of Green Moun-
tain in Aroostook County, Me. The number of plants affected
varied from 1 per cent up to practically 100 per cent. Some fields
of several acres were seen where hardly a normal plant could be
found. The disease was present again in 1913 in the same district,
always on the Green Mountain variety. Mosaic has not been found
in the potato districts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Colorado, or other
Western States, though an extended survey of these States was
made in 1912 and 1913.

There is evidently much difference in varietal susceptibility.
Hundreds of fields were examined in Maine where the Green Mountain
variety was growing side by side with Irish Cobbler, but practically
no mosaic was observed in the latter, whereas it was very common in
the former.. There appears to exist also a corresponding difference
in the tendency of strains or stocks of the same variety toward mosaic.
Different fields of the Green Mountain variety showed from none to
100 per cent of diseased plants. An experiment in the Arlington
greenhouses further demonstrated this point, though undertaken for
another purpose—the control of silver scurf. Two greenhouse beds
were planted with the variety Eureka, using seed from two sources.
One lot showed 46 mosaic and 31 healthy plants, eliminating doubtful
cases, or 59.7 per cent diseased. The second lot had 100 per cent
free from mosaic. Portions of the first lot had been treated with
formalin, corrosive sublimate, and heat, with control lots untreated.
These treatments did not appreciably affect the proportions of
mosaic which developed.

That mosaic is transmitted through the tubers is thought to be not
improbable. An experiment to test this was carried out in Maine
_ during the past season with somewhat inconclusive results. Tubers
from mosaic hills marked in 1912 were planted in hill-unit rows, with
controls. The progeny were in part mosaic and in part of a doubtful
character, smaller and less vigorous than the controls, but with less
clearly marked mosaic than the parent hills. On account of some
confusion of the labels, it is thought best to repeat the test before
drawing conclusions.

The cause of potato mosaic is unknown, nor have experiments been
made to determine whether, like the mosaic of tobacco, it is commu-
nicable from plant to plant. Allard (1912) has shown that the tobacco
mosaic can not be transferred from tobacco to potato by inoculation.
The exact nature and relationship of potato mosaic to other similar
troubles remains to be worked out. In this article, which is primarily
diagnostic, it is aimed to point out that such a disease exists and
that it may become a factor in the problem of varietal deterioration —
of such importance as to require consideration when selecting or
inspecting seed stocks for certification or purchase.

44 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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BunzeL, H. H.

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POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 45

CorsBett, L. C.

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Darert, F. ‘W.

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46 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HIMMELBAUR, WOLFGANG.

1912. Die Fusariumblattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Oesterreichisch-Ungarische
Zeitschrift fir Zuckerindustrie und Landwirtschaft, Jahrg. 41, Heft 5, p.
716-744, 13 fig.; Heft 6, p. 944-976, fig. 14-25.

Ir1suH, J. P., jr.

‘1913. The work of the Delta Experiment Farm in 1912. U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 127, p. 3-13, 1 fig.
JAMIESON, CLARA O., and WOLLENWEBER, H. W.

1912. An external dry rot of potato tubers caused by Fusarium trichothecioides,

Wollenw. Journal, Washington Academy of Sciences, v. 2, no. 6, p. 146-152.
Joness, L. R., Grppines, N. J., and Lurman, B. F.

1912. Investigations of the potato fungus Phytophthora infestans. U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 245, 100 p., 10
fig., 10 pl.

Kock, G., and Kornaura, K.

1911. Studien iiber die Ursache der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel und itiber
die Méglichkeit der Uebertragung dieser Krankheit durch das Saatgut und
den Boden. (Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrank-
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Mitteilungen No. 1.

, and Brod, O: :

1912. Bericht iiber die von der k. k. Pflanzenschutzstation im Jahre 1911
durchgefiihrten Versuche zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel.
(Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kar-
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Oesterreich, Jahrg. 15, Heft 3, p. 179-247, 1 fig.

Kornauts, K., and Rrirmar, O.

1909. Die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel und ihr Auftreten in Oéesterreich.
Monatshefte fiir Landwirtschaft, Jahrg. 2, Heft 3, p. 79-90. Also reprinted.

1909. Studien iiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Mit besonderer Beriick-
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Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg.
3, Heft 3, p. 97-125. Also reprinted.

Krauss, FRirz.

1912. Ueber das Auftreten von Pilzen in Kartoffeln. Mitteilungen, Kaiser Wil-
helms Institut fiir Landwirtschaft, Bromberg, Bd. 5, Heft 2, p. 143-170,
fig. 2-7.

Kuan, J. G.

1859. Die Krankheiten der Kulturgewachse, ihre Ursachen und ihre Verhiitung.

Aufl. 2, Berlin, p. 200.
Locuow, F. von.

1910. Priifung auf Leistung bei der Kartoffelziichtung. Illustrierte Landwirt-

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1909. Plant and fruit import regulations. Report, Government Entomologist,
[Cape of Good Hope], 1908, p. 58-60.

1910. Internal plant and fruit regulations. Report, Government Entomologist,
[Cape of Good Hope], 1909, p. 84.

Manns, T. F.

1911. Fusarium blight (wilt) and dry rot of the potato. Preliminary studies
and field experiments. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 229,
p. 299-337, illus.

me
ie

POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 47

Orton, W. A.

1902-1907. Plant diseases in the United States in 1901-1906. U. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1901, p. 668-672; 1902, p. 714-719; 1903, p.
550-555; 1904, p. 581-586; 1905, p. 602-611; 1906, p. 409-508.

1909. Potato diseases in San Joaquin county, California. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 23, 14 p.

1913. Potato leaf-roll. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Indus-
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1913. Powdery dry-rot of the potato. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Circular 110, p. 138-15.

Preruysrivce, G. H.

1910. Potato diseases in Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical
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1911. Leaf roll and ‘‘curl.’? Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
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QuansER, H. M.

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1912. Biologische Studien iiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. (Mitteilun-
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Remy, Tu., and ScHNEIDER, G.

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Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, Jahre. 58, Heft 6, p. 201-219.
Rotrs, F. M.

1902. Potato failures. A preliminary report. Colorado Agricultural Experi-
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1904. Potato failures. A second report. Colorado Agricultural Experiment
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ScHANDER, RICHARD.

[1911.] Versuche mit Stecklingen, Veredelungen usw. Mitteilungen, Kaiser
Wilhelms Institut fiir Landwirtschaft, Bromberg, Bd. 4, Heft 1, p. 57-58.

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liche Presse, Jahrg. 32, No. 91, p. 760, fig. 872-875.
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1903. Studies in potato rosette. II. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin 145, p. 15-28, 4 fig.

48 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SHIRREFF, JOHN.

1814. On the curled disorder in potatoes. Memoirs, Caledonian Horticultural

Society, v. 1, p. 60-64.
Smit, Erwin F.

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and Swinete, D. B.

1904. The dry rot of potatoes due to Fusarium oxysporum. U.S. Department

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[SoRAUER, PAULt.]

1913. Die neueren Untersuchungen von Quanjer iiber die Ursache der Blatt-
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SPIECKERMANN, A.

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8, 1910, p. 1-19.

Srewakrt, F. C.

1896. Potato diseases on Long Island in the season of 1895. New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 101, p. 83-86.

1897. Another stem-blight of potatoes. New York State Agricultural Experi-
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1898. The communicability of potato stem-blight. New York State Agricul-
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Stormer, K. .

1910. Die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffeln. Illustrierte Landwirtschaftliche
Zeitung, Jahrg. 30, No. 60, p. 565-566.

1911. Abbau und Wiederauffrischung von Kartoffelsorten durch Bodeneinfliisse.
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TOWNLEY, JOHN.

1847. The limited duration of varieties of the potato, and the progressive deteri-
oration of the plant as a species, proved by a consideration of the curl, dry-rot,
and other diseases. In his The Diseases, Regeneration, & Galiare of the
Potato... London, p. 67-85.

Vanua, J. V.

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fung. Monatshefte fiir Landwirtschaft, Jahrg. 3, Heft 9, p. 268-276, 2 fig.
Also reprinted.

VoLKART, A.

1908. Pflanzenschutz. Die Schweiz. Samenuntersuchungs- und Versuchsan-
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WEBBER, H. J.

1908. Plant breeding for farmers. New York Cornell Agricultural Experiment

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WoLLENWEBER, H. W.

1911. Untersuchungen iiber die natiirliche Verbreitung der Fusarien an der
Kartoffel. Mitteilungen, Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und
Forstwirtschaft, [Germany], Heft 11, p. 20-23.

1913. Pilzparasitire Welkekrankheiten der Kulturpflanzen. Berichte, Deuts-
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fig. 1, pl. 5.
O

“fs, BULLETIN OF THE

USDEDARTNENT OFACRICULL

No. 65

y
\
S$

‘Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.
February 14, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (“FORAGE
POISONING”).

By Joun R. Moutsr, V. M. D., Chief of the Pathological Dwision.
INTRODUCTION.

About 100 years ago (1813) there appeared in Wurttemberg a fatal
' disease of horses which was termed ‘‘head disease”’ owing to the pro-
nounced manifestation of brain symptoms. The affection spread
through certain sections of Europe from 1824 to 1828 and was de-
scribed as ‘‘fever of the nerves.”’ In 1878 the attention of the veter-
inarians of Saxony was attracted to the disease, which was then
termed ‘‘nervous sickness,’’ and within the next 10 years it assumed
an epizootic character. In fact the malady became so prevalent in
and around Borna (near Leipsic, Germany) during the nineties that
it became known as the Borna disease. The affection has spread like
a plague on two occasions in Belgium, and has also exacted a heavy
toll in Russia, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, and elsewhere. Its
appearance in America is by no means of recent occurrence, for the
malady was reported by Large in 1847, by Michener in 1850, and by
Liautard in 1869 as appearing in both sporadic and enzootic form in
several of the Eastern States. Since then the disease has occurred
periodically in many States in all sections of the country, and has been
the subject of numerous investigations and publications by a number
of the leading men of the veterinary profession. It is prevalent with
more or less severity every year in certain parts of the United States,
and during the year 1912 the Bureau of Animal Industry received
urgent requests for help from Colorado, Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Ken-
tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North
Carolina, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia, and West
Virginia. While in 1912 the brunt of the disease seemed to fall on
Kansas and Nebraska, other States were also seriously afflicted.
In previous years, for instance in 1882 as well as in 1897, the horses of
southeastern Texas were reported to have died by the thousand, and

Nortr.—This publication gives information about a serious disease of horses; it is especially suited to
veterinarians in the States west of the Mississippi River and in the South.

29575°—14

2 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the following year the horses of lowa were said to have ‘‘died like
rats.”” However, Kansas seems to have had more than her share of
this trouble, as a severe outbreak that extended over almost the entire
State occurred in 1891, while in 1902 and again in 1906 the disease
recurred with equal severity in various portions of the State.

NOMENCLATURE.

There has always been considerable discussion and criticism re-
garding the different names which have been given this malady, and
various terms have been applied according as each author in past
outbreaks has considered certain symptoms or lesions as the para-
mount feature of the affection. Thus the disease has been termed
“cramp of theneck,” “head disease,’’ “‘mad staggers,” ‘‘sleepystaggers,”’
etc. Through therecent investigations of Grimm, Schmidt, and others
it has been quite definitely established that ‘“‘head disease,’ Borna
disease, and cerebrospinal meningitis are one and the same, and
Hutyra and Marek have accepted this opinion and incorporated it
in their ‘Special Pathology.’ While at first the Borna disease was
considered as a form of cerebrospinal meningitis, the work of Johne
and Ostertag (1900) indicated that it was an independent disease,
because they failed to find any inflammatory changes in the central
neryous system.. Accepting this view, Friedberger and Fréhner
have separated the two diseases in their ‘“‘Theory and Practice,”’
basing their differential diagnosis chiefly on the absence of inflam-
mation in the brain and cord of Borna disease. However, since the
publication of this excellent work in 1904, Oppenheim, Dexler,
Schmidt, and others have shown conclusively that inflammatory
lesions are present in the central nervous system, although Dexler
has pointed out that in some cases it is necessary to make a sys-
tematic examination of a number of slides to discover the inflamma-
tory changes. As a result the more recent writers have adopted
the viewpoint that the two terms, Borna disease and cerebrospinal
meningitis, are synonymous.

When this disease appeared with such severity im certain sections
of the United States in the summer of 1912, there were a number of
persons who claimed that it was the Borna disease appearing in the
New World for the first time; others diagnosed it as a new horse
disease, as influenza, parasitism (due to the palisade worm), paralysis
similar to poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) of man, epidemic cerebro-
spinal meningitis of man, and equine malaria from the fact that
mosquitoes were prevalent and the horses were in lowlands. These
erroneous diagnoses, while participated in to a certain extent by
some veterinarians, were usually the opinions of physicians, chem-
ists, bacteriologists who were not veterinarians, and others of limited
veterinary experience. However, the vast majority of veterinary

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). 3

practitioners recognized the disease as their old torment—cerebro-
spinal meningitis, staggers, or forage poisoning.

The latter name came into the literature of the disease as a
synonym in 1900 following the investigation of an outbreak by
Pearson. He was able to reproduce the disease in experiment
horses by feeding them on damaged silage, and by giving them
water to drink which had percolated through this silage. Doubtless
influenced by the frequent absence of microscopic lesions of the
central nervous system, and by the analogy between this disease
and meat poisoning of man, Pearson proposed the name forage
poisoning, which has been more or less in favor ever since. There
are certain objections to this term, principally from the fact that it
may suggest a form of poisoning produced by vegetation that is
specifically poisonous, such as lupines, loco, larkspur, etc., or by
ordinary forage that is poisonous of itself. This, however, was not
the intention of Pearson, for by his analogy to meat poisoning it is
evident that he did not wish to convey the impression that all forage
was poisonous any more than all meat is poisonous. But when
meat becomes contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, such as the
Bacillus enteritidis, B. botulinis, etc., such meat is dangerous to
man in the same manner that ordinary forage contaminated with
certain unknown infective agents becomes dangerous to horses and
produces forage poisoning. In other words, the forage is the carrier
and not the primary factor in the disease. On the other hand,
this term has a direct advantage in being readily understood in
popular usage and in conveying to the layman’s mind that an
absolute change in feed is essential.

After years of study and experimentation it is the consensus of
opinion of practically all investigators that the disease can be con-
trolled effectively only by a total change of feed and forage; in other
words, by preventive measures and not by medicinal treatment.
That there is direct connection between ingestion of green forage,
exposed pasturage, newly cut hay and fodder, and the development
of the disease is quite obvious, and that the ingestion of such forage
when contaminated is the most important factor is equally obvious,
as almost 100 per cent of the cases in Kansas and over 95 per cent
of the cases in Nebraska of which we have any record were maintained
all or part of the time under such conditions. Even such negative
history is not always dependable, as the owner on one farm informed
the writer positively that the dead horses had eaten nothing except
old hay and grain, but when notice was taken of the closely cropped
grass In an adjacent pasture he innocently remarked that he always
turned the work horses into the pasture over night. In fact in some
sections ‘‘pasture disease”’ is the designation for this malady.

4 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Other names which have been given to this affection are epizootic
encephalo-myelitis, meningo-encephalitis and meningo-myelitis, en-
zootice cerebritis, leuco-encephalitis, etc., but the writer prefers the
old-fashioned terms cerebrospinal meningitis for the scientific term
and ‘‘blind staggers’’ for the lay term. That the symptom of stag- .
gering is one of the most common mainfestations of the disease is
shown by the clinical observations of Schmidt, who has made a close
study of 415 cases, 377 of which developed staggering symptoms
while standing or walking. The only symptom which occurred more
frequently was the loss of appetite appearing in 410 animals, while
the symptoms next in prominence were grinding of the teeth, which
was observed in 349 cases, and difficulty in swallowing, which occurred

in 335 cases.
ETIOLOGY.

Unfortunately no specific bacteria, fungus, virus, or other toxic

principle has yet been found which can be considered as the cause ~

of cerebrospinal meningitis in the horse. It is quite true that bac-
teriological investigation has given us a number of different organ-
isms by an equal number of different investigators, each of whom
has thought his particular organism to be the causative agent of the
disease; but the fact remains that the four rules laid down by Koch
have ‘bt been met’ with ‘sufficient regularity to make the results
satisfactory to the disinterested worker. Further investigations are
necessary to decide which, if any, of the reported organisms is the
true cause of the disease. That the disease may not have an etio-
logical entity has been suggested by Weichselbaum, Hutyra, and
Marek. This would seem quite probable if all the claims for the
following different etiological factors were to be accepted. For
instance, Siedamgrotsky and Schlegel incriminated a micrococcus as
the cause of the disease. On the other hand, Johne found diplococei
in the cerebrospinal fluid which he termed Diplococcus intracellularis
equi. Again, Ostertag recovered streptococci in short chains from
the blood, liver, urine, and brain of affected horses. These organ-
isms he termed Borna streptococci. Harrison of Canada isolated a
streptococcus from the brains of horses affected with cerebrospinal
meningitis which was quite similar to Ostertag’s, although it differed
in forming capsules, staining by Gram’s method, refusing to grow
well on gelatin, and in proving virulent for laboratory animals. In:
Minnesota, Wilson and Brimhall have also incriminated a diplococcus
as the cause of cerebrospinal meningitis of horses, cattle, sheep, and
pigs, and proved it to be the Dziplococcus pneumonie of Frankel.
They likewise claimed to have isolated the Micrococcus intracellularis
meningitidis of Weichselbaum from the central nervous system of a
cow showing symptoms of spinal meningitis. This latter organism

2a ee eee

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). 5

is also reported to have been found by Christiana in primary sporadic
meningitis in the horse and in a goat.

The remarkable part of all the above investigations is that each
author considers his particular organism as the etiological factor of
the disease, and the majority of these writers believe they have suc-
ceeded in producing the disease in horses by the inoculation of these
differing agents. Some of these positive results are readily explained
by the large quantity of turbid fluid injected under the dura. The
inoculation of 5 and 10 c. c. doses of a heavy emulsion of any organism
is likely to produce an irritation, and the inflammation set up by
such foreign material will necessarily produce exudation with ac-
companying mechanical pressure, so that it is not surprising to read
in the post-mortem notes of some of these cases that the meninges
bulged through the opening on cutting through the bones of the skull.

Schmidt, of Dresden, is of the opinion that the nature of the infec-
tious principle is not settled, and believes that the cocci and dip-
lococci which have been described as causative factors will in future
be deprived of their pathogenic relationship.

In two outbreaks of forage poisoning investigated by Moore, of
Cornell, one gave negative results from a bacteriological standpoint,
while in the other pure cultures of the colon bacillus were obtained
from the brain.

Grimm, working in Zwick’s laboratory in Berlin, isolated strepto-
cocci from horses affected with head disease or staggers, which were
not essentially different from the Borna streptococci of Ostertag.
Owing to the regularity with which these cocci were taken from the
brains of horses with ‘head disease’’—cocci which Grimm stated
possessed slight, if any, properties necessary to make them causal
factors of disease—the question arose whether the same microorgan-
isms are not also found in the brains of healthy horses. Grimm ob-
tained the heads of 10 horses which were killed at the Zoological
Garden for the animals, and which were by examination found to be
free from any indication of cerebrospinal meningitis. In the brains
of these healthy horses he found cocci (staphylococci and strepto-
cocci), although cultures were made within a few hours after death,
and at least one strain has shown many similarities to the streptococcus

found by Ostertag.

These results of Grimm’s work are very similar to the results of the
Bureau of Animal Industry. In horses which have died of forage
poisoning it is not a difficult task to recover various forms of cocci; in
fact, too many forms to make them all of etiological significance, while
in those cases which have been killed in the late stages of the disease
it is of common occurrence to have all the culture media inoculated
with the various tissues remain sterile. On the other hand, we found
micrococci, diplococci, streptococci, and staphylococci so frequently

-_—

6 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the brains of horses which have died of dourine, swamp fever, influ-
enza, etc., that we have come to consider these organisms as repre-
senting an agonal invasion from the intestines without causal con-
nection with any definite disease. Like Grimm, we have found some
of these same cocci in the brains of horses that died of forage poison-
ing, and we have also recovered other species, all of which have been
inoculated into experiment horses by various methods, including
intravenous, subcutaneous, subdural, and intralumbar injection, as
well as by spraying the nasal mucous membrane, with the result that
two horses died following a nasal douche and a subdural injection,
respectively, of a pure culture of two different cocci. The post-
mortem on the former showed death to have been due to a strangu-
lated intestine, while the second animal died suddenly without evinc-
ing any characteristic symptoms, although extremely nervous. Post-
mortem examination showed an absence of any pathological lesions
posterior to the brain. The dura mater was inflamed and distended
with a yellowish exudate. The veins and capillaries of the cerebrum
were dilated and engorged with blood, while the third ventricle con-
taineda tumor thesize of awalnut. Althoughthesame organism which
was injected was recovered from the brain tissue, other horses injected
with the recovered culture have continued to remain in a healthy
condition. a aoe :

With the view of obtaining additional information regarding the
significance of these various cocci to the disease in question, an
antigen was prepared from a culture of each organism and tested
against the blood serum obtained from affected horses in the field
for complement fixation and agglutination as in glanders. In no
case was a positive reaction to these tests obtained by the use of any
of the antigens prepared from the different cocci isolated from dis-
eased horses. In this connection it may be noted that from the
number of affections of the horse produced by coccoid organisms,
this animal appears to be particularly susceptible to their action.

Another cause has been suggested for this disease in the finding
of nuclear inclusions by Joest and Degen in the nerve cells of the
hippocampus. These inclusions are similar to the Negri bodies of
rabies, and are rounded or oval in shape, staining intensely with
eosin. A large number of brains from affected horses have been
examined in our laboratory for these bodies, but thus far with nega-
tive results, although the same technique applied to the brains of
rabid animals brings out the Negri bodies with great clearness.

There remains one widely accepted theory as to the causation of
the disease which must be given consideration, namely, fungi on
ilie feed. While most investigators have obtained negative results
when feeding experiment animals upon moldy feed, some few have
reproduced the disease by such feeding. Thus, Mayo reports that a

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). 7

colt fed experimentally upon some of the moldy corn, which was
held responsible for the serious outbreak in Kansas in 1890, developed
the disease and died on the twenty-sixth day. Again, the Kansas
outbreak of 1906 was said by Haslam to have been produced by
immature ears of corn infected by molds, although the exact mold
was not discovered. By feeding horses upon this immature corn
badly infected with molds, typical fatal cases of staggers were pro-
duced in four out of seven horses. Haslam also records the fact
that severe losses of horses have occurred in other States when the
grasses in the pastures became moldy. Klimmer, commenting upon
the negative results obtained in experiments with moldy feed, asserts
that the numerous losses occurring from the feeding of such material
indicates the probability that the experiments were not sufficiently
extensive from which to draw conclusions, and believes that the use
of such feed should be discouraged. Among other writers who have
attributed the disease to toxic fungi are Michener, Trumbower, and
Harbaugh. The latter investigated the serious outbreak of this
disease which occurred in Virginia and North Carolina in 1886, and
claimed that every case of the disease could be traced directly to
moldy feed.

This theory of toxic fungi is not antagonistic to the facts In many
of the best observed outbreaks, and knowing that fungi vary greatly
in growth and in the elimination of various products under different
climatic conditions, we may explain the irregularity of the symptoms
as well as the occurrence of the disease under what may appear*to be
identical conditions. Thus Ceni of Italy states that molds are capable
of producmg poisons, but only at certam stages of their growth, and
at other times they are entirely mactive. A case of this character
was investigated by this bureau several years ago in an outbreak
among the United States Army horses at an encampment in Penn-
sylvania. Many horses had died of cerebrospinal meningitis as a
result of eating moldy baled bay, and as soon as the hay was elimi-
nated the deaths ceased. Other horses in the vicinity not fed upon
this hay failed to contract the disease. At the suggestion of State
Vetermarian Marshall the bales were opened and exposed to the sun
for three or four weeks, after which time this hay was fed sparmgly
at first and later in usual quantities without producing any ill effect.
Forage poisoning therefore seems to be an auto-intoxication rather
than an infection, and due to certam chemical poisons or toxins
formed by organismal activity. These toxins may be present when
the forage is taken mto the body or formed im the gastro-intestinal
canal, and, therefore, the disease is a specific form of auto-intoxication.
The nature of the substance which causes these harmful changes or
the poisonous bodies that are formed remain unknown.

8 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

On account of this very old and very plausible theory so often
advanced, that the disease is due to toxic substances existing in
damaged grain and fodder, a number of species of fungi were isolated
during the past year from damaged corn and forage and grown on a
sterilized corn medium or alfalfa infusion in an effort to produce some
toxic substance that would create disease when fed to horses. The
pure cultures were allowed to grow for periods of one month’s dura-
tion, in flasks containmg 250 cubic centimeters of the nutrient
medium, and the contents of one flask were fed each day for periods
of 30 days, along with a sufficient quantity of sound corn and hay to
make a normal ration; but no symptoms have thus far developed
in the experiment animals, although only about one-half of the number
of pure cultures isolated have thus far been used im this experiment.

It is possible that laboratory conditions alone can not be made to
parallel sufficiently close those which exist naturally in the growing
plants, and that toxic substances which might be produced in a
natural state would not be generated in a corn-meal medium in the
laboratory. The by-products of the growth of both fungi and bacteria
on corn and forage should certamly receive more consideration in
future work. In view of the above information it must appear to
the unbiased mind that the cause of sini poisoning remains an
obscure and puzzling problem.

OCCURRENCE.

Like cerebrospinal meningitis of man, forage poisoning occurs in
sporadic as well as enzootic and epizootic forms. The sporadic
cases occur either in different localities from the epizootic out-
breaks or'in such sparse numbers as not to amount to an enzootic.
Thus the outbreaks are quite variable in extent and severity. Some-
times they become very widespread, causing heavy losses, as in the
recent outbreak in Kansas and Nebraska, while at other times there
are only sporadic cases. Liebener believes that the development of
the cause of the disease in Germany is favored by the rainfalls and
warmth of the earth during summer and autumn. No conclusive
evidence has ever been presented to indicate that the disease is ever
transmitted directly from one horse to another. Sick animals have
been placed alongside of susceptible horses in the same stable without
conveying the disease to the latter, and healthy horses have been
placed in stalls previously occupied by animals which died of the
disease, and have eaten from the same mangers without previous
disinfection, but in no case has the disease been transmitted in this
manner. In the recent outbreak in Kansas it was quite noticeable
that livery and other work horses were not affected so long as they
were fed on clean, dry forage, although they were constantly exposed

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). 9

to the disease by coming in contact with diseased horses. For
instance, Dr. Herman Busman, who was in charge of the Kansas field
force of veterimarians of the Bureau of Animal Industry, reports a
case where horses were kept in adjoining corrals separated only by a
wire fence. Those on one side were fed on green forage and recently
cut cane, and died from the disease, while those on the other side
were fed dry feed and not one became sick. He also reports a similar
occurrence in a livery barn where the horses had been fed on clean,
dry feed without sickness, but when fresh cut bottom-land hay was
substituted for the former feed the horses became sick within a few
days. Another similar instance was reported-by Dr. E. T. Davison,
in charge of the bureau’s field force in Nebraska, in the case of a
farmer who owned a work team that was strictly barn fed. While
attending the State Fair at Lincoln these horses were turned out on
pasture for two days and both horses came down with the disease
on the fourth and fifth days, respectively, after being taken off the
pasture.

It is such cases as these that have incriminated the forage and
caused the disease to be known as ‘‘ pasture disease’’ in some localities.
Indeed some veterinarians report that all the animals affected had
been on pasture, or, having been removed from pasture, had been fed
on recent cuttings of alfalfa, prairie hay, cane, or kafir corn, while no
cases came under observation where the animals had been on dry feed
all summer.

A long period of dry weather followed by rainfall with considerable
humidity and heat seems to favor the development and dissemination
of the disease. The period from August 1 to October 1, 1912, pre-
sented exceptional climatic conditions in western Kansas and south-
ern Nebraska, and it was observed that crops cut and cured before
this date could be fed with impunity. During the first week in
August a heavy rainfall started in Kansas and nearly twice the usual
amount was recorded, falling mostly during the night and soaking in.
This was followed by very high temperatures, the 17 days from
August 23 to September 9 being the hottest series of days on record
in Dodge City. There were also more than the usual number of
cloudy or partly cloudy days with high relative humidities. The
dew point was reached early at night and the deposit of dew was
abundant, which is uncommon in that section. High humidities
certainly continued throughout the day among the grasses near the
soul. These grasses, which usually cure into hay on the root, became
dotted with both parasitic and saprophytic fungi. Water holes,
draws, and buffalo wallows remained filled with water throughout
most of the period. During the latter part of September frosts
occurred, accompanied not only by cooler weather but with lower

10 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

humidity, which are the significant factors in the subsidence of the
disease, and after the first week in October the disease practically
disappeared. Since then many owners have placed their horses back
on the same pastures used during the serious stages of the disease and
there has been no ill effect noted. This would indicate that there
are good reasons to believe the forage is no longer in condition to
produce the disease and hence its use is safe, as in the case of the
Pennsylvania baled hay previously mentioned.

Somewhat similar conditions of climate obtained in Nebraska dur-
ing the prevalence of the disease, but on September 25 a killing frost
was recorded, followed by several light frosts and a reduction in the
relative humidity. After this time the disease rapidly subsided and
finally disappeared. There is not much question that some of this
infected forage has been baled and shipped to various points, and it is
therefore not unlikely that sporadic cases of the disease will appear
in these sections under favorable climatic conditions.

Tn this connection, attention should be called to the marked preva-
lence last summer and fall of the disease of cattle known as mycotic
stomatitis, which simulates the foot-and-mouth disease of Europe
and is caused also by contaminated forage. This disease first
appeared in Florida and spread over Georgia, North and South Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Kentucky, - Virginia, Maryland, and into Pennsyl-
vania. The climatic conditions were evidently appropriate for the
development of the causative agent on forage, and as soon as the
animals were brought out of the pastures and stall fed, the disease
immediately subsided.

SYMPTOMS AND LESIONS.

In most of the cases disturbance of the appetite, depression, and
weakness are the first manifestations observed, although all the
symptoms vary within wide limits.

Very soon the characteristic symptoms of the disease appear.
There is trouble in swallowing, drooping of the head and sleepiness,
which may give way to excitement and attacks of vertigo. An
impairment of vision is noted, with loss of coordimation, resulting in a
staggering gait or reeling while standing. There is muscular twitch-
ing, cramp of certain muscles, chiefly of the neck and flanks, and
erinding of the teeth. Sometimes colicky pains are noted. If in an
open space, the animal will walk in a circle, sometimes to the right,
at other times to the left, and will try to push through any obstacle
with which he comes in contact. In the stable he will press his head
against the stall or rest it on the manger. Sometimes he will crowd
backward or sidewise until he gets in a corner and remains there.
If the temperature is taken at the beginning of the disease it will be

Pe a

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). bie

found to be from 103° to 107° F., but within 24 hours the temperature
gradually falls until it reaches normal and then becomes subnormal.
The pulse is from 40 to 90 and weak, while the respirations are fluc-
tuating from normal to as high as 48 per minute. There may or may
not be drooling of saliva, depending on the extent of the paralysis
of the pharynx. The animal is often down on the second or third
day and may or may not get up when urged to do so. While down
he will go through automatic-like movements of pacing or walking,
resulting in acceleration of the pulse and respiration. At this time
the legs are held out stiffly and parallel to the ground. The hind legs
of many of these animals that have gone down are paralyzed and there
is loss of sensation of the skin of these parts. The expired air is
extremely fetid, and there may be a croupous-like deposit of the
throat, which has caused the name *‘putrid sore throat.’? The con-

_ junctiva may show injected blood vessels or petechize on a yellowish-

tinted background. Coma or somnolence may be marked in ani-
mals going down within-the first few days. Those which remain
standing may become violent or delirious, but ordinarily the horse is
tractable and easily managed. Death usually occurs in from 4 to 8
days, although in the acute form death may follow within 10 or 12
hours after the first symptoms are observed, while in chronic
cases the disease may last 2 or 3 weeks. The prognosis is very
unfavorable, as 85 to 90 per cent of the affected animals die, in the
beginning of the outbreak, but later the cases become milder with a
consequent drop in the mortality.

On post-mortem the amount of lesions observable to the naked
eye is in marked contrast to the severity of the symptoms noted.
The pharynx and larynx are inflamed in many cases, and sometimes
coated with a yellowish white glutmous deposit, extending at times
over the tongue and occasionally a little way down the trachea. The
lungs are normal, except from complications following drenching or
recumbence for a long period. The heart is usually normal in appear-
ance, except an occasional cluster of petechiz on the epicardium,
while the blood is dark and firmly coagulated. The mucosa of the
stomach indicates a subacute gastritis, while occasionally an erosion
is noted. An edematous, gelatinous infiltration is observed in the
submucosa of such cases. The first few inches of the small intestines
likewise may show slight inflammation in certain cases, while in others
it is quite severe; otherwise the digestive tract appears normal,
excluding the presence of varymg numbers of bots, Strongylus vul-
gatus, and a few other nematodes. The liver is congested and
swollen in some cases, while it appears norma! in others. The spleen
is, as a rule, normal, and at times the kidneys are slightly congested.
The bladder is often distended with dark-colored urine, and occa-
sionally a marked cystitis has been observed. The adipose tissue

12 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

throughout the carcass may show a pronounced icteric appearance
in certain cases. On removing the bones of the skull the brain
appears to be normal macroscopically in a few instances, but in most
cases the veins and capillaries of the meninges of the cerebrum, cere-
bellum, and occasionally the medulla are distinctly dilated and
engorged, and in a few cases there are pronounced lesions of a lepto-
meningitis. An excessive amount of cerebrospinal fluid is present
in most of the cases. On the floor of the lateral ventricles of several
brains there was noted a slight softening due to hemorrhages into the
brain substance. There is always an abundance of fluid in the sub-
arachnoid spaces, ventricles, and at the base of the brain, usually of
the color of diabetic urine, and containing a limited amount of floceuli,
but im a few cases it was slightly blood tinged. The spinal cord was
not found involved in the few cases examined.

A comparative microscopic examination of the brains of horses
which died in Kansas, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia this year
with those of horses from previous outbreaks showed the same char-
acteristic perivascular round-cell infiltration, especially in the olfac-
tory lobe and the hippocampus. The pia mater showed an increased
amount of connective tissue with dense round-cell infiltration which
extended into the adjacent cortical portion of the cerebrum. The
capillary blood vessels were.engorged with cells and their walls were
greatly infiltrated. Limited areas of leucocytic infiltration and small
hemorrhages in the brain tissue were not infrequently observed. No
cellular inclusions in the ganglionic cells were detected after pro-
longed examination. }

TREATMENT.

One attack of the disease does not confer immunity. Horses have
been observed which have recovered from two attacks, and still
others that recovered from the first but died as a result of the second
attack. ;

Inasmuch as a natural immunity does not appear after an attack
of cerebrospinal meningitis, it might be anticipated that serum of
recovered cases would possess neither curative nor prophylactic
qualities. Nevertheless, experiments were made along these lines
with serum from recovered cases, but without any positive results.
Similar investigations have been conducted by others in Europe with
precisely the same results. With the tendency of the disease to
produce pathological lesions in the central nervous system, it seems ~
scarcely imaginable that a medicinal remedy will be found to heal
these foci, and even where recovery takes place there is likely to
remain some considerable disturbance in the functions, as blindness,
partial paralysis, dumbness, etc. Indeed, when the disease once
becomes established in an animal, drugs seem to lose their physio-

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS (‘‘ FORAGE POISONING ’’). 13

logical action. ‘Therefore, with all the previously mentioned facts
before us, it is evident that the first principle in the treatment of this
disease is prevention, which consists in the exercise of proper care in
feeding only clean, well-cured forage and grain and pure water from
an uncontaminated source. These measures when faithfully carried
out check the development of additional cases of the disease upon
the affected premises.

While medicinal treatment has proved unsatisfactory in the vast
majority of cases, nevertheless the first indication is to clean out the

‘digestive tract thoroughly, and to accomplish this prompt measures

must be used early in the disease. Active and concentrated reme-
dies should be given, preferably subcutaneously or intravenously,
owing to’ the great difficulty in swallowing, even in the early stage.
Arecolin in one-half grain doses, subcutaneously, has given as much sat-
isfaction as any other drug. After purging the animal the treatment
is mostly symptomatic. Intestinal disinfectants, particularly calomel,
salol, and salicylic acid, have been recommended, and mild anti-
septic mouth washes are advisable. Antipyretics are of doubtful
value, as better results are obtained, if the temperature is high, by
copious cold-water injections. An ice pack applied to the head is
beneficial in case of marked psychic disturbance. One-ounce doses
of chloral hydrate per rectum should be given if the patient is violent
or muscular spasms are severe. If the temperature becomes sub-
normal, the animal should be warmly blanketed, and if much weakness
is shown this should be combated with stimulants, such as strych-
nin, camphor, alcohol, atropin, or aromatic spirits of ammonia.
Early in the disease urotropin (hexamethylenamin) in doses of 25
erains, dissolved in water and given by the mouth every two hours,
appeared to have been responsible for the recovery of some cases of
the malady. During convalescence the usual tonic treatment is
indicated.

Many of the so-called “‘cures”’ made their reputation at the time
the outbreak was abating and when noninterference was proved to
be equally effective. One of the most unpleasant developments of
the. outbreak in 1912 was the great amount of ‘“faking,’’ which
seemed to be the only contagious feature connected with the disease.
All kinds of drug specifics, serums, and vaccines developed like mush-
rooms and were exploited in almost every community devastated by
the disease. Many tainted dollars were obtained from the suffering
horse owners, who grasped at every newly advanced treatment like
drowning men clutching at straws. In Nebraska, blackleg vaccine
was reported to have been used as a preventive on at least 1,600 horses,
and nearly 1,500 of them are said to have died as a direct result of the
vaccine. This feature is now being investigated by the Government.

14 BULLETIN 65, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Dr. Munn, of Kearney, Nebr., had apparently good success from
the use of diphtheria antitoxin as a prophylactic agent, since not a
single animal developed the disease out of over 500 injected. It
may be with this treatment, as with others, that good results
were due to the fact that the disease was on the wane before treat-
ment was commenced, but no other line of treatment gave as good
apparent results. Dr. Kaupp also reports in the Breeders’ Gazette
that only 1 horse-died out of 900 inoculated with a diplo-strepto-
coccic bacterin he prepared, but the injeetions were made so late in
the outbreak that its value is still problematical, since thousands of
horses in the affected area at this period failed to develop the disease,
although they had received no preventive treatment whatsoever.

DDITIONAL COPIES of this publication
may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-

ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OPAGRICULTURE

No. 66

Ve =i

Contribution from the Bureau of Statistics, LL. M. Estabrook, Chief.
March 10, 1914.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES AND
ITS INSULAR POSSESSIONS, 1881-1912.

_ Compiled under the direction of Frank ANDREWS,
Assistant Chief of the Division of Crop Estimates.

N,
;

INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin was compiled primarily to have in convenient form
data to answer numerous inquiries concerning the statistics of
sugar in the United States and its insular possessions. Much of the
data were obtained from existing publications, but it was found
advisable to compile a number of new tables in order to present
other facts of timely importance.

There was a great increase in the consumption of sugar in con-
tiguous United States during the period covered by the bulletin,
_ 1881-1912. The average consumption per capita in the latter
part of this period was nearly double that of the early eighties-
The average annual consumption, which in the fiscal years 1881-1885
was 46 pounds per capita, was more than 78 pounds in 1906-1910
(Table 2). ‘The total annual consumption increased from an average
of 2,500,000,000 pounds in 1881-1885 to practically 7,000,000,000
pounds in 1901-1910, and in the fiscal year 1912, to a total of 7,900,-
000,000 pounds (Table 2).

The large increase in consumption was coimcident with a greater
home production. The cane-sugar output increased considerably,
while beet sugar, the production of which amounted to little in the
early eighties, far exceeded that of cane sugar in contiguous United
States in the last few years. The term “‘contiguous”’ applies to the
United States proper, and excludes all outlying possessions.

The sugar supply of the United States proper has always been
derived chiefly from abroad, and, even with a greatly increased
home production in 1906-1910, the portion of supply received from
domestic factories made only 23 per cent of the total consumption;
this was more than twice the corresponding percentage for 1881-1885.
The insular possessions—Hawai, Porto Rico, and the Philippine

NotE.—This bulletin, which indicates the amount and sources of the sugar supply of the United
States, is of especial interest in sugar-producing regions, also to persons concerned with problems of
food supply.

22564°—14——_1

2 BULLETIN 66, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Islands—furnished nearly 22 per cent, and the rest, amounting to
55 per cent, came from foreign countries during 1906-1910.

The beet-sugar industry Fin the United States is not localized,
as is the cane-sugar industry. Beets are grown and beet sugar
is made in localities more or less scattered, in various regions extend-
ing all the way from Ohio to California, including on the north
Minnesota and Montana and at the south Arizona. About two-
thirds of the beet sugar made in the United States comes from the
factories of California, Colorado, and Michigan. In 1912, the year
of highest production up to date, 73 factories were in operation,
with an average output of 9,500 short tons per factory for the cam-
paign. The year before, the 66 factories then in operation made an
average of about 9,000 tons each. The beet-sugar es averages
from 80 to 90 days a year.

While cane is produced 1 in considerable quantities in the Southern
States, especially in those bordering the Gulf of Mexico, it is not
used for manufacture into sugar to any noteworthy soe except in
Louisiana and a few localities in Texas. Throughout most of the
cane-producing area sirup, not sugar, is made. Census returns
indicate that the output of cane sirup in contiguous United States
increased from 13,000,000-gallons in 1899 to 23,000,000 gallons
in 1909. Molasses, a by-product of sugar making, increased from
12,000,000 gallons in 1899 to 25,000,000 gallons 10 years later
(Table 9).

All but a small fraction of the domestic cane sugar in contiguous
United States comes from the southeastern quarter of Louisiana.
Production in this State within the past few years has exceeded
340,000, and even 350,000, short tons annually, showing that the
industry has been a progressive one, the output in earlier years hav-
ing been much less. In 1912, however, owing to floods which injured
cane fields, the Louisiana production dropped to about 154,000 short
tons, while the number of factories in operation was only 126 as
compared with 188 in the previous campaign. The length of the
campaign was also reduced to about 30 days’ actual operation in 1912
as compared with more than twice that time in 1911. A large part
of the sugar made in Louisiana factories is shipped to New Orleans,
nost of it reaching that city about the last of December, which is
practically the end of the sugar-making season. During the past
five years more than three-fourths of the total receipts of Louisiana
sugar at New Orleans arrived there before the end of December.

Data collected by the United States Department of Agriculture
show that in 1911 about 2,000 pounds of sugar on an average were
made from an acre of cane in Louisiana. This refers only to cane
used for sugar and does not include that used for seed, which amounts
to an average of about 1 acre in a total of 5, nor does it include cane
used for sirup making. In the same year an acre of beets, in the

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 3

United States, yielded on an average about 2,500 pounds of sugar.
In Hawaii the average yield of sugar per acre of cane used for manu-
facture amounted to about 8,700 pounds in the campaign beginning
in the fall of 1910, and about 9,500 pounds in the campaign of the
following year. The crop failure in Louisiana in 1912 reduced the
average yield of sugar to less than 1,400 pounds per acre of cane.
The average yield per acre of beet sugar in that year in the United
States was about the same as in 1911 (Table 5).

Imports of foreign sugar into the United States, a very small frac-
tion of which is received into the island possessions, come princi-
pally from Cuba and the Dutch East Indies (Tables 19 and 20). In
1901-1905 considerable amounts, nearly 24 per cent of the total
imports into the United States, came from British Guiana, Brazil,
Santo Domingo, Peru, British West Indies, and Germany, but dur-
ing the next five-year period these countries supplied only about 7.5
per cent. In 1906-1910, Cuba’s share in this trade increased to 73
per cent; in 1901-1905 it was 50 per cent of the total. Nearly all the
sugar imported into the United States, and practically all that comes
from the insular possessions, is raw (Table 21). Scarcely one-tenth
of 1 per cent of the total imports during 1911 and 1912 consisted of
refined sugar. The chief ports through which foreign sugar comes
into the United States are New York, Philadelphia, Boston, New
Orleans, and San Francisco (Table 22).

The output of the Hawaiian and Porto Rican sugar mills is sent
almost exclusively to the United States; only a small fraction, about
10 per cent in the case of Porto Rico and 1 or 2 per cent in the case
of Hawai, is retained for home consumption (Table 23). Some
details concerning the Hawaiian industry are reported regularly to
the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department of Agri-
culture. In the past several years 50 factories have been in opera-
tion. Nominally the campaign begins on October 1 and continues
for varying lengths of time in the different factories; the average
duration of the campaign in all the factories in 1911-12 was 200
working days. One or more factories have reported operations con-
tinuing practically throughout the year (Table 24).

As in contiguous United States so in the possessions, the pro-
duction of sugar has increased greatly. The Hawaiian cane-sugar
output is roughly commensurate in quanitity with the beet-sugar
production of contiguous United States; the Porto-Rican production
is roughly commensurate with that of Louisiana; while the surplus
from the Philippine Islands, as represented by exports, is equal
approximately to one-half of the Porto Rican crop. Of the sugar-
producing countries of the world the United States with its insular
possessions renks among the first four. In the campaign 1911-12,
| owing to greatly increased crops in this country and its possessions
_ to low yields in Europe, the United States was second, being

4 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

exceeded only by British India. This large home production fur-
nishes a little more than one-half of the home supply, the rest being
brought from abroad. The United States leads all countries as an
importer of sugar (Table 28).

Somewhat more than one-half of the “world” output of sugar is
made from cane. According to Table 30, the proportion of cane
sugar increased from 50.8 per cent of the total in the five years
ending with 1905-6, to 53.3 per cent in the next five-year period.
Measured in short tons, the cane-sugar product of the world increased
from a yearly average of 7,200,000 tons in the first five-year period to
8,800,000 in the second; while beet sugar increased from 7,000,000
tons in the first to 7,700,000 in the second period shown in Table 30.

Of the leading countries of production, Cuba, Dutch East Indies
(chiefly Java), and Germany are leaders in the export sugar trade of
the world.

TaBLE 1.—Production of sugar in the United States and its insular possessions, 1881—

1g»
Beet. Cane.
oe z Raw (as coming from factories). Total

Total | beet and

Year of cane or beet | beet and| cane in

harvest. Phili raw cane.| terms of
Contig-| Contig- Ta Total refined.3
uous uous | Hawaii Porto thands Total cane in
United | United ‘| Rico. (ex. |raw cane. terms of
States. | States.? ports) refined.
Short | Short | Short | Short | Short Short Short Short Short
Average: tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons.
1881-1885_.....-.- 692] 132,148) 76,075) 87,441] 189,277] 484,941] 436,447) 485,633) 437,139
1886-1890_.......-] 1,922] 171,488) 125,440} 70,112) 186,129) 553,169) 497,852) 555,091) 499,774

19, 406] 275, 289] 162,538] 63,280] 286,629] 787,736] 708,962} 807,142] 728,368
58, 286] 286, 805] 282,585] 61,292] 134,722] 765,404| 688,864] 823,690] 747, 150
~.| 239, 730] 364, 179] 403,308] 141, 478] 108,978] 1,017,943] 916, 149; 1, 257, 673] 1,155,879
- | 479; 153] 362; 208] 516, 041] 282; 136] 145,832] 1,306,217] 1,175,596) 1, 785,370) 1, 654, 749
184, 606] 364,325] 355,611] 103,152| 75,011] 898,099} $08,289] 1,082,705| 992,895
218, 406] 372, 903] 437, 991] 100,576] 123, 108] 1,034,578} 931, 120] 1, 252, 984] 1, 149, 526
240, 604] 278, 070] 367, 475] 138,096] 82,855] 866,496] 779, 846 1, 107, 100] 1, 020, 450
242, 113] 414; 995] 426, 248) 151,088 125,271) 1,117,602] 1,005,842] 1,359, 715] 1, 247, 955

312, 920| 390, 602 429, 213| 214, 480| 138, 645| 1, 172,940) 1,055, 646] 1, 485, 860] 1,368, 566
483, 612| 272, 160] 440, 017| 206,864] 132, 602] 1,051, 643| 7 946,479] 1,535, 255| 1, 430, 091
463, 628] 394; 240] 521, 123] 230, 095] 167,242] 1,312, 700] 1, 181, 430] 1, 776,328] 1, 645, 058
AP A IOS Te 425, 884| 414) 400] 535, 156| 277,093] 123,876] 1,350,525] 1,215, 473] 1,776, 409| 1, 641, 357
512, 469| 375, 200] 517, 090| 346,786] 140, 783] 1,379, 859] 1, 241, 873] 1,892, 328] 1, 754, 342

510, 172| 355, 040] 566, 821] 349, $40) 164, 658) 1, 436, 359| 1, 292, 723] 1,946, 531] 1,802, 895
AOE A cet pres te ley 599, 500| 360,874] 595, 038| 371,076] 205,046] 1,532, 034| 1,378, 831] 2, 131,534] 1,978, 331
LID: wee ey ae 602, 556| 1685741546, 5241... Scat 222... | See ke lee 1 ae seen ea SIONS a

1 Sources of data for contiguous United States for individual years: Cane sugar, 1881-1903 from Bouchereau;
1904-1906 from Bouchereau (for Louisiana) and Willett & Gray (for Texas); 1906-1910 from Willett & Gray;
1911 and 1912 from U. S. Department of Agriculture (for Louisiana) and Willett & Gray (for Texas). Beet
sugar, 1897, 1901-1912, from bf. S. Department of Agriculture; for other years from Willett & Gray. Hawaii:
1881-1884 from Rueb & Co.; 1885-1900 from Willett & Gray; 1901-1910 from Hawaiian Sugar Planters’
Association; 1911 and 1912, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Porto Rico: 1881-1884 from Rueb & Co.;
1835-1889 from Willett & Gray; figures for 1900-1906 represent shipments from Porto Rico to the United
States; 1907 and subsequent years (crops) from Treasury Department of Porto Rico. Philippine Islands
(exports): 1894-1898 from Willett & Gray; other years from official sources. ts :

2 The term ‘‘contiguous”’ applies to the United States proper, and excludes all outlying possessions.

- Raw sugar reduced to terms of refined by assuming 90 pounds of refined to be the product of 100 pounds
of raw.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881—1912.

TaBLE 2.—Production and consumption of sugar in contiguous United States, 1881-

Receipts from | Shipments to

foreign coun-
tries and non-

Production.
Year ending June 30— (Raw and re-
fined.)

Average: Pounds.
(SIGE oe dee seeeeee 262, 144, 884
1886-1890........-------- 305, 158, 426
ri eXS) ES Eis ae ea 568, 556, 653
1896-1900.......-..------ 652, 723, 591
1901-1905........-.------ 1,070, 361, 108
TONG NON OAS oe = Oech 1, 615, 021, 531
1100 eee SE UE SeEeee sac Sees 795, 938, 283
ROMA eeele nina enas keine Seimees 1, 097, 862, 181
IOs Ae eae ees see 1, 182, 617, 560
1 OO OS Soe Ce SO DUB ERE sep eee 1,007, 161, 087
GO SSeS Seek ececntacsiise Ss 1, 268, 226, 430
MOOG Ee mets saieaee hacceesoaic ee = 1,391, 921, 228
LOO Meters delat einsecuetiss seis 1, 511, 544, 000
TQS Se a = 1, 715, 736, 430
19093. 3.025 52e2. ne meiceteeeces 1, 680, 568, 000
TO) SSA is ese le ae wes 1, 775, 338, 000
FG IES pe re Te Sa ee ae 1, 730, 425, 000
IG). PONE ee te ee aS a a 21, 920, 748, 000

Retained and received for
consumption.
(Chiefly raw.)

contiguous contiguous
possessions: possessions. Per
(Chiefly raw.) |(Chiefly refined). Total. capita
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

2,309, 773, 359 85,134,562 | 2,486, 783, 681 46.30
2, 844, 564, 763 101,544,811 | 3,048, 778,378 50. 76
3, 745, 227, 214 50,651,458 | 4,263,132, 409 64. 23
3, 900, 700, 448 24,664,782 | 4,528, 759, 257 62. 02
4, 687, 554, 122 23,551,287 | 5,734,363, 943 70. 93
5, 430, 205, 887 82,171,200 | 6,963, 056, 218 78. 29
4, 803, 085, 602 14,015,102 | 5,585, 008, 783 71. 96
3, 936, 286, 281 15,175,805 | 5,018, 972, 657 63.35
5, 217, 077, 034 19,529,092 | 6,380, 165, 502 78. 92
4, 696, 347, 312 41,607,988 | 5,661,900, 411 68. 66
4, 784, 974, 378 27,428,446 | 6,025, 772, 362 71. 66
5, 186, 478, 685 37,105,110 | 6,491, 294, 803 75. 74
5, 621, 004, 778 42,879, 843 | 7,089, 668, 935 81.19
4,918, 772, 831 43,686,270 | 6,590, 822,991 74.11
5, 700, 675, 377 97,879, 825 | 7,283,363, 552 80. 43
5, 774, 097, 763 189,304,952 | 7,360,130, 811 79. 85
5, 594, 985, 191 89, 436,445 | 7, 235,973, 746 77.15
6, 044, 322, 872 102, 862, 003 | 27, 862, 208, 869 282.40

1 Compiled from the Statistical Abstract of the United States, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,

Department of Commerce.

Data for production for years ending June 30, 1904, 1905, and 1906, include cane-

sugar production as estimated by Willet & Gray, which figures are lower than the estimates of Bouchereau,

which are used in Tables 1 and 4, of this circular.

If Bouchereau’s estimates were substituted for Willett &

Gray’s in the above table, the figures for 1904, 1905, and 1906, respectively, would be: For production,
1,037,309,087, 1,314,226,430, and 1,407,041,228 pounds; and for consumption per capita, 69.02, 72.21, and 75.92

pounds. See also note 2, Table 1.

2 Revised figures; substituted for the preliminary figures given in the original.

6 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TaBLE 3.—Percentage of total supply of sugar in contiguous United States represented
by home production, by receipts from insular possessions, and by imports from foreign

countries, 1881-1912.}
[Chiefly raw.]

Production in contiguous i Imports
United States. Receives lace ex-
Hawaii, ia Retained
Year ending June 30— Porto || ‘ceipts | 22d re-
8 Rico, and} ¢ ae ceived for
Beet. Cane. | Total. | F Tus foreign Rew
coun- ?
Islands. tries.)
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent
(3) 13.0 13.0 14.4 72.6 100
(3) 8.0 8.0 16.3 dont 100
(3 13.2 13.2 15.9 70.9 100
(3) 10.2 10.2 18.8 71.0 100
0.1 8.4 8.5 18.9 72.6 100
ot 10.7 10.8 20.5 68. 7 100
Pal 6.1 6.2 19.1 74.7 100
(3) 12.5 2a 20.5 67.0 100
ok: iT 2 11.3 16.5 W202 100
2 9.4 9.6 17.6 72.8 100
2 12.8 13.0 9.0 78.0 100
-3 9.5 9.8 11.2 79.0 100
-6 ike 7 12.3 12.0 75.7 100
9 12.4 13.3 10.7 76.0 100
1.0 16.9 17.9 9.2 72.9 100
1.5 1250 13.6 12.9 73.5 100
i156} ible 5 13.0 10.5 76.5 100
2.6 20. 4 23.0 18.1 58.9 100
1.6 12.3 71339 13.5 72.6 100
Shy il ae 10.9 14.0 Tani 100
3.1 11.2 14.3 14.9 70.8 100
7.4 14,5 21.9 18.2 59.9 100
6.8 inf 18.5 16.0 65.5 100
8.5 9.3 17.8 18.7 63.5 100
8.0 13.0 21.0 19.6 59. 4 100
9.6 11.8 21.4 18.9 59.7 100
13.6 Thar 21.3 Wied: 61.0 100
14.1 11.9 26.0 24.0 50.0 100
it7/ 11.4 Papel 21.9 55.0 100
13.9 |. 10.2 24.1 Dee 50.7 100
14.1 9.8 23.9 26.1 50.0 100
15.3 9.2 24.5 30.2 45.3 100
Average:
ASSI-1885), oc csc eweadseceedeseenenence (3) 10.5 10.5 17.1 72.4 100
£S86-1890:. - ocd see ee see aul 9.9 10.0 18.8 71.2 100
1SQ1= 1805 oi ded 2 Se emee aeiee Dee ae -6 12.7 13.3 11.1 75.6 100
1896-19002 — 36/5 S238 ee este ee 2a 12.3 14.4 13e5 (Peas 100
AQOL=190D so dn, < s5 oe eee Seceecenne 6.8 11.9 18.7 17.4 63.9 100
1906=1910S.. 232 See ee ee ee 12.6 10.6 23.2 21.6 pre 100

1 Partly computed and partly copied from Statistical Abstract of the United States. For explanation of
production figures for years ending June 30, 1904-1906, see note 1, Table 2. See also note 2, Table 1.

2 Excluding trade with Hawaii, Porto Rico, and Philippine Islands.

3 Less than 0.05 of 1 per cent.

4 Census figures for production.

5 Revised figures for productionand consumption substituted for the preliminary figures given in original.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

TaBLE 4.—Comparison of cane and beet sugar produced in contiguous United States,

1881-1912.4

[In terms of refined sugar. Raw sugar has been reduced to terms of refined by assuming 90 pounds of
refined to be the product of 100 pounds of raw.)

Year of ¢ane or beet harvest.

Average:
USC GS Soe Se eee ea eee es
TSS ESTO Brey tae ere ta ne ae seeeeiaene
TGS TOG) Se Sis ee NE ene ae ee
SOG TOO pene ced aetna hae a AuStrsies cles
OOS ee ey gs SE Ae ko se
GOB UOT OR eee Th se Be eh.

1 For sources see Note 1, Table 1.

Cane sugar. Beet sugar.
5 Total.
. . Tn
Quantity. | Percent | quantity. | Bet cent
Short tons. | Percent. | Shorttons.| Percent. | Short tons.
118, 934 99. 2 0.6 119, 626
154, 339 98.8 1,922 1, 156, 261
247, 760 92.7 19, 406 7.3 267,166
258, 124 81.6 58, 286 18.4 316, 410
327, 761 57.8 239, 730 42.2 567, 491
325, 987 40.5 479,153 59.5 805, 140
327, 892 64.0 184, 606 36.0 512, 498
335, 612 60.6 218, 406 39. 4 554,018
250, 263 51.0 240, 604 49.0 490, 867
373, 496 60.7 242,113 39.3 615, 609
351, 542 52.9 312,920 47.1 664, 462
244,944 33.6 483,612 66.4 728, 556
354, 816 43.4 463, 628 56.6 818, 444
372, 960 46.7 425, 884 53.3 798, 844
337, 680 39.7 512, 469 60.3 850,149
319, 536 38.5 510,172 61.5 829, 708
324, 787 35.1 599, 500 64.9 924, 287
146,316 17.4 692, 556 82.6 838, 872

See also Note 2, Table 1.

TaBLE 5.—Average yield of refined sugar per acre of beets or cane in contiguous’ United
States, and of cane in Hawaii.

[Raw cane sugar has been reduced to terms of refined by assuming 90 pounds of refined to beequivalent to

100 pounds of raw.]

Item.

BEET SUGAR.

United States:
LOOSE vss!

California:
1904. .......
N80 See
19062-25225
AGO fens 52
190882 222 2.

19g12y 99

Pounds
per acre.

2, 109
2,019
1) 984
2) 448
2) 036
2) 572
2) 499
2) 334
2) 439
2; 563
2) 530
2) 494

2, 845
2) 850
3, 084
3, 082
2, 886
3, 067
3,091
3,241
2, 852

Pounds
Item. per acre. Item.
BEET SUGAR— BEET SUGAR—
continued. continued.
Colorado: Utah and
1904...-.-..| 2,802 Idaho:
19052 3.5225, 2,133 190452 ee
L90GE Sosa: 3, 014 190545. ==
19075 eos 2,652 L906 Fe ss3-6
1908. - 122522 2, 047 190725. soe
190OF 232822 2, 455 19082555205.
L910: Sse 2,533 1909254.265
LOLS sen 2, 888 1910232 eee
191 De 2 eee 2,979 LOLS
1912E./ eee
Michigan Wisconsin:
1 eecee|| aOR 160098.- 222:
UU see akc 1,708 L905se soso
1906........] 1,886 106 NE. ie
1907 2525 1,918 L907ES. 23 o*
1908. ... 2,104 LG OS ae ase
1909: .' 523 1, 890 1G (0 aoe oe
1910.... 2,370 LIONS 22k
LOUIE eee 1,721 1OUe.- Aas
OLDE ees 1,530 191255. - Soo

Pounds
per acre.

Pounds
Item. peracre.
BEET SUGAR—
continued.
Other States:
190422 oes 2.189
1005S eae ee lneel O26
190635 52ee 1, 893
19072 = 5-e |peelaSo5
1908S ne ees eee
19092222 eo eres Ob!
1910 ees 28200
Tos! BABY
19124. Seen 2; 359)
CANE SUGAR.
Louisiana:
Te || GA:
AQIQE es ee 1,348
Hawaii:
1910-11__... 8,720
1911-12_.... 9, 478

1See note 2, Tablel.

8 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 6.—Sugar-beet and beet-sugar production of the United States, 1901-1912, by
principal States.
Sugar beets. Aver-
age
ex-
Aver
trae- Aver-
Facto- = : tion ee purity} age
ries in ugar Made, fe) engt
State and year. | opera- Beets |" (Chiefly refined.) | sugar | SU8@%| Coeffi-
Area har- age in cient
jon. ais used for a based beats of cam-
See noe aH "| beets.1] Paisn-
3 weight
of
beets.
Short | Short Short | Per | Per | Per
No. Acres. tons tons.| Pounds. tons. | cent. | cent. | cent. | Days.
SIR YS: 32,801) 395,452] 12.06] 93,311,900] 46,656) 11.80] 15.74) 81.13] 79.5
eee 51,857; 514,391) 9.92) 147,786,900) 73,893] 14.37] 17.27) 81.33) 91.5
60,141] 671,571] 11.17] 185,480,000] 92,740] 13.81] 16.70) 82.70] 115.0

8
8| 47,387) 484,816] 10.23] 146,045,500] 73,023] 15.06) 17.90| 85.10] 73.0
8| 62,302] 647,085] 10.39] 179,780,000} 89,890] 13.89] 17.66] 83.20] 88.0
0} 83,000} 882,084] 10. 63] 254,544,000] 127,272] 14.43] 17.61] 83.62] 102.0
8} 90,500} 923,100] 10.20] 279,780,000] 139,890] 15.15} 18.20] 82.78] 114.0
10) 99, 545/1, 037,283] 10. 42] 322,600,000] 161,300] 15.55} 18.95] 82.04] 98.5
11} 111, 4161,004,328] 9.01] 317,808, 000| 158,904] 15.82] 18.79] 83.99] 90.0

sense os 44,456) 550,359) 12.38) 124,553,800) 62,277) 11.32) 15.64) 82.46) 87.1
Bese aoe 85,916} 875,154] 10.19) 183,216,900) 91,608} 10.47) 14.71) 81.79} 101.1
15| 110, 943/1, 487, 383) 13.41) 334,386, 000} 167,193) 11.24] 14.70) 80.30} 132.0
16} 127, 678)1,523, 303) 11.93] 338,573,000} 169,286] 11.11] 15.30) 81.50} 127.0
15} 119,475)1,108, 961) 9.28) 244,560,000) 122,280) 11.03} 13.85) 81.80} 78.0

16) 121, 698|1,256, 771| 10.33] 298, 810,000] 149,405] 11.89] 14.24] 80.51] 85.0

13} _ 81,412) 864,474] 10.62] 206, 184,000] 103,092] 11.93] 15.19] 83.40] 63.0

14) 86,437] 957,142] 11.07] 249; 600,000] 1247800] 13.04] 15.44] 81.22] 63.3

17| 144, 999/1, 641, 861| 11.32] 432, 020, 000] 216,010] 13.16] 16.19] 84.81] 91.0
53,777] - 433,428} 8.06] 103, $64, 830|" 51,932} 11.98] 15.13] 85.47] 46.8

77, 823| 531,475] 6.83] 132,917,999] 66,459] 12.50] 15.65] 84.67| 58.9

93,984} 805,309} 8.57| 177,214,000] $88,607] 11.00] 14.50] 83.20] 85.0

88, 334] 696,785] 7.89] 169,452,000] 84,726] 12.16] 15.10] 84.70] 70.0

81,073} 611,295] 7.54] 170,598,000] $5,299] 13.95] 17.11] 84.80] 61.0

16| 112,232} 819,923] 7.31] 212, 106,000] 106,053] 12.93] 17.00] 86.21] 74.0

17| 117,500!1,207, 700] 10.28] 278, 430,000] 139,215] 11.53] 16.08] 86.15] 100.0

17| 145, 837|1, 443, 856] 9.90] 251,000,000] 125,500} 8.69] 14.59] 59.55] 122.0

16| 124,241) 838,784} 6.75] 190,098,000] 95,049} 11.33] 14.72] 83.75] 74.0

Pen is 7,750} 318,500) 11.48] 74,315,900] 37,158] 11.67] 14.82] 83.24) 77.5
ree 44,550] 367,660) 8.25| 79,428,000] 39,714| 10.80| 14.25] 82.58) 57.0
9| 44,058} 611,792] 13.89] 137,646,000] 68,823) 11.25) 15.70] 84.30). 109.0

9} 54,601} 597, 239] 10.94] 164,901,700] 82,451] 13.81] 17.00] 87.20] 102.0

9} 52,141) 604,875] 11. 60] 145,690,000] 72,845] 12.04] 14.97] 85.50} 102.0

8| 46,727] 618,621} 13.24] 137,756,000] 68,878] 11.13| 15.51] 85.20] 106.0

8} 39,945] 416,329] 10.42] 105,518,000] 52,759/ 12.67) 16.31] 86.54| 66.0

9} 51,002| 648,677] 12. 72] 168,020,000] $4,010} 12.95] 16.20] 79.42] 94.0

10} 56,952} 615,749] 10.81| 168,664,000] 84,332] 13.70] 16.65] 86.83] 87.0
9,500} 108,000] 11.37} 23,600,000] 11,800] 10.90] 14.54} 83.51) 88.6

14,000} 124,000} 8.86] 28,487,029) 14,244] 11.49] 15.00] 83.00] 85.0

4) 15,560) 158,600] 10.19] 35,220,000] 17,610] 11.10] 13.60] 83.00] 83.0

4) 11,837] 122,800] 10.37] 30,320,000] 15,160] 12.35] 15.10] 85.60) 61.0

4) 14,700} 137,800) 9.37] 36,640,000] 18,320] 13.30] 16.72) 84.50] 71.0

4 14,000] 143,000] 10.21) 34,340,000] 17,170] 12.01] 15.88} 85.17] 63.0

4) 16,772| 153,327] 9.14] 36,260,000). 18,130] 11.82] 16.75] 8414] 76.0

4) 23,241) 256,124! 11.02] 47)280,000| 23,640] 9.23/ 14.23] 64.86] 106.0

4] 20,172} 207,085] 10.27] 46,520,000) 23,260] 11.23) 15.10] 84.31] 90.0
Be 29,500) 265,800) 9.01! 64,580,000] 32,290} 12.15] 15.36] 83.12) 85.5
2 ae 33,218) 253,233] 7.62) 54,004,400] 27,002] 10.66) 14.04] 81.10] 85.2
li] 51,388] 501,457] 9.76] 97,278,000] 48,639] 9.70] 14.00] 80.90] 111.0

10| 41,147| 342,928] 8.33] 77,964,230] 38,982] 11.37] 15.10] 82.30] 70.0

10} 35,222] 304,875] 8.65] 74,500,000] 37,250] 12.22) 15.22] 82.00] 54.0

11| 42,605] 360,983} 8.47] 87,382,000] 43,691] 12.10] 15.09] 83.21] 61.0

11| 51,900] 482,362] 9.29] 114,172,000] 57,086] 11.83] 15.66] 82.69] 68.0

12, 67,815] 719,251] 10.61 160,500,000] 80,250} 11.16] 15.16] 73.60] 83.0

15' 97,520! 916,570! 9.40) 230,002)000! 115,001! 12.55’ 15.70! 83.18! 86.0

1 Percentage of sucrose (pure sugar) in the total soluble solids of the beets.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

TABLE 6.—Sugar-beet and beet-sugar production of the United States, 1901-1912, by
principal States—Continued.

Sugar beets. Aver-
age
ex-
Aver-
trac- Aver-
Facto- f 5 Hon eg arity 1 age
ries in ‘| ugar made. (0) ength
State and year. | Qnera- Aeear Rer:| Beats pee (Chiefly refined.) | sugar ari: eget.
ion. TeSiaGl used for ae based Weeks of cam-
“ | sugar on paign.
acre. weight beets.1
of
beets
Shoré | Short Short | Per PereleeRen
United States: No. Acres. tons. |tons.| Pounds. tons. | cent } cent. | cent. ; Days.
De en Soe 36] 175, 083/1, 685,689] 9.63] 369, 211, 733] 184,606 10.95] 14.80] 82.20] 88.0
TOTO sk aa 41] 216, 400|1, 895, 812] 8.76] 436,811, 685] 218,406] 11.52] 14.60] 83.30] 94.0
OOS Eta ee cet. 49| 242,576'2,076,494| 8.56) 481, 209,087] 240,604) 11.59} 15.10/......- 75.0
TO en 48] 197, 784|2, 071, 539| 10. 47| 484, 226, 430] 242,113] 11.69] 15.33] 83.10] 78.0
I (0)5) Sar ee ea 52} 307,364/2, 665,913] 8.67) 625, 841, 228) 312,921) 11.74) 15.33) 83.00) 76.6
OCG HS Hee sa ee 63} 376, 074/4, 236, 112) 11. 26) 967, 224,000} 483,612} 11.42} 14.90} 82.20) 105.0
19) 0) 7 Se eee eee 63} 370, 984)/3, 767, 871] 10.16} 927, 256, 430) 463,628) 12.30) 15.80) 83.60} 89.0
TOSS awk 62] 364, 913/3, 414,891) 9.36] 851, 768,000] 425,884] 12.47] 15.74] 83.50| 74.0
O09s = take Sok. 65] 420, 262/4, 081,382) 9.71/1,024,938,000] 512,469} 12.56) 16.10) 84.11 83.0
NOLO RS ase SO. 61] 398, 029/4, 047, 292) 10. 17/1,020,344,000) 510,172) 12.61} 16.35) 84.35) 83.0
IQUE? ae 66] 473, 877|5, 062, 333) 10. 68)1,199,000,000} 599,500) 11.84) 15.89} 73.92) 94.0
UO ae eS eeee 73) 555, 300|5, 224,377) 9. 41/1,385,112,000] 692,556} 13.26) 16.31) 84.49) 86.0
Average:
; 1901-1905... 45| 227, 841/2,079,089] 9.13] 479, 460,033} 239,730) 11.51} 15.03) 82.89} 82.0
, 1906-1910... 63 386, 052/3, 909, 510} 10.13] 958, 306, 086] 479,153) 12.26) 15.78} 83.55 87.0

TaBLE 7.—Production and farm value of sugar beets in contiguous United States,
1899-1912, and in principal States, 1899, 1909, 1911, and 1912.

[Except where otherwise stated, data refer to beets used in factories, as reported to the United States
Department of Agriculture. ]

State and year.

California:
1 Lia PvE tae

Produc-
tion.

6, 656

1, 231, 712
957, 142
1, 641, 861

215,373
707, 639
1, 443) 856
838, 784

85, 914
593, 607
648, 67
615, 749

Aver- Aver-
pee F Prod fen F
arm. arm roduc- | farm ‘arm
price value. State and year. tion. price | value.
per per
ton. ton.
Short
Dollars.| Dollars. Other States: tons. |Dollars.| Dollars.
24.35 | 1,550,346 USO9 Ss ae ye ig 128, 875 | 23.91 503, 539
25.11 | 4,320,532 OOO TL Ae A oe 554,708 | 25.07 | 2,812,713
5.54 | 5,746, 548 AOUTS Ce Sete 975, 375 5. 47 | 5, 332, 869
6. 46 | 6, 487, 959 LOI2 ee E Rabe 8 1,123, 655 5.61 | 6,299, 469
United States
24.01 26, 711 TSQO Les eee ie 793, 353 | 24.19 | 3,323, 240
24.92 | 6,061, 152 DOOD ey Ad, ede Ly 1, 685, 689 4.50 | 7,585, 600
5.55 | 5,312, 138 1902 hee eercss 1, 895, 812 5.03 | 9, 535, 934
5.96 | 9, 785, 492 1903 Se cesar ae 2,076, 494 4.97 110, 320, 175
19042 2 8 SE eS 2/2 2,071,539 | 34.95 |10, 254, 118
24.07 877, 481 905 Sea e 2,665,913 | 35.00 }18, 329, 565
25.67,| 4,014, 123 IGN G RE ee Beier c cd anes 4,236,112 | 35.10 |21, 604,171
5.74 | 8, 287, 733 190 Tee eed 3, 767, 871 | 25.20 |19, 592, 929
5.69 | 4,772, 681 19082 a: Sse A 3,414,891 | 35.35 |18, 269, 667
1OO9M Se hs. 2 3, 932, 857 | 25.06 |19, 880, 724
24.25 365, 163 O10 23 ae Ss 4 O47 292 MW crce lr aryciel Ramee nes
24.50 | 2,672, 204 OMS MOE Lb 3 5, 062, 333 5.50 |27, 842, 832
4.88 | 3, 163,544 Ter a 5,224,377 | 5.82 |80, 405, 874
4.97 | 3,060, 273 F

1 Total beets produced. From United States Census of Agriculture.
2 Computed by dividing total tons produced into total farm value.
3 Senate Document 22; Sixty-first Congress, first session.

22564°—14—2,

10 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 8.—Sugar-cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by principal States
and counties.

[Census.]
. Average Average
(| ee 1 :
State and county. | Area. pare yield per || State and county. | Area. P pode yield per
acre. : acre.
a phot sat 4 Short Short
Alabama: crés. ons. ons. Georgia—Contd. crés. tons. tons.
Barbour......... 93] 7,815 2 | Leberg: ge 1,295 | 7, 822 6.0
Bullock......-- 627 5,211 8.3 Montgomery. -. 757 | 9,367 12.4
Butler....... TA7 7,194 9.6 Piereets ees. 535 5, 087 9.5
Chambers....-- 914 7, 865 8.6 Sereven........ 572 6, 917 12.1
Chilton.....- 548 4, 648 8.5 Thomas........ 1,259 21, 938 17.4
Choctaw......- 520 4, 462 8.6 Upson eee 716 5,141 WED
Clarke:i2i. | 238 768 6, 180 8.0 ashington....| 1,194 7,396 6.2
Cofies 22 > 938 7,402 7.9 Wilcox......... 574 3, 891 6.8
Cee ae 786) 7380 o3 CgrE 501 28e 9 16,873 | 135° 612 50
Covington....-. , : hi ies. 61 * 8.0
reals: ea Sey 674 57405 3.0 Other counties wba s eal nee eto
Dalew ne ce 840 7,489 8.9 Total.........| 37,046] 317,460 8.6
Hiniore--. 620 5,116 8.3 a eS
Geneva:......-- 1,012 11, 259 11.1 |} Louisiana: J
Henry.... 658 9, 064 13.3 Ascension...... 9,628 | 137,674 14.3
Houston...._.. 1,004 12, 007 12.0 Assumption... - 27,852 | 491,743 17.7
Meee eine: Oat ak 523 5,077 7) Avoyelles...... 7,335 | 128,155 1725
Monroe........- 699 6,743 9.6 East Baton
Montgomery... 619 4,465 7.2 Rouge.......- 2,107 | 38,068 18.1
aU yrs ese 676 4, 982 7.4 Thera eee 36,585 | 433,778 11.9
Pikes s 08h. 668 5,359 8.0 Tberville........| 20,764 | 359,369 17.3
sselliee- es 588 4,296 73 Jefferson...._.. 2,104 31,101 14.8
Sumter.....__.. 543 3,055 5.6 Lafayette.....- 12,218 | 171,059 14.0
Tallapoosa...-- 514) 6,541 12.7 Lafourche... ..- 33,200 | 562,538 16.9
Wilcox-..:..... 1,269 9,578 7.5 Ofleanishen see" 1, 653 27, 057 16.4
Other counties.| 8,903 | 63, 434 7.1 Plaquemines...} 6,643 | 108, 996 16.4
Sa SSS Pointe Coupee. 3, 806 72, 435 19.0
Motal....-- alhatety 2) |0226; 634) |e a Si3 Rapides...°...- 7,452 | 127,670 17.1
| St. Bernard .... 2,335 25, 090 10.7
Arkansas: St. Charles... _- 6,757 | 110,871 16.4
Ashley........- 392 3, 023 7.7 St. James.....- 20,526 | 312,001 15.2
Clarks 202552 296 1,170 4.0 St. John the
Columbia...... 359 2,110 5.9 Baptist.......| 12,669 | 232,268 18.3
Drewes = aes 269 1,779 6.6 St. Landry.. 6, 423 94, 050 14.6
Howard........ 226 969 4.3 St. Martin...._. 11,365 144, 799 12.7
Sevier... -24:> 3 203 1,277 6.3 St. Mary sos 42,324 | 504,010 11.9
(Unions. sein 637 4,768 7.5 merraneuee ie: | 23,797 | 435,615 18.3
Other counties. 948 4,772 5.0 Vermilion... ..- 7, 637 86, 664 11.3
fA eel Sa West Baton
Mopale 5 yo 3,330 19, 868 6.0 Rouge.....- 10,271 176, 800 17.2
S| * Other parishes . 14,233 | 180,185 9.1
Florida SS
Alachua......-- 577 6, 143 10.6 Total.........| 329,.684 |4, 941, 996 15.0
Gadsden A AC i 935 12, 053 12.9 Be
Hillsboro.....-- 589 8, 163 13.9 || Mississippi:
Jackson... ....- 1,049 9,798 } 9.3 Amitey fees 843 10, 711 iP A¢
Jefferson.....-- 609 3, 995 6.6 ‘Attala Ree esc 755 6, 250 8.3
eons. pe 564 5,096 9.0 Clarkes 625 5, 281 8.4
Madison........ 660 7,108 10.8 Copiahe te 228 943 7,907 8.4
Marion....._... 551 2,448 4.4 Ein ds! eee ae 1,166 8, 046 6.9
Suwannee...... 826 11, 106 13.4 Holmes........ 755 7, 292 O57;
Other counties. 6, 568 76, 607 11.7 Jaspers ee eee 635 5,779 9.1
a Jefferson Davis. 515 7, 446 14.5
Mota: se 9 12,928 | 142,517 11.0 Jones Sai a 1,010 7,075 7.0
—S Kemper....... 577 5, 278 9.1
Georgia: Lafayette...... 563 1,791 3.2
PITICN 2422) 2. 907 7,924 8.7 Lauderdale. ... 643 6, 433 10.0
IBYOOKS: 224. - 898 10, 025 1.2 515 7,896 15.3
Bullock........ 1, 842 15, 245 8.3 554 4,545 8.2
Birke 5-22 322 578 3,970 6.9 1,045 9,118 8.7
Cofiee:: 3.6255 560 4,312 eit 521 8, 751 7.2
Colauitt::.v... 708 5,589 7.9 584 5, 696 9.8
Decatur 1,194] 13,138 11.0 1,111] 13,406 12.1
Effingham..... 592 4,050 6.8 564 4, 685 8.3
Emanuel......-. 1,073 5,324 5.0 689 4, 884 7.1
Grady? .- 3 -. 2,181 21,514 9.9 Other counties. 10, 248 89,335 8.7
Jefferson....... 817 5, 297 6.5 ee
Johnson........ 590 8,725 6.3 Totals OSes 24, 861 222, 600 9.0
Baurenss. 2.32. 817 9,761 11.9 ——

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

iit

TasLe 8.—Sugar-cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by principal States
and counties—Continued.,

Average
State and county. | Area. PLgdUe yield per
‘ acre.
: Short Short
North Carolina: Acres tons. tons.
Brunswick... .-- Blac 40 8.0
Columbus...... 91 648 Tell
Pender....-..-- 75 238 3.2
; Robeson......- 123 568 4.6
MOU L ee oes 294 1, 494 5.1
South Carolina:
Bamberg.....-- 398 3,519 8.8
Barnwell... ._.. 545 6, 348 11.6
Clarendon...... 329 1,972 6.0
Colleton........ 495 3, 502 Tell
Hampton...... 682 6, 820 10.0
Orangeburg... 1,107 12,531 11.3
Other counties. 3, 497 25,173 ee,
Mota s ove Le 7,053 59, 865 8.5
Texas:
Brazoria... ..-- 2,037 26, 288 12.9
} Cameron......- 1, 604 34, 451 21.5

Average
State and county. Area ee yield a
ion.

acre.

Short Short

Texas—Contd. Acres. tons. tons.
Cassi vanes cs 567 4, 433 7.8
Colorado. ...... 1,324 12, 803 9.7
Hayettessss 5585 579 1,391 2.4
Fort Bend..... 6, 775 90, 827 13.4
Guadalupe. .... 573 1,071 1.9
Nacogdoches... 612 3, 765 6.2
RUS kee eee 892 5, 589 6.3
Shelby.......-- 956 4,748 5.0
Shania eee 605 3, 231 5.3
Wihartones=s==— 4,714 36, 434 7.7
WiOOd Seti es 518 5,985 11.6
Other counties. 12, 559 76, 486 6.1
Motal s,s oeek 34,315 | 307,502 9.0
Other States...._.. 127 324 2.6
United States} 476,849 |6, 240, 260 13.1

TaBLE 9.—Production of cane sirup and cane molasses in the United States, 1899-1909,

by principal States.

[By “‘sirup” is meant the liquid cane product from which no sugar has been extracted; by ‘‘molasses”’!
is meant the liquid cane product from which more or less sugar has been extracted.]

1899 1909 1899, 1909
State. State.
Haun. and Farm pro- pauuend Farm pro-
J duction.2 » | duction.2
production. production.
Sirup Molasses.
Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
Georgia nee seu oe lee Bea Bay || Gi G88), 5) IP INU tienes ae atl oe 4,153
Bowisiana ysl se ye 2, 480, 856 412590831 uoOWisianaes = sea esse eens 11, 703, 877 | 224, 342, 555
Mice api ea nceeeecec ees 2, ie a8 3 , ee on Mex as. ooo eee eae o 98, 950 8 425, 310
Florida. CA ge aE IS Hie 687, 452 2, 533, 096 Total molasses...... 11,802,827 | 24,772,518
Oras LAINE A na a a 2,246, 7 nn
South Carolina..........- 805, 064 "881, 558 Totalsirup and mo-
AEbausis ETT a a 2 Bea lassess sh ao) Aen 25, 024,074 | 47,855, 957
North Carolina..........- ;
Other States.....0........ ” 438 6, 184
NZ OUISIAN Aes ereiste is tell Sees Giclees 8 942,997
OthenStatesmay ee Sa aes 3 506, 863
; Totalsirup........- 13,221,247 | 23, 083, 439
1 Census. 2 Farm production except as noted. 3 Factory production.

12 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tasie 10.—Production of cane sugar in Louisiana, 1849-1912, by principal parishes.*
[Chiefly raw sugar.]

Parish. | 180 1859 | 1869 | 1879 | 1889 | 1898 | 1899 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912

Acpennionts p93 Ata ick 6,719] 8,044] 3,212] 6,714] 13,569] 16,386] 6,004] 13,529] 14,496| 8,342
Assnmintion..cent-.-caciede ee 8,580] 8,854] 4,779] 5,966] 16,859} 26,162] 13,523] 31,907] 35,950 14, 457
Riera 2220 ss dea ow NL ee 927] 3,200} 5,991] 17,404] 11,125] 33,383] 29,949] 10,999
Bbervillo:’ 04 ci. 9. 2e8ee2 11,604] 5,414] 2,454} 7,636] 15,533] 17,693] 7,305] 28,246] 23,759] 7,942
Tafanrchioteas 2-058. eee 5,028] 7,368] 3,564] 5,592] 10,826] 28,345] 19,391] 42, 639] 42,001] 11.728
St; James? -j22-) 3 Fees se aes 10,835] 6,868} 3,132] 7,125) 10,539) 21,644) 10,939] 21,687] 20,760] 9,368
St. John the Baptist -.......... 5,968} 2,490] 2,481] 4,807) 6,285} 12,972] 8,231) 13,206] 14,935) 11, 289
Fis Maries. & ~~.) 509.22 sb 2,094] 3,750] 747] 1,626} 2,141] 5,574] 3,077| 10,377| 13,719] 5,382
Ste Mary Pe hia Bos. wes ah 12,382] 15,366] 3,296] 8,268] 17,018] 52,384} 26,659] 54,397] 57,602| 25,597
WerrebOnNe. a; .<-2-<-ceq---6--0- 4,586] 8,511] 3,268] 6,876] 11,490] 25,144] 19,981] 30,392] 27, 462] 14, 463
West Baton Rouge....--......-- 3,960) 5,088) 403) 3,162] 10,136] 12,893) 3,883] 15,164] 17,235) 9,328
Ayvoyelles, Rapides, and St. ;

VANGIYy Sask a seek-stis=s-aeeee 7,522) 9,984] 2,818] 3,042) 4,832) 5,983) 1,833) 3,848] 3,558) 2,423
East Baton Rouge, Pointe Cou-

pee, and West Feéliciana....... 7,817| 8,832] 1,191] 4,150] 4,402] 5,950] 1,596] 5,229] 9,998] 2,937
Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, [

and St. Charles...........-.--- 18, 716] 15,596] 7,292)14,907| 13,739] 24,244) 18,789] 19,714] 18,040) 5,471
Lafayette and Vermilion........ 1,750| 1,276] 194| 963) 1,641| 4,663) 5,895| 18,277| 23, 480| 14,547
Otherparishes: =. 4-5-2 cree oe. 5,439) 3,422) 595] 1819). D061) fl 056|eal, 352)a2 eee jeer een lose aoe

Wotale tin. 22 tisk aeeens 113, 000) 110, 863/40, 353)85, 853) 146, 062|278, Pell fess 583)341, 995/352, 874/153, 573

1 Data for 1911 and 1912 from Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture; 1910 from
Louisiana Sugar Planters’ Association; other years from Census. Census data refer to paeishes in which
the cane was grown; other data (1910-1912) refer to parishes in which the sugar was ma

TABLE 11.—Sugar made, factories operated, and cane used for sugar in Louisiana, 1911
and 1912, by principal parishes.

Sugar made (chiefly raw).

Aver-
Factories in Bee
operation. aay = Average per Cane used for sugar.
Parish. rae Quantity. short ton of
cca cane.1
- 1911 1912 1912 2 1911 1912 1911 1912 1911 1912
Short Short
No. No. Days. tons. tons. |Pounds.|Pounds.| Short tons. | Short tons.

Ascension......- 7 u 29 14, 496 8,342 124 134 234, 719 124, 934
Assumption... .. 23 16 29| 35,950] 14,457 107 119 673, 263 243, 864
Theriaeeee eee 13 9 27| 29,949} 10,999 129 156 464, 491 140, 932
Iberville 3.05. 18 11 26 23, 759 7, 942 99 112 481,545 141, 581
Lafourche....... 16 9 23} 42,001) 11,728 119 122 707, 764 191,714
St: James: 22-3. 20 10 32 20, 760 9, 368 115 97 361, 537 192, 537
St. John the

Baptist...-..-- 8 5 42 14,935 11, 289 108 140 275,536 161, 790
St. ve See ar 4 3 31 13,719 5, 382 139 17 197, 614 62, 165
St. Maty-—.cco--- 26 15 34 57, 602 25,597 133 176 866, 744 291, 387
Terrebonne...... 14 14 28 27, 462 14, 463 124]}* 150 442,218 191, 984
West Baton

ROUPGs Care = 10 10 26 17, 235 9, 328 110 147 314, 472 127, 196
Avoyelles

Rapides, an

St. Landry...- 5 5 35 3, 558 2, 423 101 136 70, 534 35, 629

East Daton
Rouge, Pointe
Coupee, and ;

West Teliciana 6 3 36 9,928 2,237 116 187 171, 763 _ 23,916

Jefferson Or-
leans, Plaque-
mines,and St.

Charles Brscetce 13 3 37 18, 040 5,471 125 160 288, 665 68, 365
Lafayette and

Vermilion..... 5 6 33 23, 480 14, 547 140 177 336, 427 164,580

Louisiana.. 188 126 30 | 352,874 | 153,573 120 142 | 5,887,292 | 2,162,574

1 Computed from incomplete returns.
2 This campaign was unusually short, owing to the smallcrop. In 1911 the average time from beginning
to end of campaign was 74 days for the entire State,

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

Taste 12.—Area of sugar cane, of other principal crops, and of total improved farm
land in Louisiana, 1909, by principal sugar-producing parishes.

(Census. ]
Acreage of 5 principal crops.

: Improved

Parish. 4 i ae bag in

: ugar . ay an ota. arms.

cane. Cotton. Rice. Corn. forage. crops.

Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres.
NSCENSION [o/c cclsnaite cee ones 9, 628 7,277 4, 17, 730 2, 050 41, 552 57,119
ASSTiMap HON Sees eecee] ae sec 27, 852 DAA HESS ale 19, 888 7, 542 55, 526 54, 069
ASTON GUC ER eee nee eee ae 7,335 26, 634 1,810 58, 847 2,946 97,572 126, 440
East Baton Rouge..-....-..-- 2, 107 28, 812 565 26, 701 5, 617 58, 802 103, 481
penidies cae eee. 36, 585 3, 252 3,912 44,476 5, 267 93, 492 121, 436
Merville tc 2 <2. eselse ened 20, 764 1, 839 4,559 20, 203 5, 275 52, 640 64, 422
Jefferson. ......5..-.--------- ARTIC as be 1,075 1,595 962 5, 736 14, 196
Watayettoss ae eee tse ckis 12,218 19,929 2, 508 67,317 4,830 106, 802 141, 762
Watourchesgesi 5. 230-626 ek ee B81 7400) |lsocosseuse 1, 402 28, 479 10, 902 73, 983 86, 281
OMIGATISHR eee cee se ine nseier TGosi esate ce cillns set jeraiee 762 73 2,488 5, 187
Plaquemines......-..-------- 65643) |S. eae8 22. 7, 222 2,774 “1,039 17,678 30, 397
Pointe Coupee......-.-------- 3, 806 18, 164 4,176 53, 071 7,342 86, 559 115, 829
He OS See are Acacia ese 7, 452 15, 420 22 39, 526 8, 797 71, 217 108, 742
St. Bernard..........--.----- 2 330l\| 2 ot cice clea 725 941 1,913 5, 914 9, 882
StaCharles we oes hence ose 6, 757 4 4, 287 4,874 562 16, 484_ 21, 250
DUWAIMOS Ree cect elect 20, 526 99 4,551 12, 150 7,315 44,641 48,755
St. John the Baptist ........-. 25669) | Bees cen 4,655 6, 534 2,979 26, 837 29, 438
Sitaldan dirypee eek aed 6, 423 55, 169 21, 592 126, 257 2,903 212,344 327, 623
StaMartime es oo. yee cic 11,365 14, 699 581 37, 900 2, 504 67, 049 87,320
StaMany oacecsease es een 42,324 6 400 27, 436 17, 454 87, 620 102, 938
Terrebonne!......-..--.----- BMT Nase neeee 38 15, 745 10, 168 49, 748 49, 428
Vermilion 3. 2. .5..-22.--55: 7, 637 15, 733 29, 595 53,075 1, 696 107, 736 177, 824
West Baton Rouge.......-.-- 10,271 3,350 3,397 13,515 2, 087 32, 620 39, 866
Total, 23 parishes. ...... 315,451 | 205,631 | 101,939 679,796 | 112,223 | 1,415,040 | 1,923, 685
All other parishes.......--.-- 14,233 | 751,380) 215,579 911, 034 68,588 | 1,960, 814 | 3,352,331
Total, Louisiana:....... 329,684 | 957,011 | 317,518 | 1,590,830 | 180,811 | 3,375, 854 | 5, 276,016

1 For this parish the census shows 320 less acres in ‘‘improved land” than in the 5 principal crops—

apparently an error.

TABLE 13.—Percentage of cane acreage in Louisiana reserved for seed, 1909, 1910, and

HDi

Year.

Number payed

of planta-| Total

tions re- area.

porting. Area.

Number.| Acres. Acres.
28 14, 832 3, 641
38 18, 037 3, 651
56 32, 075 6,519

for seed.

Per cent
of total.

Per cent.
24.5
20. 2
20.3

21.7

1 Computed from report on The Sugar Industry, by F. J. Sheridan, Department of Commerce (Miscella-

neous series No. 9) p. 2.

14 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 14.—Proportion of acreage of plant cane to other cane and average yield per acre
of cane used for sugar in Louisiana and Hawaii, 1911 and 1912.

[In Louisiana each planting of cane is generally allowed to bear two annual crops, while in Hawaii three
annual crops are generally cut from each planting. -The figures in this table refer only to cane used for
sugar, thus excluding cane reserved for planting and that used for sirup.]

Stubble or rattoon

Plant cane (Ist cut- | “cane (2d and later

5) cuttings).! Average

Ttem Total. | Yield of

‘ SS SSS SE cane per

acre
Quantity. | Petce8" | Quantity. | Bey cent
Louisiana: Acres. Per cent. Acres. Per cent.| Acres. |Shorttons.
aL) 6 ie ee eee eee ee ee 168, 000 54 146, 000 46 | 314,000 18. 7:
i Se Gute Raine Mage ARES Smet” 118, 000 58 87,000 42} 205,000 10.5
Hawaii:

TDIOSAye tees ops EL ge 43,900 38 73,100 62 | 117,000 41.3
AGI 12 ea eens Poe Eh. 5. StS 37, 200 33 75, 800 67 | 113,000 | - 42.3

1 The term ‘‘stubble” is used in Louisiana and ‘‘rattoon” in Hawaii to refer to the second or later crops
grown from the same planting from which a first crop (‘‘plant”’ cane) has been harvested.

TaBLE 15.—Seasonal receipts at New Orleans of Louisiana sugar, 1901-2 to 1912-13.

From Sept. 1 to last Friday in—

October. November. December. March.
Year,

Year. | onl uneae la.) aoa) Bul). 0 omnes) Jann Lon Obie ita
shen || Per 2\| 2Per Per Per | Aug. 31.

Quan- | cent of : cent of cent of cent of

Te- Te- Te- Te-
ceipts. ceipts. ceipts. ceipts.

tons. cent. tons. cent. tons. cent. tons. cent. |Shorttons.

1901 =o 3352s 13,367 4.5 88, 938 30.2} 173,571 58.8 | 267,09) 90.6 | 2 294,941
cl AS eee ee eee 9,672 3.4 81, 608 28.6 | 191,558 67.2 | 253,986 89.1 | 3285,031
10034 | Soo ase 5, 159 2.7 60, 138 31.8} 155,045 81.9 | 175,991 93.0 189, 330
1 a ae ee ees 8,579 2.6 80, 764 24.5 | 197,847 60.1°} 281,744 85.5 329,339
aONS-6 20 Feit tS 9,481 3.0 94,134 29.6 |. 189,472 59.6 | 283,510 89.2 317, 868
ONG epee poe iene ae 2,367 1.4 52, 723 30.2} 121,533 69.6 | 161,239 92.4 174, 561
LODT=8 ek te. BS 3 2,010 AN 86, 661 28.8 | 198,407 65.9 | 275,195 91.4 301, 158
MOOS Oe Fee oo eens 4 11, 062 3.9 | 111,060 39.3 | 221,286 78.2 | 252,899 89.4 282, 800
1IS00-10 S228. OS... 8,275 3.1 96, 350 36.4 | 215,349 81.4 | 247,521 93.6 264, 560
ASIO=E) ee sce J 2, 893 1.1 81,076 29.9 | 225, 584 83.3 | 265, 782 98.1 270, 865
J 111 LS 7 aa emia ee 16, 703 5.9 | 105,968 37.5 | 192,630 68.1] 258,418 91.4 282, 815
(2) =i ko 2 ee ees 9, 085 (ir? 69, 707 55.0} 115,930 91.5 | 120, 230 94.9 126, 706
Average:

1901-2 to 1905-6. .| 9, 252

Se 6} 181,499] 64.1] 252,465] 89.1] 283,302
1906-7 to 1910-11.| 5,321] 2. 1 5

1
196,432 | 75.9| 240,527] 92.9] 258,789

1 Compiled from Willett & Gray’s Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal.
2To Aug. 29. .
3To Aug. 26.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881—1912.

TaBLE 16.—Average cost of producing cane sugar in Louisiana, 1909, 1910, and 1911.1

Per ton of cane used.

Per pound of sugar made.

Item.

1909 1910 1911 1909 1910 1911
COST OF PRODUCING CANE.
Planting and cultivating ................-- $0. 500 $0. 740 RO SAGA NE ctetecrayeicy Sell ev eee ee cote | fee earch
A NVOS UL emacs seals Saget calncknge ace . 739 ~ 157 Ghee) ess eet es ees Al ep A) ore
Other, including repairs, maintenance,
supplies, taxes, insurance, etc.2......-.-- 2.911 2. 810 D428 iow nstsaltiee sedemee | icaemeuoes
ANE iS ee ee Oe 4.150 4.307 A OOUA|stnn ass ese dt seen sa eee oa
COST OF MAKING SUGAR.
Cost of cane delivered at factory........--- 4.182 4.090 4.530} $0.0267 | $0.0277 0. 0340
Manufacturing labor..........-... B 331 -324 -340 - 0021 . 0022 - 0025
Repairs and maintenance.......----.----- 334 371 341 . 0022 - 0025 . 0025
Other operating expenses, including sup-
plies, taxes, insurance, office expenses,
BUCA Meee hole eile OES Sites TRIBES Bets ae Rss 811 713 - 635 - 0052 - 0048 . 0049
ANON GAA oles NSIC Cie well eu 5. 658 5. 498 5. 846 - 0362 - 0372 - 0439
Cost of selling sugar. ..-.-...-...---------- - 288 - 246 . 226 - 0018 . 0017 . 0016
Total cost of manufacture and sale. - 5. 946 5. 744 6. 072 - 0380 - 0389 - 0455
Gross receipts from sale of sugar.........-. 6.856| 6.198] 6.462| .0438/ .0420| .0485

1 From report on The Sugar Industry, by F. J. Sheridan, Department of Commerce (Miscellaneous series

No.9), pp. 3 and 72.
2 Wxcluding interest and depreciation.

TaBLE 17.— Monthly prices of sugar per pound at New York and New Orleans, 1909-

LOLA

FINE AND STANDARD GRANULATED, AT NEW YORK, N. Y.

1909 1910 1911 1912
Month.
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
ATTAINS ae Meth os Nae vA ee 4.65 4. 65 4.95 5.15 4.70 4.80 5. 40 5. 80
TDS ones yg 2 eA SIE i ol 4.55 4.65 5.15 5. 25 4.60 4.70 5.40 5.85
Acar CLARRIE SIN ORE boi se) ah ee ie Nt lis 4.65 4.95 5.25 5. 25 4.70 4.80 5.50 5. 85
AT oe Cs Cae eae Sena rE eee oa 4.95 5.05 5.15 5.25 4.80 4.90 5.10 5.55
Ts Se eo Ses ge aes aS en 4.95 5.05 5.15 5. 25 4.90 4.90 5.10 §. 25
ACT oe oe et a ee enter a 4.95 4,95 5.15 5. 25 4.90 5.00 5.00 5. 25
a Na OB a 4.85 4.95 5.15 5.15 5.00 5. 65 5.00 5.15
PANG OUTS mere ome p ee cieta Leet in NM ah aE 4.95 5.05 5.15 5.25 5.65 6. 20 5.00 b5), 5)
Septemiberaps aoe. oles ke Ue yee 5.05 5.30 5.05 5. 25 6. 25 6. 80 5.10 5.15
WCLObER ee ig ie tan eh a 5.15 5.15 4.65 5.05 6. 65 6. 80 4.90 5.15
INOWenberyishc4 iece e 5.15 5. 25 4.60 4.65 6.15 6. 65 4.95 4.95
MM CCOMPCL Maou vise eks = eos Awe Sl 4.95 5. 25 4.50 4.90 5. 80 6.05 4.95 4.95
LAN a=) cto Tro RE Si aR Roy OE 4.55 5.30 4.60 5.25 4.60 6. 80 4.90 §.85
OF 96° POLARIZATION, AT NEW YORK, N. Y.

MU ANY Meese ee see eee scenes 3. 67 3.75 4.02 4.18 3.42 3.86 4.39 4. 65
Rebruanye ne see see fcc yees sess 3.61 3.74 4.08 4.36 3.45 3. 80 4.39 4.80
EVI T.C ne rere aos urease BE deer 3.74 4.00 4.36 4, 42 3.67 3.92 4.36 4. 67
PATO TyL pase ee eliy yt sty.) Baines eA 3.86 4.05 4,24 4.36 3.86 3.92 3.98 4.36
EI Be Ce GaSe Cee eae Nae Peis 3. 86 3.95 4,24 4.33 3.80 3. 86 3. 86 4.05
UEC oes SABRI eS 8 RE Sayer 3.86 3.92 4.17 4.30 3.83 3.98 3.83 3.98
VaR SS SOLES Ga eu Se ee ees ete 3.92 4.02 4.30 4.36 3.98 4.70 Be el 4.05
PNUISUIS Depa eee ae ecto eiciac eee ceed secre 4,02 4,11 4.30 4.48 4.61 5.36 3.98 4, 24
Heptembenae se Ses yok sn ene 4,11 4,24 4.05 4,42 5. 25 5.96 4.17 4.36
OCT ODOR ee noe ee he hos he oe 4, 20 4.40 3. 80 4.00 5. 74 5.96 4.05 4.17
INovember. 2% f2450 020.322 eo2 22.2 Ll. 4.30 4.45 3. 80 3.93 5.06 5.74 4.05 4.05
A CEMMDCE a leecccc cee ees Sek 4.02 4.33 3.93 4.05 4.61 5.06 3.73 4.05
I NOG\ NSD Se Sta eaE yaey A Rp 3.61 4.45 3. 80 4.48 3.42 5.96 3.73 4.80

1 New York prices from Yearbook of United States Department of Agriculture; New Orleans prices from

the Louisiana Planter.

16 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE !7.—Monthly prices of sugar per pound at’ New York and New Orleans, 1909-

1912—Continued.

STANDARD FINE GRANULATED, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA.

1909 1910 1911 1912
Month. aes
Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High.
Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.
PAATATY 2 28 ore ee see == SS 4.60 4.60 4,90 5.10 4.60 4.80 5.40 5.75
RSET AI Ae 58 Ss aoe Eee a eee 4.50 4.60 5.10 5.20 4.60 4.70 5.40 5.90
LA ESE) AE ees Be eee a Se 2 4.50 5.00 5.20 5.25 4.70 4. 80 5.50 5.80
22\/ CL 3d pe Oe ET es See ee ee eee 4.90 5.00 5.15 Hy 1s) 4.80 4.90 5. 20 5.50
21 See aah OR a eg SEP A Te 4.90 5.00 5.15 5.25 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20
ARG eee ees OL UE aan duke Boe 4.80 4, 90 5, 15) 5.15 5.00 5.00 5.00 5. 20
Sap asics A 4,80 4.90 5.15 5.15 5.00 5.45 5.00 5.10
SATICUISE A. eee = 5 ee eee ee 4.90 5.00 Sale 5. 25 5.15 6.35 5.00 5.20
Septem bap. Seee. oo se Rees Nee Se 5.00 5.10 5.05 5. 25 6.35 6. 80 5.00 5. 20
OCTOD Ot Aas as cae corn aoe 5.10 5.10 4.65 5.05 6.70 6. 80 4.90 5.00
INOVemlberess-. 5-0 nL bie be See 5.10 5. 20 4.60 4.60 6. 20 6.70 4.90 4.90
December 2 Ree Be! 4.90 5. 20 4.80 4.80 7) 6. 20 4.90 4.90
THe Wears Se aie oe Eee 4.50 5. 20 4.60 5.25 4.60 6. 80 4.90 5.90
OF 96° POLARIZATION, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA.
3.62 3. 69 3.88 4.09 3.18 BH Cal 4.36 4,48
3.61 3869),| os. Belles es py ek Sc 4,36 4.36
3.61 AAO | a. es=:cm Sisters asic cals] eta ee | es
DENS RRS SIN Feast ae ye oe Paco he 3199 '|" £1309 |” o. ORMIRe es tat ie saree ema A Merged (aol
; 3,07 BOOS Pe SS icp acess sos la oa coos | rere gene | ameter Bre. ys ee
—FANISUSES eee ee Be ene oa ee eee 0 35010) A ho Bas PAAR Os Aol a TR a | ieee eee ET
Neplembere ieee secre eso: apse ls Bara 4.17 0 a ee A Sete iene Grae cliteccic ocd a ata meee
October=% 2. a2 eae ee ee 4.06 ADA Ne rhs APR SAE Beare Ce ene ee Se oll era Sco
IN(ONAD IH ol Pe Rabanne eae tee 4.00 4.12 3. 62 3.69 4.78 4. 83 3.80 3.84
(December: ==. enh ae eee sen eae tee 3.88 4.09 3.65 3.81 4.57 4.81 3.75 3.87
EN OHY CAN! tei et See ee cere ees 3.00 4,24 3. 62 4.09 3.18 4,83 3.75 4, 48
PRIME YELLOW CLARIFIED, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA.
SAMUaTy seh. hl SON 2 Oe as eT 3.81 4.12 4.25 4.56 3.88 4.12 4.09 5.19
Hebruary 2s. 9... ee ee eee 3.94 4.09 4. 44 4. 56 4.03 4.38 4.81 5.59
Mareh?:5 224 ise - 3 eee eee 3.94 4.12 4.44 4.78 4,25 4.50 5.12 5.56
April. 4 Oi28. 5 ee. Oe ee ee ae 4.06 4.69 4.69 4.7, 4.38 4.53 4,81 5.31
May 210). ae k Ee oP ee Ee 4.06 4,25 4.69 4.97 4.38 4.53 4. 69 5. 81
SNe. 32 Pee 2b ae a ee 4.00 4,22 4.81 4.97 4,44 4.69 4.62 4.81
Willy ee 2k Ee ae Ee 4.00. 4.19 4.81 4,94 4.56 5.12 4.50 4.72
PATI SUSE EAS: aes Se bo 4.03 4,25 4. 88 5.00 5.00 SuoWe ee 4a 4.69
September) 4... Meike TRE. Le 4.12 4.25 5.00 5u00) |e eee eee 4.00 4.50
Octobery. 9925.2 2350s) 4- eee eee 4.12 4, 44 4.19 5.00 5.75 6. 25 3.94 4,44
Novembert 2... f sis 08. 1 eee oe 4.19 4,38 3.78 4. 28 4.88 5.34 4.00 4, 22
Decemberayk.%. A) SY oh ee Le 4.25 4.41 3.84 4.06 4.97 5.16 4.03 4.31
Dhelyiear- 24s ot 2 eo oe ee 3.81 | 4.69 3.78 5.00 3.88 6. 25 3.94 5.81

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 17

TABLE 18.—Railroad freight rates, per 100 pounds, on refined sugar carried in carloads,
over selected routes in the United States, May, 1913.1

To—

Chicago, Tl. Omaha, Nebr. Atlanta, Ga.
From—

Cents. Pounds. Cents. Pounds. Cents. Pounds.

Say (Chg WG 0a eee Beene ae aeee 11 33, 000 38 2 33, 000 65 3 33, 000

Colorado sugar-factory points (Long-
mont, Fort Morgan, Brush, Gree-

icy, HEE See eee { a a0) \ 25 33, 000 58 4 33,000
Mey Orleanswas.. |. !se...- 4.2 s.... 23 33,000 32 33, 000 23 24, 000
Mews VOrk IN. Y./.jco-0ioc-.s ccc 26 33, 000 40 33, 000 39, 24,000

ike 0 3, 000 5
| Salt Lake City, Utah.--.--.-........ 420 hbo 60, 000 50 60, 000 si} 40,000
65 36, 000 60 6, 000
SCO gal iegaose-ott aes { 60 60,000 55| 60,000 83} #60, 000

1 Data furnished by the Bureau of Tariffs, Interstate Commerce Commission.
2 Minimum weight, Mississippi River to Omaha, 36,000 pounds.

3 Minimum weight, Cincinnati to Atlanta, 24,000 pounds.

4 Minimum weight, Memphis to Atlanta, 24,000 pounds.

TABLE 19.—Sugar imported into the United States from foreign countries and received
from Hawau and Porto Rico, 1901-1912.1

[Im the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States the Philippine Islands are treated as a foreign
Caen all other noncontiguous possessions as partsof the United States. Most of the imported sugar
is raw.

(QD sci SOS RUE CE IU eS SETS Oo RET OR tea 935,736 | 1,469,948} 1,678,803 1, 593, 317

Mp piensa See eT VN NE OEE Ee ee 17, 446 39, 246 115,176 217, 785

atchwhastindies sais ee oe a Pe eet 364, 622 805, 196 114, 039 170, 198

FESEREIS IMC Ue Aare = eae as he aN Ss Ne Sr 66, 624 15, 056 7, 051 13, 527

ibieayAtl oe) SSE Sen Se COTE Se SReeeyee en eee tea eee 78, 144 11, 552 344 13, 482

11,015 9, 029 1,157 9, 022

53, 666 33, 427 12, 291 8, 841

41, 749 13, 019 4, 569 6, 579

6, 505 5, 813 3, 231 4, 266

32,014 3, 674 1,000 3, 751

3, 006 4,129 19, 007 2,930

1, 631 1,135 587 2,877

76, 629 9, 796 53 2,781

2,941 4,355 121 1, 256

2, 401 414 406 574

1, 691 1,157 911 441

123, 701 67, 100 12, 622 285

646 199 247 179

37 169 327 135

40, 255 8, 300 2,047 83

MO bai IMPOR sae cece vee see Soe ee Sai ee Nee 1,860,459 | 2,002,714] 1,968,989 2,052,309
SHIPMENTS TO THE UNITED STATES FROM—

TE Tenay@ilil SS Se asa eet ae Gem tr ec 0 ope Hs 375, 547 477, 965 505, 608 602, 733

OT LORE CO Ree en pae nein aia ais See laa eeee oem eie o eiante sale 107, 771 234, 539 322,917 367, 145

Total, Hawaii and Porto Rico...-.......-.-.-.-.- 483, 318 712, 504 828,525 969, 878

(Gaerne | Ope eee Bera Ror Boi hem mea cess 2,343,777 | 2,715,218 | 2,797,514 3, 022, 187

1 Compiled from reports of the Foreign Commerceand, Navigation of the United States, Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce.

18 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 20.—Percentage from each country of consignment of sugar imported into the
‘United States, 1901-1912.*

{In the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Ee re Islands are treated as a foreign
country; all other noncontiguous possessions, as parts of the United States. Most of the imported sugar

is raw.]
Year ending June 30—
Country from which consigned. 1901-1905 | 1906-1910
1911 1912
Average per year.
Per cent. | Per cent.) Per ceni.| Per cent.

(O15 0}: PR ae te 6 nea Se Nn A ee eNO A Pa Ee 50. 3 3.4 85.0 77.6
RhiltppineTslands 2 7. [eget eb a. | eae ce eee e 5) 6 Tan 9 2.0 5.8 10.6
DutehsBast indies §-\: 3aae ea FT Ua SR eua! Nn. Ce mane 19.6 15.2 5.8 8.3
British Guiana... -- "pu A a oo RP GRR OO ech ae ace pe 3.6 58 A Av
Brea AS ate Ose toi cle aga le a ai ee OR ATE Sap 4.2 6 (2) ait
Danish West Indies 6 25 Pn 4
Santo Domingo ue 2.9 17 -6 4
LeTS ab Re CU as ea tas ane ly 2.2 An w2 -3
Dutch Guiana..... Sed ENCE DM TEETER CTA CARE NI ag 38) 5a a2 2
AvustiiaEbungan yes hie Se ET AY AU A ele is ey ar ail 2
United Kamngdom 2 or oe ean S 8 di UA i ee iD BD} 1.0 el
Garin eu cece alee oe ANY We a iM eatin epee ce wl ei stl
IBritushuVWestIn dies <i ce See are i i Ve ea 4.1 5 al
INT OM CO cn Brae rarch cre Srettiage Role are ae A SR Se ae, AP 1 =i
CHM Se eis a erste he ath a TP OR ATE RD AU ql (2)
Guatemalacs occ s ire cet Sacer eet) tina ae ee te eo aul ol
Germany se see ae ea enema rt ae Ae) we 6.6 3.3 6 9,
Mongkon piss. ded tM See OO ILD (?) (2) (2) ‘
iMenezuela ss sete tecek eae eee rile Rah aa 2 ior aa (2) () (@)
OHNE COWES odes opesesassnsdsiesssacpssscss7s99scpa tosses - 2.3 2 ol

Notalostestcssveeex Abr werhanabnctonillly BONS AMD. 6 8 NR 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100.0

1 Compiled from reports of the Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. ‘
2 Less than 0.05 of 1 per cent.

TaBLE 21.—Comparison of raw and refined sugar in the imports into the United States,
1881-1912.1

[Not including receipts into the United States from Hawaii and Porto Rico subsequent to 1900. In the
statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Philippine Islands are treated as a foreign country;
Hawaii and Porto Rico since 1900,and Alaska for the entire period covered below, as partof the Unite
States.]

Year ending June 30—

Kind. 1881-1885 1886-1890 191-180 196-100 1901-105 1906-1910

1911 1912

Average per year.

151 eat ee ree 1,154,780 |1,422, 221 |1, 855,632 |1, 894, 161 |1,831, 131 |1, 999, 146 |1, 966,888 | 2,049,317
FONMOC soo. ea acetate 164 61 16, 982 56, 189 29, 328 3, 568 2,101 2,992
TOU coos nel 1,154, 944 |1, 422, 282 |1, 872,614 |1, 950, 350 |1, 860, 459 |2, 002,714 |1,968, 989 | 2,052,309

aware ss oo) ee so 100. 0 100. 0 99, 1 97.1 98. 4 99.8 99. 9 99.9
FRGHHEG sos nse eaten (*) () 9 2.9 1.6 2 oh Au

MOG esis stepaies 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100, 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0

1 Compiled from annual reports of the Foreign Commerce and Navigation of United States, Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce.
2 Less than 0.05 of 1 per cent,

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1831—1912. 19

TaBLE 22.—Imports of sugar into the United States, 1881-1912, by principal customs
districts.1

[In the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Philippine Islands are treated as a foreign

country; Hawaiiand Porto Rico since 1900, and Alaska for the entire period covered below, as part of
the United States. Most of the imported sugar is raw.]

Year ending June 30—

Custom district. | 1981-1885 | 1886-1890 | 1891-1895 1896-1900 | 1901-1905 | 1906-1910

fs 1911 1912
Average per year.

New York, N. Y...-- 749,022 | 839,093 | 903,577 |1, 140,794 |1, 223,355 |1,426,388 |1,311,829 | 1,385,715
Philadelphia, Pa....- 90,492 | 237,612 | 513,737 | 385,854 | 280,811 | 223,276 | 236,879 210,327
Boston and Charles-
town, Mass......-- 215,165 | 187,445 | 200,466] 189,986 | 181,974 | 184,449 | 169,586 190, 879
New Orleans, La....- - | 12,434 17, 293 70, 651 68,634 | 154,585 | 145,614 | 211,379 209, 033
San Francisco, Cal...| 68,054 | 129,619 | 163,935 | 146,040 10, 282 19,470 32,879 30, 866
Other ports.......--- 19,777 11, 220 20, 248 19,042 9,452 3,517 6,437 25,489
Mo tales ae ee ee! 1,154,944 {1,422,282 11,872,614 |1,950,350 |1,860,459 |2,002,714 |1,968,989 | 2,052,309
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
New York, N. Y...-- 64.9 59.0 48.3 58.5 65.8 7) 66.6 67.5
Philadelphia, Pa..-.- : 7.8 16.7 27.4 19.8 15.1 11.2 12.0 10.2
Boston and Charles-
town, Mass......-.- 18.6 13.2 10.7 9.7 9.8 9.2 8.6 9.3
New Orleans, La-.-.-- 1.1 1.2 3.8 3.5 8.3 7.3 10.7 10.2
San Francisco, Cal... 5.9 9.1 8.8 7.5 6 1.0 1.7 1.5
Other ports.....--.-- 1.7 8 1.0 1.0 4 al 4 1.3
Otani ses 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1 Compiled from the annual reports of the Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States,
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. Data for 1901-1905 and subse-
quently are not strictly comparable with data for earlier years, because receipts from Hawaii and Porto
Rico, subsequent to 1900, have been omitted from foreign trade, and the sugar received from those posses-

‘sions in 1901-1905 and subsequently is not represented in the above table.

TABLE 23.—Production of sugar and shipments to the United States, for Hawaii and
Porto Rico, 1901-2 to 1912-18.1

[Chiefly raw.]

Hawaii (year ending Sept. 30). Porto Rico (year ending June 30).

Shipped to the Shipped to the
United States. United States.
Year.
Produc- Produc-
tion Per cent tion Per cent
Quantity. | of pro- Quantity. | of pro-

duction. duction.

TIS O Lb ce LE ale My pel 355, 611 354, 323 OONG) | eee sae eee bie 91,909 |...--..---
UO 2 5 NE ER 437,991 431, 346 OSHS NN fase 1134072) eA
TCO Re Sree eg ea 367,475 386,773 MOSS ete eee 1295606; Potatoes
NODA SD eee ra mucee UGS Se 426, 248 406,732 Coa e oe) [ue coe ee 135,660 |...-..-..-
QOS OMe emi ol a ees DE 429, 213 402, 500 QB eSignal suey 20D82 712) | Paeeeeaee
TCO G7/ SE ere a Ree ea Here re MR 440, 017 417,038 Qa Sy iien 2045075) 223-228 o 8
521,123 543, 656 104.3 230, 094 234, 603 102.0
535, 156 526, 984 98.5 277,093 244, 226 88.1
517, 090 526, 469 101.8 346, 786 284, 520 82.0
566, 821 536, 771 94.7 349, 840 322,917 92.3
595, 038 598, 268 100.5 371,076 367,145 98.9

546, 524 537,574 LOSS a I ee eae Blew 7Al) | Meee

Average:

1901-2 to 1905-6. ......-------- 403,308 396,335 COE) REM ae eee IB UOG |essetavods
1906-7 to 1910-11........------ 516,041 510, 184 98.9 2 300, 953 2 271, 566 290.2

1 Production in Hawaii 1911-12 and 1912-13 as given by Bureau of Statistics, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture; other years by Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association. Production in Porto Rico
as given by the treasury department of Porto Rico. Shipments from Hawaii and Porto Rico to the
United States, as given by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce,

2 Average 1907-8 to 1910-11, inclusive. i

mis :

20 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 24.—Sugar made and cane used for sugar in Hawati, 1910-11 and 1912-18, by
islands.

[From reports of Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture. Data for 1911-12 refer to
the year ending Sept. 30, 1912; for 1910-11 the data refer to the entire campaign, which for some fac-
tories extended later than Sept. 30,1911. Sugar made during the year ending Sept. 30, 1911, according
to the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, was 566,821 short tons.]

Sugar made (chiefly raw).

Cane used for sugar.1
Average per short ton

Island. Quantity. AR CATCH

1910-11 | 1911-12 | 1912-13 | 1910-11 | 1911-12] 1912-13} 1910-11 | 1911-12 | 1912-13

Short Short Short Short Short Short

tons. tons. tons. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. tons. tons. tons.
walle: heres tee .| 198,830 | 209,914 | 197,212 228 233 232 |1, 744,000 |1, 799, 000 |1, 702, 515
TREN gic pe Phelt bias 100,667 | 96,845 | 100,340 219 240 239 | 919,000 | 807,000 | '840,708
Marie beens 139, 894 | 148, 740 | 124,820 247 277 269 |1,133,000 {1,074,000 } 928,590
Oabue® shoe nie no 135,087 | 189,589 | 124,152 260 255 248 |1,039,000 /1,094,000 |1,003, 129

Territory of :

iHawaiten ce 574,478 | 595,038 | 546,524 238 249 244 |4,835,000 /4, 774,000 |4, 474,942

1 Computed from incomplete returns.

TABLE 25.—Production of sorghum sirup in the United States, 1889, 1899, and 1909,

by principal States.
[Census.]
State. - : 1889 1899 1909
Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.

iGan tui Chey ono oot cate es ee eR es ee 2,094,962 | 1,277,206] 2,733,683
MRENNIESSES = Heo Se Os oe aie cena SIS eis Re OS NR ee le eee me 2,542,533 | 2,047,655 2,076, 339
NEISSOUTE: Oe oh Ae tens Meee ne no roe eee a eee Ce ae, Sree 2,721,240 | 1,990,987 1, 788, 391
Arkansas. 200. [ode obs oboe coe eee ase Saas Caen se 1,868,952 | 1,223,691 1,140, 532
INOFtH: Carolina... 2.5: =552. ose) see oo A shoe seen s ee ee 1,268,946 | 1,419,570 1,099, 346
TMIiNnGI8 - -23 oc o22 292 se oee's ese sy Soe ces nes eaeeee Se ee se see eee 1,110,183 625, 939 977, 238
Indiana. 222 264 o< 2 3. Dae Nee a Ue ee a 751, 808 579, 061 965, 086
Alabama...-.- ae a ed ct SPE Nees A see i ar = 1,242,689 | 1,168, 868 809, 361
GROOT PIA eshe ce cee ES eS Ss eR ye 1,342, 803 767, 024 740, 450
INeissiagi ppl. 2 22:5 Jecu <3 twa bok Le ee te ee 972,216 | 1,162,269 622, 356
Wiest iVireinia i252) sew sieen Ssh. t SoS ae es 2 5 512, 747 450, 777 604, 201
QOklshom as a. soo 2 sos 2 toe se sec ba vee oe eh oe 31, 299 81, 891 514, 807
877, 232 448,185

555, 321 441,189

341, 523 354, 131

478,190 262, 452

735, 787 260, 680

521, 212 250, 205

157, 605 145,934

219, 070 160, 414 139, 667

Louisiana 107, 763 48, 727 47,029
Blorida..'3.8-0 - 2538. -2 Mise ee 2 ene 10,461) eee bee, 22,177
ULE eee RAR) REL: PE eS - . ReBON a OT 24,293 28,017 21,847
Midhisan $s. 0 eyo. bo, ee, es ee ck 45, 524 24,059 21, 350
Nebraske bien. ocn8s. S25 gee Ge ave Sols ee ae ee 634, 146 92,413 14, 644
All. other States.2..<-bsc. Sees As es 5 eh pee es a ee 118, 166 157,345 31,102

United States: fs. eee 5. 2a: at See ok ee ee 24,235,219 | 16,972,783 | 16,532,382

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

TABLE 26.—Sorghum cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by principal

States.

[Census.]

State.

TIAGO. - CRC oSE ROSE BES ECE IE EES ps ca EsEaENI A) AMMO Ee a eee

RISO Sa Speen ee Sera Fe NG ee a ee HO RS AE IL SO ad
IMESSISST DIE ANN. Sees AS <a nceinitae elm teers ooo sen RR ae ates
VCS TAVAIT Ta ee sce Red rast aeiaeld nee eee Ce Bee are
RArrcci ra ae Meee Sere oa Sse e Sais maen see eisincteen sie foe aiclete stutemls a elseelas

IVES CONS Tl epee sere Bah) eee SS IOs As Su
IVIGTATIOSO Laem ey Se rates, SUS cde Nee ne BR RIE A oe aN ae I

WIGRTEB TOS USS cee Son 2a > SOREL: CEE ReBe SOEs a eee OPE | eam ae re mes
TET OYEIO ED pe eS Seg RR A I oR oe AR Sete ee ee
Oia as he a a re te eS ee eres Cp Sena

Area.

Acres.
62, 327
52, 907
45, 088
55, 027
33, 071

15, 039
21,227
12, 253
17,819
25, 546

15, 612
15, 406
17, 851
8, 607
8,288

6, 225
4,709
8, 445
2,281
1, 709

4,034
3, 169
1, 690

647
2,371

416
379
340
586

1, 020

444,089

Produc-
tion.

Short tons.
226, 303
205, 901
201, 206
101, 691

93, 123

90, 287
86, 462
79, 672
72, 388
64, 599

64, 336
60, 821
55, 359
48, 094
41, 449

28, 957
28, 644
27, 612
13, 735
13, 253

10, 477
7,161
6,073
3,021
2; 819

2, 765
2,173
1, 654
1,451
5, 776

1, 647, 262

Average
yield per
acre.

Short tons.

COV GAS SS Guid) EG EO RIN RIGACI COR SASS IRSA GS ERR SS 5
| AMOUR NNIDWR DOWRY CMHOH GAHUHO WDHMNOD

TaBLE 27.—WMaple sugar and sirup production in the United States, 1889, 1899, and
1909, by principal States.
[Census.]
Maple sugar. Maple sirup.
State.
1889 1899 1909 1889 1899 1909
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
WAG TET CYT Fy a 14, 123, 921 4,779, 870 7, 726, 817 218, 252 160, 918 409, 953
Nem: WGnk po ae 10, 485,623 | 3,623,540 | 3,160,300 457, 658 413, 159 993, 242
Pennsylvania_....- _.| 1,651,163 | 1,429,540] 1,188,049 154, 650 160, 297 391, 242
New Hampshire... --| 2,124,515 441, 870 558, 811 81, 997 41, 588 111, 500
Maryland aya nas elses ie 156, 284 264, 160 351, 908 1,021 5, 825 12,172
VT CHICAS eee iste ces es 1 , 641, 402 302, 715 293, 301 197,775 82, 997 269, 093
OMI OPe es se ete eee Seine ses 1, 575, 562 613, 990 257, 592 727, 142 923, 519 1, 323, 431
Massachusetts.....-....-..--- 558, 674 192, 990 156, 952 33, 632 27,174 53, 091
WiestaVireiming sss) SoS or! 177, 724 141, 550 140, 060 19, 032 14, 874 31,176
WAT SAVATEE Se eS eae a ao 26, 991 19,310 44,976 3, 468 1,677 6, 046
Ta OPEN OYE YE Bi Pe Mea RS hts Me a 67, 329 51, 900 33, 419 180, 702 179, 576 273, 728
Wisconsin...............- yess 128, 410 4,180 27,199 48, 006 6, 625 124,117
All other States.......--2....- 235, 329 63, 155 120, 822 135, 041 38, 382 107, 627
United States........... 32, 952, 927 | 11,928,770 | 14,060,206 | 2,258,376 | 2,056,611] 4,106, 418

22 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TABLE 28.—Production of sugar in countries named, 1901-2 to 1911-12.

(Substantially the sugar production of the world. Data for 1901-2 to 1905-6 from Willett & Gray, except
for a few minor countries; subsequent to 1905-6, from official sources except where otherwise stated.
Some figures in this table refer to raw and some to refined sugar, according to the kind stated in the
original returns. Some items, especially unofficial data, are subject to revision in case more accurate
figures become ayailable.]

Average per year.

Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12
1901-2 to | 1906-7 to :
1905-6 1910-11
CANE SUGAR. Short Short Short Short Short Short Short

tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons.
2,171,847] 2,345, 280) 2,292, 528] 2, 097, 648| 2,382, 352] 2, 483, 936] 2, 677, 248
1,171,810) 1,615, 152) 1,085, 616] 1,704, 416] 2,035, 600| 1,635,200} 2, 089, 920
1,006, 968} 1,325, 184] 1,333, 920] 1,368,640] 1,368, 640] 1,377, 600] 1, 582, 560
403,308} 516,041 521, 123 535, 156) 517,090} 566, 821 595, 038
147,392} 282,128) 230,095) 277,093) 346,786} 349,840) 371,076
2 362,535] 2 354,031) 2 394,240] 2414,400] 2334,315] 2355,040] — 360,874
(Brazil 23.2 3.24 een eae ee 269, 604 275, 520 217,280} 273,280} 278,880} 315,840} 258, 720
WOriOsH eC AE eo 51,923] 146,227] 72,240) 134,848] 226, 800} 8 226,800] 8226, 800
Philippine Islands 4............ 113,128] 145,824] 167,216] 123,872] 140,784] 164,640} 204, 960
Magontina. = 1406 te tk) Bee 150,820; 147,638] 124,992| 178,192} 140,336] 163,744] 198, 464
Queensland 4.8 we. wees 135,968} 192,931) 207,312} 168,448) 148,736) 236,096} 194,096
Mauritiis 22% Pies ee boa ee 190,228) 232,579) 180,880} 215, 936 277,760} 245,616} 186,928
Bere ae eee sae cee ee 155,426) 168,000} 148,960] 165,760) 165,760} 181,440) © 181,440
MeExiCol. scr Ae ae eee 120,491] 153,306] 135,856] 157,808} 163,072] 178,080} 170,912
British Gulanhes -2 ses aeeee- 130,321} 4119, 549} 4129,024) 4121,520) 4113,120/ £121,296) 4111, 328
Sarto Domingo eeceseee see ee | 654,676) 482,813) 469,664) 477,840) 4102,368) 4101,472| 4 107,968
IN Atale Le SER esd Se 30,831] 65,386] 35,840} 86, 800) 786,800} 90,384] 101,260
[he eee ain Sse RR 45,584| 70,336] 76,496] 74,032) + 77,168] + 77,056] _—‘81, 312
Taparisce 2 Ree eee A eee - (5) 61,578} 55,104] 59,472) 64,848] 72,464) 8 72, 464
Beyphece sc: (ee ese a -| 82,992] - 48,384) 29,120] 40,320] + «62, 720] 362,720} 362,720
Trinidad and Tobago........... 50, 818 59, 920 56, 672 54, 768 59, 360) 58, 240 52, 640
Guadeloupe 4.........-....-2-6- 41,913] 40,992) 39,760] 27,776] 47,264) 47,264! 847,264
Renniona!..4. 26 2h ashe tesa 40, 732 46, 390 52, 080 43, 456 36, 960) 48,160 44, 800
Martinique 4... /......--2-2.---- 35,869] 42,045) 39,648} 41,888] 44,016] 44,016] 844,016
Jamaica! 2 ciate e sacs ssch oe 16, 272 29, 434 31, 920 26, 880) 21,056} ~ 31,696 81, 808
Portuguese East Africa......... 5,075 11, 604 3, 360 14, 560 19, 040 16, 800 30, 240
arWAdOSs as sees eee eee es 52,425] 42,381] 42,560] 40,768} 20,496] 45,248] 29, 904
Spates so ceco cece eee 26,503] 19,354) 17,696] 15,456] 23,856] 22,400| 28,520
DnicheG ans nan! cee ee 14,514] 13,126] 13,104] 13,216] 12,096 13,328] 813,328
New South Wales.............. 22,854] 22,714/ 32,704 17,136] 16,464] 21,056] 19, 040
MATAR Ieee pron ae scene Sees eee 12, 062 13, 933 16, 576 14, 896 10, 304 15, 792 13, 104
St. Christopher-Nevis.........- 15,808} 15,187; 16,688] 13,104] 13,776] 14,560| 814,560
[Beri eee Se = Se a a 18,644] 13,350] 13,664) 12,768} 13,440) 13,440) 913,440
Danish West Indies...-........ 14,112 11, 760 14,112 4,928 13, 328 12,992) 812,992
Gratemidia nen tee eee 8, 529 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840
SAIvAMOneS. Pecans esto. ctaee 6, 458 6, 720 5, 600 6, 720 6, 720 7, 840 7, 840
Still Clas sot Son ee ee Seen 5,155 5, 869 5, 600 6, 160) 5, 600 5, 936 5, 040
(Sista RCA aden fies 52 eae 2, 902 2,912 2, 240 3, 360 3, 360 3, 360 3, 360
Wicgragiiad 1! 52." . see ta tees 4, 899 7, 392 5,600} 11,200] 711,200 3,360] 83,360
British Honduras. =) --eeeeee 671 650 672 672 448 784 784
Sipavincentsts; 25 pee eec eee 701 291 224 224 336 336 336
DOWUINNCA a fo fen cease See 246 112 112 112 112 112 112
MGntserraten- ses seeae- sone eee 744 358 448 112 112 224 112

Veneznela cis tere soc tcaee 3, 360 () (5) (5) (5) (5) (8)
Total cane sugar.........- 7,197,118] 8, 762,221] 7,926,386] 8,653, 481| 9, 421, 119] 9, 440, 869|10, 255, 628

1 The figures represent the production of about 97 per cent of the area under sugar cane and 90 per cent
of the area under all sugar crops.

2 Unofiicial.

8 Data for 1909-10.

4 Exports.

& No data.

6 Including Haiti.

7 Data for 1908-9.

8 Year preceding.

9 Average for 1907-8 and 1908-9.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912.

TABLE 28.—Production of sugar in countries named, 1901-2 to 1911-12—Continued.

Average per year.

Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 | 1910-11 | 1911-12
1901-2 to | 1906-7 to
1905-6 1910-11
BEET SUGAR. Short Short Short Short Short Short Short
tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons.
PEUTISS Ieee ect okie ic wise '= Apotaicsistete S 1, 209, 074) 11, 454, 522) 11, 380, 736) 11, 242, 192) 11, 122, 688) 12, 108, 624) 12, 025, 856
(BIGIETT aa eS Ss ee a 2, 207,130] 2, 444, 288] 2,357,488] 2,291 968] 2,245,824! 2, 854,768] 1,650,992
Austria-Hungary......-.-.----- 1, 306, 525] 21, 520, 019} 21, 556, 016) 21, 528, 800) 21, 373, 008) 21, 675, 520) 21, 259, 888
United States (contiguous) 235,517| 477,104) 463,680] 425,600) %501,682) 510,720) 599,500
FRATICO MeN em cite ais sack suite tenes 986,155} 748,563] 713,440} 785,568} 796,880} 705,600} 501,760
Netherlands..........-..------- 170,392) 198,464) 174,720) 217,280} 199,360} 219,520} 302,400
Pel orate sere es 2 Set fet ge Aah 278,682} 278,454) 250,208] 272,944) 263,872) 299,040) 258,720
liigiky (echo: See ee ee 104,248} 4152,544) 4150,080] 4182,560) 4122,080) 4190,400) 4 184,800
(Siwy Gla Leta one Cece eae ere 112,537) 156,845, 123,200) 150,030; 140,000) 191,744) 135,520
Shomiine |SS SA RG asec aaa a ee aeeeee ee 80, 417 97,440} 104,160} 119,840 95, 200 78, 400 95, 200
Monmanlkasae ncisc co sc-insleeece 55, 458 76, 832 58, 016 73,136 69,216} 110,768 58, 128
HVOUIMAMIAne sees ao: Lees bs IS as se- 210,718} 429,344) 425,760} 428,000} 430,240} 530,240} 530,240
Canada: Ontario......--.------- 9,055 10, 461 10, 528) 10, 528 10, 528 10, 304 11, 088
GH Va amr ete acis odo seeniwciaees 970 68,176 68,176 6 8,176 68,176 88,176 68,176
TRU A hye AA Osean AE Aeros (7) 6,720 8, 960) 7,840 6, 720 5 6,720 5 6,720
Switzerland...........--------- 2,531 43,942 44,144 44,480 44,032 5 4,032 5 4,032
(GRECCOM ee aan ec sb os eeeetes (7) 986 448 1,120 81,120 $1,120 81,120
Total beet sugar.....---.- 6, 969, 409) 7,664,704) 7,389, 760] 7,350,112) 6,990,626] 9,005,696} 7,134, 140
Total beet and cane sugar.|14, 166, 527/16, 426, 925)15, 316, 146|16, 003, 593/16, 411, 745|18, 446, 565/17, 389, 768

1 Sugar made from “‘beets entering factories.”’ 5 Data for 1909-10.

2 Central Union for Beet Sugar Industry. 6 Average production as unofficially estimated.

3 Census for 1909. 7 No data.

4 Unofiicial. 8 Data for 1908-9.

TABLE 29.—Percentage of the ‘‘world” sugar crop produced in each principal country,

1901-2 to 1911-12.1

Average per year.

Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 | 1910-11 | 1911-12
1901-2 to | 1906-7 to
1905-6 1910-11
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
IBLIbIsHMINGIa se sash. toe eee = 5 15.3 14.3 15.0 IB IL 14.5 13.5 15.4
United States and insular pos-
8.9 10.8 11.6 11.1 il 10.6 12.3
8.3 9.8 Goal 10.7 12.4 8.9 12.0
8.5 8.9 9.0 7.8 6.8 11.4 11.6
15.6 14.9 15.4 14.3 13.7 15.5 9.5
7.1 8.1 8.7 8.6 8.3 7.5 9.1
Austria-Hungary ...-..--------- 9.2 9.3 10.2 9.6 8.4 9.1 Uae?
TANCE Bees esas seh see eee 7.0 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.9. 3.8 2.9
Netherlands 2-2-2. 5. ssee¢ 22 1.2 1.2 taal 1.4 1.2 i152} 1.7
[BTA et eat soe 2 e952 je 1.9 17/ 1.4 Dei Wo¢ Le? 155
ISG Ss aees se sesaser es aBeeee 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.5
IBIOLINOSA So esen ee etekissiresekuee 4 9 25 8 1.4 12 1.3
ATS MTNA ee oesecec oes scenes se 1.1 9 .8 1.1 9 9 1.1
Australian Commonwealth:

@iweensland es). os sseeese cee 1.0 119 1.4 1.1 9 1.3 1.1
GTI URE Secor seen eneenemEees 1.3 1.4 iY) 1.3 ila? i183 1.1
Mitalivees susan ec ieiceseines scses es oil 9 1.0 ili oo 1.0 1.1
LEG ln = GG Cee OEE EA OEE Reece 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
NIGESTCO) Ss) AS OSE Ee ee eee 9 9 9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
SRG GTS See ie ere eer te 8 1.0 -8 9 9 1.0 .8
SPA ee see aec ec steess = ctlsecees -8 ol .8 -8 5 38 of
IST AGISH Giana 252+ cis 9 nilk .8 8 si nll 6
Santo; OMmIngoO.2: 22-22. 2)2-- 2 - 4 5 5 aD) -6 6 -6
Other countries.............---- 5.6 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.7 4,9

ER Ofalemey Acs ase sea 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1 See notes to Table 28.

|
{

24 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 30.—Percentage of cane and beet sugar in the total ‘‘world” production, 1901-2
to 1911-12.
Cane sugar. Beet sugar.
Year. Total.

ae ih: i ,
Quantity. | Fer ent | Quantity. | Pet cent

IOO7=Sk sa seta. bee Se) See. ae 7, 926, 386 51.8] 7,389, 760 48.2 | 15,316,146

ODS Os pare en Rie iat. Le eae). Se aa 8, 653, 481 54.1] 7,350,112 45.9 | 16,003,593

TSG 1h es RM sev er A as 9, 421,119 57.4 | 6,990, 626 42.6] 16,411,745

1G 1 OSI he OO Ee CIE MA ES ae 9, 440, 869 51.2 | 9,005, 696 48.8] 18,446,565

OUTST De RUE EE Aileen, ENYA a 10, 255, 628 59.0 | 7,134,140 41.0 | 17,389,768

1 See notes to Table 28.

TaBLE 31.—International trade in sugar, calendar years 1901-1911.
EXPORTS.

Average per year.
Country from which |__| 7 1908 1909 1910 1911

exported.
1901-1905 | 1906-1910

Cibases ees nea aes 1,009,172 | 1,461,755 | 1,455,219 | 995,509 | 1,603,323 | 1,932,871 |11, 932, 871
Dutch East Indies... ....] 1,004,045 | 1,306,083 | 1,316,112 | 1,411,847 | 1,386, 964 | 1,316,899 | 21,476,151
Germany 3......... .-}] 1,037,362 995, 500 | 1,007, 630 921, 056 941,299 771, 601 945, 023
Austria-Hungary 700, 005 826, 347 809, 430 884, 505 878, 531 743, 306 667, 479
Irani cee a) tee sth sae 402,946 | 284,870] 365,630| 270,410] 267,879] 211,536| 2146,823
Mearititis: onsen eee ene 185,037 | 214,749] 215,672 | 217,208] 197,700] 237,814 261, 408
PUSS ines Lee a eon 173, 156 204, 936 198, 458 329, 131 225, 953 164, 116 500, 064
Beleinmessceeese sas seen 177,803 | 171,896] 189,782 | 146,573] 159,660} 132,632 180, 080
INefherlands="* (eo oe RE ries 156, 236 165, 717 149, 984 169, 898 168, 048 160, 631 216,179
Philippine Islands....... 96,251 | 143,940] 141,003 | 159,541} 142,558] 133,898 230, 039
Penn meets ea 137,828 | 136,783 | 121,931 | 137,668} 138,175 | 135,424] 1185,424
British Guiana 4......... 128, 808 121, 047 112, 825 129, 039 121, 557 113, 068 111, 292
Santo Domingo.......... 66, 724 73, 149 54,105 69, 703 77,822 | 102,413 296, 749
INAS ands. oes eee 50, 338 65, 824 74, 589 74, 087 68, 127 69, 172 81,574
Brazile sence ente maa 86, 293 56,590 14,173 34, 808 75, 489 2 64, 841 239, 912
Trinidad and Tobago‘... 48,545 49, 833 51, 823 44,372 50, 770 51, 797 42, 489
Renmiony issn etek eee 37, 129 44,774 51, 257 52, 066 43, 408 36, 927 136, 927
Martinique..........-.-. 32,596 42, 554 40, 703 39, 605 41, 864 44, 043 144,043
Guadaloupes..-ceeee eee 39, 935 41,074 42, 946 39, 744 27,791 47,253 1 47,253
Banbadosty.83- 5222 ee 53, 710 38, 131 38, 054 36,119 17, 937 40, 218 30, 785
United Kingdom........ 39, 618 Sip Lie |i tod LO 29, 636 36, 1381 35, 128 32, 005
IBEIsH India sees ee eee 27, 143 22,784 23,292 23,178 18, 453 25, 693 22,092
(8) sbi) eae See ST eae 35, 861 12, 824 7,447 16, 100 11, 293 17, 726 16, 793
LOY 6 Rete 2 Aol y 41, 220 5,329 4, 603 4,319 4,943 7,533 11, 908
Arventing 2285-28 ee 31, 296 63 71 20 44 61 75
Other countries........-- 140,894 | 285,104 | 257,753) 233,730] 288,966] 354,843] 2248, 102
TO Taso eee 5,939,951 | 6,809, 428 | 6, 782,202 | 6,469, 872 | 6,994,685 | 6,951,444 | 7,553,540

1 Year preceding. 3 Not including free ports prior to Mar. 1, 1906.

2 Preliminary. 4 Year beginning Apr. 1.

STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 25

Taste 31.—International trade in sugar, calendar years 1901-1911—Continued.
IMPORTS.

Average per year.
Conntoymmtonwhich jt 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911

imported. |
1901-1905 1906-1910
|
Short tons. | Short tons. | Short tons. | Short tons.| Short tons. | Short tons.| Short tons.
United States.......---- 1,874,989 | 1,947,656 | 1,936,111 | 1,859,350 | 1,908, 448 | 2,097,538 | 2,067,103
United Kingdom...-...-- 1,691,729 | 1,770,275 | 1,767,861 | 1,747,596 | 1,831, 663 | 1,793,944 | 1,859, 430
Brit isheingiays 252. =--2-= 325, 098 608, 257 536, 989 592,545 627, 030 673, 367 635,570
Un ae See eee 248, 125 349, 618 381, 592 277, 484 365,211 287, 422 287, 717
CATE eee 188, 845 240, 303 222,501 219, 655 261, 279 267, 246 299, 883
LP AE eee eae es Sse 236, 839 195, 347 219, 759 221, 569 149, 434 133, 563 87, 636
Privkeyentret. 3. voces ee 139,707 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1 151,309 1 151,309
LNT 108, 998 126, 616 119, 083 127, 132 119, 279 156, 308 2189, 661
Switzerland.......-. ....| 89,915 | 101,897] 102,775 | 100,710} 100,504} 111,671 115, 431
SROTSIS Ones cis acineeinidee ns 85,316 99, 070 95, 712 93, 651 100, 623 | 4100, 623 £100, 623
Netherlands........-..-- 103, 055 75,740 98, 270 70,579 78, 018 70, 836 102, 183
CT Gi ee ee 49, 993 66, 257 62,558 53, 404 76, 881 79, 182 95, 485
DHIPAPOLES. os = oan se 52, 345 56, 706 51,276 45, 632 62, 670 56, 718 5 56, 718
New: Zealand .-.-...--.-: 43,373 50, 828 37, 794 51,332 58, 221 57, 766 61, 979
INOLWAYen cet accent 40, 234 45,500 43,546 43,537 49, 339 50, 898 53, 114
LD Yan] ayo lee oe a ea a 34, 541 45, 484 43, 842 45, 084 48,788 48, 043 49,091
astraliaese © oo62 012.5. 77,548 45,145 6, 946 21,959 | 111,662 38, 089 37, 269
British South Africa. -.... (6) 43, 848 53, 233 45, 743 33, 661 30, 174 37, 353
DRAVID Bee eee See eeceeeee 18, 885 42, 802 27, 436 58, 703 54, 202 35, 509 50, 448
OIG Pals secs =o 2asse 33, 816 36, 813 36, 483 36, 660 38, 594 36, 283 36, 283
AT OCTLIND on 8 2. se .5e 268 36, 094 47,975 45, 827 21, 842 62, 692 57,298
WCMIMAr Kees es .2 2552 = 34,514 31, 562 26,541 41,326 42,162 25, 152 12,739
WriguaAY Wo 5258-2. 552-02 20, 803 26, 606 23, 416 28, 543 8 28, 543 3 28, 543 8 28,543
Riahyeseere se cca c on sole 15, 676 13,550 26, 166 5,398 13, 057 e2ip 10, 418
Other countries.......... 240, 023 278, 322 265, 982 297, 741 305, 369 303, 355 2315, 611
otal t te se 2 3S 5, 754, 635 | 6,485,605 | 6,385,156 | 6,282,469 | 6,637,789 | 6,703,446 | 6,798, 895
1 Data for year beginning Mar. 14, 1905.
2 Preliminary.
3 Year beginning Mar. 21.
4 Data for 1909.

5 Year predne

6 South African Customs Union formed in 1905. Returns for separate colonies included in ‘‘Other coun-
tries’’ for years prior to 1906.

7 Year beginning July 1.

8 Data for 1908.

NoTtE.—This table covers substantially the trade of the world. Itshould not be expected that the world

export and import totals for any year willagree. Among sources of disagreement are these: (1) Different
periods of time covered in the ‘‘year’’ of the various countries; (2) imports received in year subsequent to
year of export; (3) want of uniformity in classification of goods among countries; (4) different practices and
varying degrees of failure in recording countries of origin and ultimate destination; (5) different practices
of recording reexported goods; (6) SE osite methods of treating free ports; (7) clerical errors, which, it may
be assumed, are not infrequent; (8) losses at sea.
_ The exports given are domestic exports, and the imports given are imports for consumption as far as it
is feasible and consistent so to express the facts. While there are some inevitable omissions, on the other
hand there are some duplications because of reshipments that do not appear as such in official reports.
For the United Kingdom, import figures refer to imports for consumption when available; otherwise total
imports less exports of ‘‘foreign and colonial merchandise.’

The following kinds and grades have been included under the head of sugar: Brown, white, candied,
caramel, chancaca (Peru), crystal cube, maple, muscovado, panela. The following have been excluded:
“Candy”? (meaning confectionery), confectionery, glucose, grape sugar, jaggery, molasses, and sirup.

Some figures in this table refer to raw and some to refined sugar, according to the kind reported in the
original returns. In the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Philippine Islands are
treated as a foreign country; all other noncontiguous possessions, as part of the United States.

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No. 67

a i I In

a = S A G
Zornes

Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester.

March 17, 1914.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR
TELEPHONE POLES.

By Norman pEW. Berts and A. L. Hem,
Engineers in Forest Products.

POLE SUPPLY IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION.

Therapid extension of telephone and power lines in the West makes
the question of pole supply one of increasing importance. Tests
described in this bulletin show that both green and fire-killed lodge-
pole pine and fire-killed Engelmann spruce will, under certain con-
ditions, make suitable pole timbers. Western red cedar has long
been the standard pole timber in the Western States. It has held its
place mainly on account of its durability in contact with the soil,
though its light weight has also been a very desirable feature. The
tree (Thuja plicata) grows principally in Washington, Oregon, and
northern Idaho. In addition to its wide use for poles, it is extensively
cut for lumber, and especially for shingles. In the States south of its
region of growth the cost of cedar is high, owing to the great dis-
tances over which it must be transported. Moreover, the heavy
drain on the available supply must soon result in higher stump-
age prices. There are at present in both the Rocky Mountain and
Coast Ranges abundant stands of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), often
called by local lumbermen “white pine,”’ of little value for lumber,
but well adapted for poles. Lodgepole pine is not naturally durable
in contact with the ground, and for that reason has not been able to
enter the field as a competitor of western red cedar. The general
adoption of preservative treatment é by railroad and telephone com-
panies, however, has changed the situation. At an additional cost
for treatment that still leaves the pine pole the cheaper of the two
in most of the markets outside the region where cedar grows, the
pine may be made to last longer than untreated cedar. Lodgepole

1 The preservative treatment of poles is discussed in Forest Service Bulletin 84.

NotTE.—This bulletin gives the results of tests on western red cedar, lodgepole pine, and Engelmann
spruce poles to determine their suitability for telephone lines. Values are presented for fiber stress at
elastic limit, modulus of rupture, stiffness, and modulus of elastic resilience. Of value to lumbermen
in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States and to users of telephone poles.

22740°—14 1

BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

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TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 3

pine takes treatment readily. Cedar, on the other hand, allows but
a very shallow penetration.

Another tree, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni) also has a
wide distribution throughout the Rocky Mountains, although it
grows commercially only at the higher altitudes. It is thus not as
available as the lodgepole pine, norin shape or in its ability to take
preservative treatment is it so well adapted for poles. It grows
farther south, however, and in many districts is the only native tim-
ber available for pole use. Figure 1* shows the botanical range of
growth of the three species. The relatively restricted range of western
red cedar indicates the importance to the more southern mountain
States of determining the value of local timbers for telephone and
power line poles.

Forest fires in the Rocky Mountains have killed many stands of
spruce and pine, and the disposal of this material, which, through
checking, is rendered practically useless for saw timber, has always
been a troublesome problem. On many areas such material remains
entirely sound for a number of years after the fire, and, besides, is
thoroughly seasoned and thus ready for treatment as soon as cut.
In some regions the mines use all the available dead timber, though
elsewhere there is a great deal of prejudice against the use of “fire-
killed”’ material, under the mistaken assumption that there is some
inherent difference in wood that has been seasoned on the stump
and wood that has been cut when green.

The purpose of the tests described in this bulletin was: (1) To
compare the strength of poles of western red cedar, the present
standard, and of lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce, and (2) to
determine the value for pole timber of fire-killed pine and spruce
in the central Rocky Mountain region.

The fire-killed material was donated by the Colorado Telephone Co.
and the Central Colorado Power Co. The remainder of the material
tested was secured by the Forest Service, either by purchase or from
the National Forests. The tests were made at the Forest Service
timber-testing laboratory conducted in cooperation with the Univer-
sity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.

MATERIAL TESTED.

The material for the tests consisted of poles nominally 25 feet long
and of 7 inches top diameter. Average material was specified in
each case.

WESTERN RED CEDAR.

Twenty cedar poles were purchased on the Denver market at a
cost of $4 per pole. Information furnished by the seller showed the
poles to have been cut during the winter of 1908-9, near Edgemere,
Idaho. When received at the laboratory they appeared to be

1 Distribution maps prepared by Office of Dendrology.

Time Ceasaied — Weeks

Fic. 2.—Rate of seasoning for three lodgepole pine poles.

’ TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 95
thoroughly seasoned, the bark probably havimg been removed at
the time of cutting. All were nearly straight, and checked to the
extent usual for seasoned material. A majority had straight gram.

GREEN LODGEPOLE PINE.

Twenty-two lodgepole pine poles were cut near Anaconda, Mont.,
in July, 1911, on the Deerlodge National Forest, in a dense stand

Pole 110.9 Pale %0.lé

Fale /¥0./7 Fale ("0.22

Fic. 3.—Moisture distribution in four air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles. Figures indicate per cent
moisture within areas.

on a gentle west slope at an elevation of about 6,500 feet. Upon
arrival at the testing laboratory the poles were open-piled in two
layers for seasoning. Three poles were weighed at approximately
weekly intervals to determine the rate of drying. Figure 2 shows
graphically the rate based on these weights. Based on their shipping
weight the poles had an average moisture content of 60 per cent
when shipped. Assuming that the three poles represent the average
of the shipment, the poles had dropped to 48 per cent moisture by

6 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the time they reached the laboratory. After 12 weeks’ seasoning
they had reached 30 per cent, and for 3 weeks thereafter their moisture
content remained practically stationary, due probably to a period of
damp weather. The weights taken at the time of test show that
after seasoning for 22 weeks, practically from the Ist of July to the

12 24 36 48

Scale - Inches

Fic. 4.—Method of testing poles.

1st of December, the poles contained about 22 per cent moisture.
Figure 3 shows the moisture distribution in four of the poles at the
time of test. It indicates that the center of the poles was still at or
above the fiber saturation point! when tested. ‘The poles checked
considerably during the seasoning, but not to an unusual extent.

1 For a detailed discussion of the fiber saturation point see Forest Service Circular 108, The Strength of
Wood as Influenced by Moisture, by 1. D. Tiemann.

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. Fe
FIRE-KILLED LODGEPOLE PINE AND ENGELMANN SPRUCE.

Twenty poles each of fire-killed lodgepole pine and Engelmann
spruce were cut near Norrie, Colo., on a north slope at an elevation
of about 10,000 feet. The area had been burned over by a light fire
about 10 years‘ previously. The poles were largely free of bark,
though a majority had patches here and there, showing that no serious
weathering of the surface had taken place.

METHODS OF TEST.

Figure 4 shows the method employed in testing. The poles were
supported about 1 foot from each end in bearing blocks (e, e) resting
on rocker supports (f, d) 23 feet apart. The load was applied by a
universal testing machine through a bearing block (¢) 5 feet from the
butt end of the pole, or 4 feet from the center line of the butt support.
The rocker support (d) rested on a pier (c) built on the floor. The
rocker support (f) rested at the center of the auxiliary beam (9), one
end of which was supported by a rail (b) and two piers (a, a). The
other end of the auxiliary beam (g) rested on a roller (£) in the center
of the weighing platform (h) of themachine. As the load was gradually
applied at ¢ the pole deflected, and the scale at n, at the center of the
span, moved down with respect to a taut spring (p) stretched be-
‘tween pins driven into the pole on the neutral axis directly over the
supports. The deflection of the pole at the load point was read on a
scale (m), which gave the movement of the machine head (¢) with
reference to the platform (fA).

Corresponding readings of the applied load, the deflection at the
load point, and the deflection at the middle of the span were taken
at convenient intervals, and plotted as shown in figure 5, until the
pole was broken. The settling of the pole in the bearing blocks and
deflection of the auxiliary beam (g) introduced slight errors in fhe
determination of the deflection. The total error was estimated as
less than 3 per cent within the elastic limit, and the only calculated
results affected by this (which was practically constant for all the
poles) are the stiffness factor and elastic resilience, both of which
are comparable only with results from tests of the same nature.

From each pole after test a 30-inch section of clear wood was taken
and cut into 2 by 2 inch sticks. These were tested in bending, in
compression parallel to the grain, compression perpendicular to the
grain, and shearing. The method employed in making these minor
tests is discussed fully in Forest Service Circular 38 (revised). The
purpose of these tests was to determine the influence of defects on
the strength of the poles.

The poles in each of the four lots were given consecutive numbers
starting with 1, in order to distinguish between the individual poles
of each lot.

1 The date of the fire was obtained from local residents.

8 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

To determine the moisture content, a 1-inch section was cut from
each pole as near as possible to the point of failure, immediately
weighed, and later dried to constant weight at the temperature of

FLA
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fay AR
Saran

Delleclion 2 Tianes
fia. 5.—Typical load-deflection diagram for poles. (This is actual curve for green cut lodgepole pine
pole No. 11.)

boiling water. The loss in weight divided by the dry weight is ex-
pressed in per cent of moisture.

The length, weight, and diameters of the poles were obtained just
before testing. The age, rings per inch, per cent sap, and per cent
summerwood were obtained after test from a section cut near the

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 9

point of failure. The values for the amount of summerwood were
obtained on a 2-inch length taken from an average portion of the
section. Sketches were made of the manner of failure, principal —
defects, and any characteristics peculiar to. the poles tested.

METHOD OF COMPUTING RESULTS.

The deflections and loads at elastic limit were taken from the load-
deformation curves, a sample of which is shown in figure 5. To re-
duce the load recorded on the scale beam to the true load on the pole,

all recorded values were multipled by oe and appear in the tables

in the corrected form. Stresses at elastic limit and maximum load
were calculated for the outer fiber under the load pot. The moment
of three-fourths of the weight of the pole was added to the moment
produced by the load. The comparative stiffness is expressed by

the relation when P is the load at elastic limit and I and d, re-

le
ple
spectively, the moment of inertia and the deflection at elastic limit
measured at the load point. |

The modulus of elastic resilience was obtained from the formula
one-half Pd + volume. In obtaining the volumes there was found
to be considerable difference in the shape of the poles. ‘The spruce
and pine were practically of even taper, and the volumes obtained
by regarding the whole pole as one frustum of a cone (from top to
butt diameter), or as two frustums (from top to center and center
to butt), were practically the same. In the cedar, however, it was -
found necessary, on account of the flared butts, to use a three-
frustum method (from top to center, from center to load point, and
from load point to butt). There was about 10 per cent difference
between results from the one and the three frustum methods with this
species. In calculating the dry weight per cubic foot, a total shrink-
age of 12 per cent for the fire-killed pine and spruce was assumed, and
10 per cent for the cedar. The air-seasoned pine poles were con-
sidered as being one-third below the fiber saturation point (that is,
a 4 per cent shrinkage in volume was assumed as having already oc-
curred), and the others were assumed as being half-way between the
dry and the fiber-saturated states.

RESULTS OF TESTS.

CHARACTER OF FAILURES.

Figure 6 shows the common types of failures occurring in the poles
tested.

The bend of the pole while under load was at a maximum near
the center of the span for the first part of the test and about 2 feet
nearer the load point at maximum load. This shifting at the point

22740°—14—_2

-_ ee

10 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of greatest deflection was most noticeable in the poles having a ten-
dency toward longitudinal shear. The effect of knots was in evi-
dence only as localizing the compression wrinkles and occasionally

Key

Jointing Tension

Fia. 6.—Types of failures in poles.

at the starting point of a tension crack. In the cedar poles many
shallow ax cuts had been made when the bark was removed, and
tension failures always took advantage of these breaks in the fibers.

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WGODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. Il1

There seemed to be no consistent difference in the behavior of
straight and spiral grain poles.

The typical failure of the western red cedar poles was a splinter-
ing tension about 2 feet from the load point. The wood separated
easily along the annual rings, and the splinters were long and numer-
ous. Probably due to this quality, as well as to the depth of checks,
three poles failed in longitudinal shear, and in two others shear
occurred after the maximum load had been passed.

In the air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles there were 18 tension
failures and 4 failures from longitudinal shear. Of the 18 tension
failures, 9 were of the splintering type characteristic of the cedar
poles and 9 were simple tension failures; that is, without the exhibi-
tion of brittleness or unusual splintering.

The typical failure in fire-killed lodgepole pine was a simple ten-
sion close to the load point. The wood often had a rather brash
appearance, and, except for two poles, did not splinter to any extent.
One pole was brittle, failing near the center, and one failed by longi-
tudinal shear after the maximum load had been passed.

In general the fire-killed Engelmann spruce poles failed in the
same manner as the fire-killed lodgepole pine. Two poles had brittle
tension failures, and there were no longitudinal shear failures.

The fact that 9 of the 42 air-seasoned and only 1 of the 40 fire-
killed poles failed by longitudinal shear might seem at first to indi-
cate that the checking of the poles cut from green timber is deeper
than that occurring in the more slowly drying fire-killed poles. The
fact, however, that the average shearing stress of the cedar proved
to be about 15 per cent lower than that of the other species, and fur-
ther that the moduli of rupture in bending of both green-cut shipments
were higher than those obtained in both fire-killed shipments, shows
that there was a greater chance for shear failures in the air-seasoned
material than in the fire-killed, aside from any difference in the
manner of checking.

Compression of the upper fibers, as shown by wrinkles on the top
of the pole, occurred some time before the maximum load was reached.
There was usually a noticeable increase in the bend of the load-
deflection curve after compression became visible.

BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

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4
4

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 15

POLES.

Table 1 gives the test data for individual poles.

Table 2 gives the maximum load of each pole in terms of both the
equivalent pull at the top and the actual load obtained in the testing
machine at the ground line. This table is of value chiefly in com-
paring the results of these tests with those from other methods of
applying the load, as all may be reduced to the reaction at the top
support for poles of the same size.

Table 3 gives a summary and comparison of the average results
obtained in the tests on the four classes of poles, based on the western
red cedar as 100. On a basis of fiber stress developed it will be
seen that—

1. Air-seasoned lodgepole pine is superior to western red cedar in
all the mechanical properties determined.

2. Fire-killed lodgepole pine is only 80 per cent as strong as western
red cedar at maximum load. In elastic values, however—that is, the
fiber stress at elastic limit and the work absorbed up to this point—
they are practically equal. In stiffness the fire-killed lodgepole pine
is quite comparable to the cedar, although the latter proved to be a
more flexible wood.

3. Fire-killed Engelmann spruce was inferior in all mechanical
properties to the cedar and pine.

TaBLE 2.—Top and ground-line loads required to break poles.

Western redcedar, | Lodgepole pine,

: Engelmann spruce
cut green and air cut green and air

Lodgepole pine fire) “Fite killed 10

killed 10 years.

seasoned. seasoned. years.

Pole No. Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi-
tion at mum tion at mum tion at mum tion at mum
maxi- load at’ } maxi- load at maxi- load at maxi- load at
mum. ground mum ground mum ground mum ground

load. line. load. line. load. line. load. line.

ee 2,020| 11,600] 2,185] 12,580 He |) Ca || ae 10, 410
s 705 He aORROON resin Olle mrOR TOO) |e meee ee luce as 13980} 11,390
3... 2}238| 12'870| 1,866] 10,720| 1,094| 6,290] 1/431 8,230
: Cha See CEA oe) ae
5. : ; ill 1) 094 6, 290
(Bo 2,070 | 11,900] 27182] 12,540 1,852 | 10,650] 2/053 117 800
vile 2,090 | 12}000) 1,975] 11,350| 27370) 139620! 2105] 12,100
8. 1,782 | 10,250| 2828] 16,240] 1,762) 10,130| 2)652| 15/950
9 17762} 10/130} 2,219] 12,750] 1/854] 10,650) 1,205 6,930
10 2390 | 13,320| | 1,938 | 11,130 | 1.873 | 10,780 | ‘1,968 11,290
1 1,473 | 8,470| 23296] 12)800| 2:118| 12)1890| 1,900| 10,920
12 2}948 | 16,940| 23463| 1471890] 27840| 16,320| 2/270] 13'050
13 2/360 | 13:580| 27638] 15,150| 2'270| 13/070] 1810] 10,400
14 1768} 10,170] 1,998] 11,080] 2)526| 14.520] 1515 8,710
15 2175) 12500| 2,116| 12/170] 1,967| 7,280| 2/640] 15,190
16 1,854] 10,650] 3,050| 17,520| 27220] 12,730| 1,449 8,330
ity ay geal SDDS 2,244} 12'900| 15854] 10,650] 1,377] 7,910] 1,726 9,920
i. Se eee 2;005| 11,530] 2635] 15,130| 1,412| 8,120 731 4.210
Greene 1,935| 11,120] 2,395] 13,770] 1,369] 7,870| 2,058] 11,820
ee 2,440 | 14,030 2,445 14,050 | 1,822 10,480} 1,850] 10,620
ied i ee ) yt at Tt elite diel Cele oe
Bic nly SESE ee I nee aan Rl FUSES Sopa VAD) | EAE (OE EAT AAS RO Wo Ca
Average........ 2,050 | 11,785] 2,250| 12,930] 1,830| 10,510| 1,775] 10,210
Maximum... _. 2,948 | 16,940| 3/050] 17:520/ 23840] 16,320] 2/652] 15/250
Minimum...... 1,473 | 8,470| 1,770| 10,190 714| 47110 731 4210

BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 17

A. comparison based on the fiber stress developed is equivalent
to one based on uniform ground-line diameter. In practice, however,
it is customary to specify top diameters. On a basis of measured
tapers and the fiber stresses found by test, the loads may be calcu-
lated for all shipments, using a uniform top diameter of 7 inches.
Table 4 gives the calculated loads for such a comparison. The tapers
used in the calculations were, for western red cedar, 0.098 inch per
foot length; for the air-seasoned lodgepole pine, 0.077; for fire-killed
lodgepole pine, 0.096; and for fire-killed Engelmann spruce, 0.130.
These tapers do not include the flare of the butt. The length from
top to the load point was taken as 19.5 in all cases. Since the strength
of a pole varies as the cube of its diameter, it is evident that differ-
ences in taper will materially affect the a osenetth: On a basis of equal
top diameters it will be seen from Table 4 that—

1. There is practically no difference in strength between air-
seasoned lodgepole pine and western red cedar. In stiffness the
lodgepole pine poles exceeded the cedar by about 25 per cent.

2. The fire-killed poles, both lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce,
were practically equal to the cedar in strength at elastic limit and
about 20 per cent below it at the maximum load.

TABLE 4.—Strength of poles compared on a basis of 7-inch tops.

Toad abcess Maximum load.
Species. Seasoning condition.
Ratio to Ratio to
Average. red Average. re

cedar. cedar.
Pounds. | Per cent. | Pounds. | Per cent.
Western red cedar..........--- Cut green and air seasoned..... 7, 800 100 12, 000 100
Hodeepele PINGS etree ss lesen COT ee aD eearete 8, 000 103 11, 620 97
oes Se ee ae ae ae | Fire ned NOAWCENSE 5 seoGeecces 7,470 96 9, 500 79
ee SPEUCOH sae ciacr oes leme | 2 OO nce masa cee eee 7,500 96 9, 400 78

SMALL, CLEAR PIECES CUT FROM POLES.

Table 5 gives the results of tests on small, clear pieces in bending,
compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular to grain,
and shearing. For each pole the average strength values for all
pieces taken from it are given, and at the bottom of the tables are
the averages of all minor tests for the species.

Table 6 gives the average strength values of minor tests sum-
marized by species and condition of seasoning. An examination
of the average results shows in general very comparable values for
the fire-killed pine and spruce and for the cedar. The cedar, how-
ever, falls about 16 per cent below the pine in shearing strength and
the spruce about 12 per cent below it in crushing strength. The
lodgepole pine from Montana showed a bending strength nearly 40

18 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

per cent greater and a crushing strength 18 per cent greater than the
fire-killed lodgepole pine. It might seem at first sight that these
differences were due to deterioration on the part of the fire-killed
material, but an analysis of the values in regard to weight and a
comparison with values obtained from other tests on lodgepole pine
indicate that deterioration is not the probable cause of the difference.
It has been proved conclusively that in any species the strength of the
clear wood varies directly with its dry weight.

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BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 23

In figure 7 the weight-strength relations are plotted for bending
tests on small specimens cut from the tested lodgepole pine poles

and for similar specimens taken from other material grown in Colorado

and Wyoming, cut green and air seasoned. It will be seen that fire-
killed lodgepole pine is equal in strength to the Colorado and Wyo-
ming material cut green and air seasoned, and that the Montana
material gave higher strength values because it was exceptionally
heavy and much above the normal for Colorado-grown timber of
which the fire-killed poles were representative. The soundness of

8 13000

Modulus of Fypince - Pounds per 3g

w -Colacad , cl geen di ae - Seasoned
io} = Vijay , Ul Geach tnd ale - Seasoned

ime e, 23 4 05 26 a 28 2 J0
Oty Weight - Pounds pec cut

Fig. 7.—Weight-strength relations for clear, dry lodgepole pine.

the sticks cut from the fire-killed material also indicates that such
timber has no inherent defect due to having been killed by fire. It
seems more reasonable to regard it simply as seasoned wood, and to
assume that deterioration due to age or exposure, if present, would
be indicated by the same signs of decay that are- apparent in any
unsound material.

The relation between the stresses shown by the individual poles
and those shown by the minor tests on the material cut from them
is presented in figure 8. It should be remembered that the moisture
content of the small specimens was only 8 per cent, as compared
with an-average of about 16 per cent for the poles. The green-cut

67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BULLETIN

PouosTeg Ny pun w2279 JP

Foti
EASE IPS.

Lge eave
Pesce cee
ES OSE

Peres
HEEL AEE

SLAMS EM LLY

ale) POMPOT

weer: cul eam lesled poles

PCCN A
Coe
CCE
CONT PAs g
HED EEE EERE re
SEO SERR//40R)

a
{1
HAHAH
S
alle
ls

ale

| Ave tunber

i
=

Modulus of Fupluze loc poles
8 — Fer Wteess al Elastic Limit foc

Modulus af Fuptuce toc small

Z :
A=
C-

"erro Ries Dl |
ia LE
=200
Be
Sal
Ga
ea
fe
Oh
6

Fig. 8.—Relation of fiber stress of poles and modulus of rupture of small, clear beams cut from

them to the modulus of rupture of poles.

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 25

lodgepole pine shipment averaged about 22 per cent moisture,
though the outer shell of the poles was somewhat drier (see fig. 3).
This would tend to make the difference between the strength of the
poles and the actual strength of the material in it much greater than
was the case. The curve given on page 10 of Forest Service Circular
108, The Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture, shows that,
for eastern spruce, strength in bending will be reduced by about 30
per cent when the moisture content is increased from 8 per cent to
16 per cent. Tests on lodgepole pine from Wyoming indicate a
reduction, under similar circumstances, of about 25 per cent. The
curves shown in figure 8 have, however, been plotted with the values
as obtained from the tests.

The curves, arranged in order of the modulus of rupture of the
poles from highest to lowest, show the relation between the modulus
of rupture of the small, clear sticks and the fiber stress of the poles
at the elastic limit and maximum load. The position and number
of checks, knots, and other defects, rather than the quality of the
clear wood, determines the grade of a pole. While the curve for
the modulus of rupture of the small pieces is erratic, as would be
expected from the rather small number of tests averaged for each
pole, it shows a tendency to fall with a fall in strength of the poles,
indicating the influence of the quality of the clear wood on the
strength of the poles. The most important relation shown by the
curves is that the ratios between pole and minor strengths are not
the same for the different species, indicating that it is not safe to
compare species for use as poles on the basis of the strength of their
clear material. For example, western red cedar gave an average
modulus of rupture for the small, clear beams of 9,305 pounds per
square inch, and the lodgepole pine from Montana averaged 12,775.
While the strength of the clear material of the pine is thus 37 per
cent higher than that of the cedar, the average strength of the poles
was a little less than 12 per cent higher. The ratios of the average
modulus of rupture of the poles to that of the clear material for two
conditions of moisture is as follows:

As tested As esti-

Kind of poles. at 8per | mated! at
cent. 16 per cent.
WWESLenim Te du Cedars arenes tees yk Saree ed eee Wi Aye Soh be eee hose eee aS 0. 74 0. 98
Lodgepole pine: : :
Greemicu tines sacs ser eno tits Soca ahaa NAS ea AS oe A -60 - 80
HE inept Oc mae Rt neyo os SN Sl oN Nea 2 RA a RB Ok - 60 - 80
Hurpelmiann spruce: fre ikilled 2232) eee 5. Meee ie SPS a. EAS ee: 48 65

1 On the basis that an increase in moisture from 8 to 16 per cent causes a 25 per cent reduction in strength,

26 BULLETIN 67, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
CONCLUSIONS.

The tests on poles and specimens cut from them show that—

1. Air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles cut from live timber in Mon-
tana were fully equal in strength to the cedar poles tested. In actual
stress developed they were superior, but on account of the greater
taper of the cedar poles this advantage was lost in a comparison based
on equal top diameters, the dimension usually specified.

2. Cedar poles were superior to the pine and spruce poles cut from
a fire-killed area in Colorado in maximum load developed. The three
shipments were, however, practically equal at the elastic imit. Were
the native poles to be used in place of cedar without change of specifica-
tions, it would follow that the factor of safety would be reduced one-
fifth for conditions at failure, but would remain the same for stresses
at the elastic limit.

3. The fire-killed pine, after standing 10 years, did ad show deteri-
oration to any appreciable extent when compared to seasoned lodge-
pole pine cut from representative live trees in Wyoming and Colorado.
The advantage in strength of the material from the lodgepole pine
poles from Montana can be accounted for by the fact that it was above
normal in weight—at least for lodgepole ue from the southern part
of its range.

4. The ratio between the strength of the pole and the strength of
the clear material cut from them is not constant for the different
kinds of wood. This “efficiency” factor varied from 0.74 to 0.48 of
the strength of the clear wood when the comparison is made as tested,
and from 0.98 to 0.65 when compared on the basis of values estimated
to represent the same moisture condition in the small pieces as existed
in the poles when tested. The values were highest for the cedar and
lowest for the spruce, the pine representing an average for the three
species.

POLE TESTS BY THE PACIFIC TELEPHONE & TELEGRAPH CO.

The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. made tests on 81 poles of
western red cedar and Port Orford cedar at the pole yards of the
Western Electric Co. near Richmond, Cal. These poles were 25
and 30 feet in length, with 6, 7, and 8 inch top diameters, and 35 feet
in length, with 7, 8, and 9 inch tops.

The method employed in these tests makes it impossible to make
any accurate comparisons of stress values with those obtained in the
Forest Service tests. In the telephone company’s tests stresses are
figured for the point of failure, while the Forest Service tests are
figured for the load point or ground line, theoretically the point of
greatest stress.

In the telephone company’s tests the poles were tested horizontally,
with 6 feet of the butt end of the pole held firmly between four 12

TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 27

by 12 inch posts set in the ground. The load was applied to the
top of the pole, by means of a winch, at a rate of 1 foot per minute.
A direct-reading dynamometer was placed in the line connecting
the winch with the top of the pole. The top end of the pole was
supported on a dolly with truck casters which traveled on a piece
of sheet iron, thus eliminating friction. Readings of the movement
of a nail driven into the top of the pole were taken for each 100
pounds increment of load.

The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. has kindly permitted the
use of their test data, and Table 7 is compiled from their report.
Comparison of the equivalent top load in Table 2 with the top load
for 7-inch by 25-foot poles in Table 7 shows a difference of only 5
per cent, while the calculated stresses are about 20 per cent greater
for the Forest Service results. This difference, as already stated,
is probably due to the different methods used, both for calculating
the stress and for supporting the butt of the pole.

Reference to Table 7 shows that there is no consistent variation
when poles of the same top diameter but of different lengths are com-
pared. However, Table 8, compiled from Table 7, shows a very
marked relation between top diameter and top breaking load in the
three classes of poles tested by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.

TasBLe 7.—Results of pole tests made by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.

WESTERN RED CEDAR FROM IDAHO.

Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. Per cent.| Pounds. | sq. in.
6 25 3 205 22.0 9.4 13.7 38.0 1, 853 6, 221
7 25 4 244 23.0 9.2 23.0 27.6 1,948 5, 712
8 25 3 282 22.9 10.2 18.3 26.3 2, 667 5, 290
6 30 4 283 22.4 13.6 20.1 28.1 1,590 5, 126
7 30 4 344 26.1 10.0 23.3 24.5 2, 434 5, 549
8 30 3 382 23.4 9.1 23.4 21.4 2,740 5, 308
7 35 3 477 22.1 8.1 19.3 40.8 2, 000 5, 080
8 30 3 471 19.4 10.4 18.5 25.7 2,125 4,391
9 35 3 522 21.5 10.2 22.6 24.9 2,992 4,755

WESTERN RED CEDAR FROM OREGON AND WASHINGTON.

6 25 3 204 24.1 8.7 24,4 41.6 1, 470 5, 525
7 25 3 213 19.8 15.1 6.6 41.2 1,625 4, 481
8 25 3 238 19.8 18.0 9.5 30.1 2,072 4,816
6 30 3 255 21.7 17.0 7.2 36.8 1,352 5, 784
a 30 3 240 18.8 7.4 9.3 33.3 1,597 7, 006
8 30 3 395 22.8 15.4 11.3 29.2 2,385 3, 146
7 35 3 331 21.1 9.2 8.0 32.7 2 6, 408
8 35 3 546 24.6 34.0 6.8 38. 2 1, 888 4,349
9 35 3 597 24.8 11.6 24.3 17.4 3, 257 5, 665

BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 7.—Results of pole tests made by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.—Contd.

PORT ORFORD CEDAR.

Average values of—

Top load a ssaene
at failure. Fares
Lbs. per
Pounds. sg. mm.
2,027 7,616
3,277 7, 896
3, 740 6, 058
2,518 6, 817
2,790 7, 332
3,577 7, 824
3,123 6, 851
3,057 - 6,928

Port Orford cedar.

Average
Number top
of poles. | breaking
load.

Pounds.
6 2,272
9 3, 063
ll 3,169

Top di- | rengtn. | of poles
ength. | of poles F
ameter. tested. | Weignt | Weight | Mois | Rings |g,
of poles. |P%eee| ture. | per inch. P-
Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. Per cent.
6 25 3 256 31.3 11.6 A To ee See
7 25 3 315 24.8 10.7 20:64 ]2 sees octee
8 25 4 460 26.6 13.3 TONS o | Seea- eee
6 30 3 375 24.3 8.6 Ee fe SEY se
7 30 3 397 25.2 20.5 ERO) BASecossoe
8 30 3 441 24.0 9.6 LAT. ease stoek
7 35 3 585 30. 4 10.1 OIG Wie secs site
8 35 3 591 28.1 9.7 21.04 acs ce See
TaBLE 8.—Relation between top diameters and top breaking loads.
[Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.’s tests.]
Western red cedar Mester edipeder
from Idaho. Washinton:
Top di-
Length of poles.
ROIS Average Average
Number top Number top
L of poles. | breaking | of poles. | breaking
e load. . load.
Inches. Pounds. Pounds.
2hiand 30 feet-noe cosas eee eee 6 a 1, 703 6 1,411
apsBpsandis5 fect... ae ee 7 11 2,139 9 1, 645
25, 30, and 35 feet.............. 8 9 2,511 9 2115
SH eOL eter mie he eae ana 9 3 2,992 3 3, 257

[a 8 5S EE ST A SE TNS

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Be ai Ne Oe HE;

USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICULLURE

No. 68

ZA eNO

‘

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
g February 25, 1914.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS IN THE
PACIFIC NORTHWEST.

By Byron Hunter, Agricu/turist, Office of Farm Management.'

INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin deals specifically with crops and systems of cropping
that may be used in economical pork production in the Pacific North-
west. Scattered here and there throughout the Northwest are men
who are successfully producing pork. They have been visited, and
their methods, crops, and feeding systems have been studied. This
bulletin makes the practices of these successful men available to all.

Owing to the rapid growth in population of this section during the
last decade, the demand for pork has increased faster than the sup-
ply, and there is little reason why hog raising should not become a
more important industry in the Pacific Northwest. Although there
have been some outbreaks of hog cholera, the Northwest has been
remarkably free from this disease. The larger cities have well-
equipped packing houses, and modern union stockyards are in opera-
tion at Portland, Oreg. During recent years a large percentage of
the hogs slaughtered in the cities of Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, and
Spokane have been shipped from east of the Rocky Mountains. In
addition to this, enormous quantities of eastern bacon and lard are
annually consumed by the Pacific Coast States.

MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES.

Since economical pork production depends largely upon the con-
sumption of a great deal of cheaply grown feed, the pasture should
be so managed that the forage produced will be clean, tender, and
palatable. In practice, hog pastures are generally managed in one of
three ways: (1) Continuous close grazing, (2) alternate pasturing
of equal areas, and (3) pasturing the meadow.

~ Nore.—This publication is intended to encourage hog raising in the Pacific Northwest; it is especially
adapted to Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. ;
1 Mr. Hunter is now State leader in charge of Farm-Management Field Studies and Demonstrations
in the State of Washington, and is employed cooperatively by the United States Department of Agri-
culture and the State College of Washington. ;

_ 23557°—Bull. 68—14——1

2 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
CONTINUOUS CLOSE GRAZING.

The method in most common use is to turn in all the hogs the pas-
ture will support, leaving them in the field during the entire season.
Usually the pasture is kept closely grazed. Too often it is overgrazed,
the plants being cropped so closely that the stand is soon ruined.
The pasture then becomes little better than a dry lot, and the hogs
make unsatisfactory gains. When the feed in the pasture becomes
searce, either the number of hogs per acre should be reduced or other
forage provided.

ALTERNATE PASTURING OF EQUAL AREAS.

One of the most satisfactory ways of managing a pasture is to divide
it into two or more fields of equal area. These fields are then used
alternately, the hogs remaining in each about a week or 10 days.
In the case of clover and alfalfa the growth is allowed to become
3 to 4 inches high before the hogs are turned in to eat it off quickly.
When the pasture consists of such crops as rape, kale, and vetch,
which will not stand close grazing, the growth is permitted to reach
a height of 8 or 10 inches before the hogs are turned in.

Changing the hogs from field to field gives the pasture a period of
rest, during which the plants recuperate and grow rapidly. When
the stock is returned to the field the forage is clean, tender, and pala-
table and large quantities are consumed. Owing to the rapid growth
made while at rest, a pasture that is subdivided and the areas grazed
alternately is capable of carrying a much larger number of hogs per
acre, other conditions being equal, than one that is continuously
pastured.

Hogs usually graze a pasture somewhat unevenly, some areas
being eaten off much more closely than others. To keep down the
weeds and make the growth come on evenly, the pasture is clipped
with a mower immediately after the hogs are removed. Hogs are
inclined to root when the surface of the ground is wet or damp. For
this reason the pasture, if under irrigation, is irrigated just after the
hogs are changed from one pasture lot to the next. This gives the
surface of the ground time to dry before the forage is large enough
to be grazed.

PASTURING THE MEADOW.

Many successful hog raisers prefer to use such crops as clover and
alfalfa for both pasture and hay at the same time. The number of
hogs turned into the field is so limited that the usual crops of hay are
made. The chief advantages of this method are (1) the presence of an
abundance of feed, (2) the meadow is not grazed closely enough for
the stand to be injured, (3) it is not necessary to subdivide the pasture
into smaller areas for alternate pasturing, and (4) the changing of
the hogs from one inclosure to another is obviated.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 2 3

When the number of animals pastured is so limited that the usual
hay crops are made, the growth becomes so coarse and woody that
they do not consume as much forage as is desirable for economical
gains, as the hogs relish the young shoots best. When the forage
becomes too large to furnish desirable feed, an area near the watering

‘place is clipped with a mower. This should be large enough to
furnish the desired amount of pasture. In a few days the clipped
“area produces a vigorous growth of new shoots, upon which the hogs
feed without materially disturbing the rest of the meadow. If the
area first mowed is not sufficient to furnish the required feed, more
of the meadow is clipped, as necessity may demand. To prevent the

Fie. 1.—Hogs on alfalfa pasture without other feed. Note their thin condition and ungainly shape, espe-
cially the older hog on the left.

stand of these clipped areas from becoming injured by overgrazing,
different portions of the meadow are used in this way from year
to year.

GRAIN RATION WHILE HOGS ARE ON PASTURE.

While the cost of producmg pork may be reduced materially by
the use of such roughage as alfalfa hay, roots, or green-pasture for-
age, it is desirable to feed grain or other concentrated feed in addition.
Mature, dry brood sows are sometimes maintained in an apparently
satisfactory condition on good pasture alone. Young growing hogs,
on the other hand, usually become ungainly in shape, big bellied, and
thin in flesh or stunted when compelled to subsist on pasture alone.

Figure 1 ulustrates the condition of hogs run on pasture without other
feed.

4 ; BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Hog growers differ quite widely regarding the quantity of grain
that should be fed while on pasture. Some feed a full grain ration,
i. e., all the grain the hog willconsume. Others feed a medium ration,
one that is equal to about 2 to 3 per cent of the live weight of the hog.
Still others prefer a light grain ration, one that is equal to only about
1 per cent of the live weight of the hog. Occasionally men are found
who run young shotes on pasture without other feed. This is a mis- _
take, for it almost invariably results in a stunted hog. No fixed and
fast rule can be laid down, for the supplemental grain ration which
should be fed in conjunction with green pasture depends upon a
number of factors, the more important of which are (1) the age at
which the hogs are to be marketed, (2) the price of grain, and (8)
the plentifulness and quality of the pasture.

RATIONS FOR HOGS OF VARIOUS CONDITIONS AND MARKET AGES.

If hogs are to be marketed when 7 to 9 months old, it is necessary
to feed them about all the grain they will consume, in addition to the
pasture, in order to make them reach the weight demanded by the
market, 170 to 225 pounds. Hogs that are marketed when 10 to 12
months old are usually maintained on pasture alone during the graz-
ing season. If fed at all, the grain ration is very light. This results
in a slow daily gain, but a greater percentage of the growth is made
from the cheaply grown forage. The added cost of maintaining a hog
until 10 to 12 months old, however, usually more than equals the
saving of the grain ration.

Mature breeding stock that is not expected to make any gain in
weight requires but little, if any, additional feed when on good pasture.
Hogs that are thin in flesh and nearly grown may be expected to
make small daily gains without other feed when on the best of pas-
ture. Pigs and small shotes usually become stunted when on pas-
ture unless given a liberal quantity of additional feed. Young hogs
should be so fed that they grow rapidly instead of becoming stunted.
During the fattening period, hogs on pasture should be fed all the
grain they will eat up clean three times a day.

THE PRICE OF GRAIN.

Owing to the fluctuation in the price of hogs and of grain, the sup-
plemental grain ration is sometimes expensive. Under such cir-
cumstances there is great temptation to place the hogs upon an exclu-
sive pasture ration. This seldom pays, for it usually takes approxi-
mately as much concentrated feed in the end, and much more time,
to fit for market hogs which have been on an exclusive pasture diet
as is required for hogs fed liberally while on pasture. Under extreme
circumstances mature breeding stock or hogs which are nearly grown
may be carried on good pasture until cheaper concentrated feed can be
obtained.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 5
QUALITY AND ABUNDANCE OF PASTURE.

The composition of pasture forage is quite variable. Alfalfa,
clover, vetch, peas, etc., furnish feed that is much richer in protein
than most other crops. Generally, therefore, hogs which are feeding
upon leguminous pasture require slightly less concentrated feed than
when grazing upon nonleguminous pasture, such as timothy, orchard
grass, bluegrass, or the cereals.

It frequently happens that a farmer has more hogs than his pasture
is capable of supporting. When such is the case the pasture will go
much farther if a full grain ration is fed. The more grain a hog con-
sumes the less he will feed upon the pasture.

In general, pigs and shotes should be kept in a thrifty, growing con-
dition at all times. It never pays to allow them to cease growing

Fic. 2.—A herd of brood sows on pasture. They were fed enough grain to keep them in good condition.

and become stunted. Brood sows, likewise, must be kept in good
flesh (not fat) if large litters of strong, healthy pigs are to be expected.
Figure 2 shows a herd of well-kept brood sows on pasture.

In gathering the material for this bulletin it was quite generally
observed, on the one hand, that the men who are enthusiastic pork
producers feed a liberal supplemental grain ration to young, growing
hogs when on pasture. On the other hand, those who think there is
little profit in raising hogs run them very largely on pasture without
other feed during the grazing season.

HOGGING OFF CROPS.

Turning hogs into a standing field of mature or nearly mature
wheat, barley, peas, or corn and allowing them to feed at will until
the crop is consumed is called “‘ hogging off” or ‘ hogging down”’ the

6 BULLETIN 68, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

crop. To some this may appear to be a wasteful practice. Under
good management, however, it is a very satisfactory and economical
method of utilizing limited areas of these crops.

-ADVANTAGES IN HOGGING OFF CROPS.

Some of the advantages in hogging off crops are (1) the cost of
harvesting and marketing the crop is saved, (2) the labor of caring
for hogs is greatly reduced, (3) the vegetable matter in the soil is
increased, (4) the droppings of the animals are distributed quite
evenly, and (5) the hogs are given exercise. It costs from 15 to 25
cents per bushel to harvest and market wheat in the greater part of
the wheat belt of the Pacific Northwest, the cost varying with the
yield, the method of harvesting and thrashing, and the distance the
wheat is hauled to market. In some of the more arid wheat-growing
districts of both Oregon and Washington the yield of wheat is fre-
quently as low as 6 to 8 bushels per acre. The cost of harvesting and
marketing such crops runs from 35 to 40 cents per bushel. The cost
of harvesting and marketing barley is approximately the same as
that of wheat. When the hogs are so managed that the crop is
thoroughly cleaned. up, hogging off the crop practically saves the cost
of harvesting and marketing. In the case of light-yielding crops this
saving is considerable.

Most of the crops that are suitable for hogging off are utilized
during the busiest season of the year, i. e., at a time when it is very
desirable that the hogs require as little Sheet as possible. If
turned into a mature field of wheat, peas, or corn and provided with
water, shade, and salt, the hogs require very little other attention.

Most of the arable lands of the Pacific Northwest would be mate-
rially benefited by the addition of more organic matter. When the
crop is hogged off, the straw, pea vines, or cornstalks, as the case may
be, are left on the ground. By cutting this material thoroughly in
the fall of the year with a sharp disk harrow and plowing it under, the
soil is enriched in vegetable matter. This, in turn, greatly reduces
the tendency of the soil to wash. The washing of soil due to the
burning of straw and consequent lack of humus is well shown in
figure 3. .

In hogging off the crop, the droppings of the animals are scattered
quite evenly over the field.

USUAL GRAIN CROPS HOGGED OFF.

The Pacific Northwest is peculiarly adapted to the hogging off of
crops. The wet season occurs during the winter months and the
dry season during the summer. This gives a long period in which
crops may be used in this way. The principal crops that are suitable
for hogging down are wheat, field peas, corn, and barley.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. if

_ Wheat.—Wheat is generally used from the time the first spots in
the field are nearly ripe, about the stiff-dough stage, until the stubble
field is open or until field peas or some other crops are ready for use.
It will be seen, then, that the season for using wheat is from four to
six weeks. If used during a longer period, there may be considerable
loss from shattering, and the autumn rains in some localities may also
damage the crop.

-A soft variety of wheat with a smooth club type of head is best
suited for hogging down. The club head does not shatter so readily
as most other types. The true hard and bearded varieties, such
as Turkey, are not suitable. The kernels become so hard and the
beards are so severe on the hogs’ mouths that they do not eat
enough to make economical gains.

Fic. 3.—Soil washing near Dayton, Wash., in the spring of 1910. This land was summer-fallowed during
the season of 1909 and planted to winter wheat.

On the farm of W. H. Steen, Umatilla County, Oreg., 90 hogs pas-
tured from July 17 to August 24 on 11 acres of ripe standing wheat,
estimated to yield 15 bushels per acre, made an average gain in
weight of 160 pounds per acre, worth $14.40. In another instance
M. HE. Schreck, of Whitman County, Wash., pastured 109 head of hogs
on 7,2; acres of standing wheat and 1 acre of pasture from July 30 to
August 17. The hogs made a gain of 212 pounds-per acre and gave
a net value per acre of $15.73. The net returns from 44 acres of
wheat alongside, yielding 19? bushels per acre, were only $8.04 per
acre.

Field peas —The field pea is one of the most satisfactory crops to
harvest with hogs. The quality of feed furnished is of the very best,
hogs are very fond of the mature peas, and under good management

8 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the crop is gathered with but very little waste. Most varieties of
peas are comparatively large and difficult to cover. What is shat-
tered usually lies on the surface of the ground until picked up later.

The hogs are turned into the field about the time the last peas
are nearly mature. In most districts they may be used until about.
October 1, or until there is danger of the crop bemg damaged by wet
weather. A protracted autumn ram falling upon a heavy crop that ~
the hogs have not cleaned up may cause the peas to sprout. To
prevent this the vmes are sometimes burned as soon after the rain as
they are dry enough. Burning the vines leaves the peas lying upon
the surface of the ground. It is not necessary to burn the vines,
however, if a movable fence is used and the hogs are made to clean
up the crop in small areas that will last from two to three weeks each.
Since ripe, mature peas are rich in proteim, green succulent feed in
addition to the peas will help to balance the ration..

Corn.—Where corn is successfully grown it is an excellent crop to
hog down. Carefully conducted tests at the Minnesota experiment
station show that hogs waste no more corn in the field than when fed
in lots, and that they gather it as clean as most men do in husking.!
Farm experience also bears out this conclusion. Corn is advanta- ~
geously used from the time the ears are well glazed until the weather
becomes unfavorable ‘and the ground muddy. In some districts of
the Northwest, where the rainfall is scant, corn can be hogged off
far mto the winter. There is slightly less waste if a movable fence
is used and the hogs are not turned into more corn than they can
consume in 15 or 20 days. Especially is this true when the ground
becomes wet and muddy.

Barley. As a crop to hog off, barley is used during the summer,
autumn, and winter. Because the beards, when dry and hard, are
so severe on the mouth of the hog, the common beardless barley is
generally used durmg the summer and early autumn. The bearded
varieties usually outyield the beardless considerably, and for this
reason the former are generally preferred for late autumn and winter
use. There are some, however, who prefer the beardless varieties
for all seasons.

If sown very early in the spring, beardless barley generally ripens
about ten days or two weeks earlier than winter wheat. This makes
it one of the first crops available for hogging off in the early summer.
The hogs are turned into the field when the first patches are ripening,
or when the kernels are in the stiff-dough stage.

Hogs do only fairly well on mature bearded barley when the beards
are dry and stiff. After the autumn rains have softened the beards
and kernels, however, they take to it readily. For late autumn and

1 Gaumnitz, D. A., Wilson, A. D., and Bassett, L. B. Pork production. Minnesota Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Bulletin 104, p. 63-119, 9 fig., 1907.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 9

winter use the bearded varieties are allowed to stand in the field until
the fall rains have set in well. This usually gives plenty of time
after harvest for the hogs to glean the stubble field. Blue barley, a
bearded variety, is generally sown for late fall and winter use. When
allowed to stand in the field it does not shatter and sprout nearly so
easily as wheat or the so-called winter varieties of barley.

On a farm in Umatilla County, Oreg., during November, 1910, 80
hogs were pastured 18 days and 98 hogs 10 days on 11.4 acres of bar-
ley on a steep hillside. The gai in weight averaged 230 pounds per
acre, having a value of $18.35 per acre. The estimated yield of

Fic. 4.—A hillside on the farm of W. H. Steen, Umatilla County, Oreg., too steep for the use of a binder,
but satisfactorily harvested by hogs. The shotes in the picture are gleaning the barley after the fattening
hogs have taken the greater part of the feed.

barley was 21 bushels per acre. Figure 4 shows the hillside with
shotes gleaning the barley after the fattening hogs have taken off
practically all the feed.

DETERMINING THE AREA TO BE HOGGED OFF.

In order to reduce the waste to a minimum, the area of each crop
hogged off must be thoroughly cleaned up. Owing to the variation
in crop yields and the quantity of grain that hogs of different sizes
will consume, it is not always easy to determine the acreage of each
crop to be used in this way. Suppose a portion of the main winter-
wheat crop is to be fenced and hogged off from the time the grain is
just past the stiff-dough stage, say July 10, until the stubble field is
open, August 15. What area of the winter wheat shall be set aside

23557°—Bull, 68—14—

10 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to be used in this way? This may be determined in two ways, as
follows:

(1) When the first spots in the field are nearly ripe or when the kernels have just
passed the stiff-dough stage, measure and fence a small trial area, enough to last the
herd of hogs for only a few days. From July 10 to August 15 is 36 days. Ifa trial
area of one acre lasts the herd 6 days, as many acres of wheat must be reserved as the
number of times 6 is contained in 36, or 6 acres.

(2) By the second method, the yield of the crop per acre and the quantity of feed
that the herd of hogs will consume per day are estimated. Suppose that the yield
of wheat is 30 bushels, or 1,800 pounds, per acre and the herd of hogs will consume 400
pounds of wheat per day. If 400 pounds of wheat are consumed in one day, an acre,
or 1,800 pounds, will last 4.5 days. If one acre lasts 4.5 days, 8 acres will be required
to last 36 days, 1. e., from July 10 to August 15.

The quantity of wheat that the herd of hogs will consume per. day
can be determined quite accurately by weighing their feed for a few
days just before they are turned into the field. In the case of growing
hogs, they will consume a little more each day as they grow older.

THE AREA OF GRAIN TO HOG OFF AT ONE TIME.

Crops are hogged off in two ways: (1) By subdividing the field with
a movable fence into small areas that will last the hogs from 10 to 20
days and (2) by turning the hogs into the entire field in the begin-
ning. 3 oe ,

No data are at hand showing which of these methods is .more
economical. While both are used in the Pacific Northwest, the latter
is the one generally practiced. Where crops are used in this way
during the late fall and winter in ihe more humid portions of the
wheat belt and west of the Cascade Mountains, where the autumn
rains are frequently heavy, the area should probably be limited so
that it will be cleaned up in 15 or 20 days. In the arid and semi-
arid districts or when used during the dry season in the more humid
localities, there is probably no good reason why the area hogged off
should not be all that the hogs will clean up nicely during the season.
Much larger areas doubtless can be hogged off on sandy or gravelly
soils than on clay soils that become sticky when wet.

CROPS SUITABLE FOR PASTURE AND HOGGING OFF.

The three Pacific Northwestern States to which this bulletin is
primarily applicable may be divided into three distinct agricultural
districts: (1) Western Oregon and western Washington—that portion
of these two States lying west of the Cascade Mountains, (2) the wheat
belt, and (3) the irrigated valleys. Because of their great variation
in topography, elevation, rainfall, soil, temperature, etc., these three
districts present a wide range of agricultural possibilities. For this
reason the crops that may be used in economical hog production in
each area are discussed separately,

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 11

CROPS FOR WESTERN OREGON AND WESTERN WASHINGTON.

The moist, mild climate of this district makes it possible to provide
an abundance of cheaply grown forage for hogs throughout the entire
year. The number of crops which may be used for this purpose is
very great. The growmg of most of them is discussed in detail in
‘Farmers’ Bulletm 271 of this department, ‘Forage Crop Practises
in Western Oregon and Western Washington,’ to which the reader
is referred. Only such points of information as can not be easily
found elsewhere are presented here.

USE OF VARIOUS PASTURE CROPS.

Table I shows suitable pasture crops m western Oregon and western
Washington, with the dates of planting and use.

TaBuLr I.—Pasture crops for western Oregon and western Washington.

Number
of hogs
Crops. When planted. | Approximate dates when used.| an acre
will
pasture.!
OlOMEI ei ome ents se ceeee A previous year.........-..... April 1 to November 1......... 8 to 16
WIR TE oat SOS HEE ae Sasa ee | Sena Ore emia wo seem ce seme een eae (0 Ko Se rae ee Bere setes 8 to 16
Ra PCNMMOWSser-soeee cee ee ee ANjoreill i, Is, eal BOs Sooo oes son June 1 to November1.._....-- 8 to 14
Rape and oats.........--.---- April 25 to May 15..........-- June 25 to November 1......-. 6 to 15
Rape and clover........-...-- May 15 to June1.............. July 1 to November1......... 6 to 15
IAC RSeeeseece satis cesiaaos July (in corn at last cultiva- | October 1 to April1........... 5 to 8
: tion).
Vetch and wheat, vetch and |...-. CLO tects eli nila lena Chase Deh aR A ncee en area 5 to8
oats, or vetch alone.
Vetch and wheat or vetch and | September (on spring stubble).| November 1 to April1........ 5 to8
oats.
English rye-grass.....-...-..- Early spring or early fall...... November 1 to July1......... 5 to 14
Wantenswiteateaserceaccecie-- = September 1 to October 15...-.) February, March, and April... 6 to 12
WGKGti- So aeas Seas eS teeeeeee Septemlbensn ie soak arena 2 Wie 1@ diwlhy sees cos5os coun 8 to 16

1The number of hogs that can be pastured per acre depends upon (1) the productiveness of the soil, (2)
the variation of the season, (3) the management of the pasture, (4) the size of the hogs, and (5) the kind and
quantity of other feed the hogs receive in addition to the pasture.

From a study of Table I it will be seen that pasture may be provided
for swine in western Oregon and western Washington throughout the
entire year. It is not imtended that all of these crops shall be used
on any one farm. The purpose of the table is to assist the farmer in
the selection of pasture crops which may meet the needs and condi-
tions of his farm.

If intended for late fall, wimter, and early spring use, a pasture
should not be grazed during the autumn, in order that a large amount
of forage may accumulate. This is necessary with almost all winter
forage crops, for growth practically ceases when winter begins. The
forage that is allowed to accumulate during the autumn is grazed
during the winter. ;

It must be understood also that there are times durmg the winter
when most soils west of the Cascade Mountains become so wet that
the tramping of the hogs does a great deal of injury by puddling the
soil. For this reason it is generally considered best to remove the
hogs from the pasture when a heavy rain fails. This is not always

12 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

necessary, however, as, for example, on sandy soils and pastures
with a close grass sod.

Clover.—Of the legumes, red clover for well-drained soils and
alsike for wet lands are generally the most satisfactory. The clovers
make their maximum growth during the months of April, May, and .
June. When the summer drought comes on, the quantity of forage
produced gradually decreases. If a clover pasture is utilized to its
fullest capacity during the spring and early summer, it is necessary
to provide additional green feed for the dry season. This may be
done by grazing the clover meadow during the summer after removing
a crop of hay.

Alfalfa.—Alfalfa is not used so generally as clover for hog pasture
west of the Cascade Mountains. It has been tried in many localities
with varying degrees of success. It has given best satisfaction on
the sandy or loamy soils along the watercourses where the water table
is at least 4 feet below the surface. Alfalfa is highly successful in the
Umpqua and Rogue River Valleys on irrigated and subirrigated
land. Under conditions favorable to its growth, it produces an
abundance of feed from early spring until late in the fall.

Rape in cultwated rows.—If grown in rows and kept well cultivated,
rape furnishes excellent green forage during the dry season when
clover pasture is cut short by the summer drought. In growing rape
in rows the land is prepared early and kept in good condition until
planting time. The best results are secured by making three plantings
on approximately April 1, 15, and 30. These three areas are then
pastured alternately, the hogs being changed from one to the other.
By thorough cultivation rape can be kept growing allsummer. It is
usually large enough to pasture with light hogs in 6 to 8 weeks after
planting. Before brood sows and other grown hogs are turned on
the rape, it should be large enough so that they will feed upon the
leaves instead of biting off the stem or pulling up the plants. When
the fall rains come, rape makes a vigorous growth and can be used
until the ground is so wet that the soil is injured by the tramping of
the hogs.

Rape and oats—Summer pasture is also provided by sowing 1
bushel of oats and 4 pounds of rape seed per acre during the latter
part of April or early in May. If sown too early in the spring the
rains pack the soil so hard that the rape does poorly. Oats and rape
pasture is used from the time the growth is 5 or 6 inches high until
winter begins. When hogs are pastured on rape and oats they do
not work on the latter very much (unless the pasture is grazed closely)
until the oats are nearly ripe. In stripping the ripe grain from the
straw considerable is dropped on the ground and covered by the
tramping of the hogs. The grain that is covered in this way germi-
nates when the fall rains begin. Both the oats and rape then grow
vigorously and make excellent fall and winter pasture,

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 13

Winter pasture is also provided by sowing rape with oats intended
for hay or grain. When sown in this way the rape grows but little
until after the oats are harvested and the autumn rains have begun.

Rape and clover.—One of the most satisfactory ways of providing
summer pasture is to sow rape and clover together late in May or
early in June. For the details of this method, see Farmers’ Bulletin
271 of this department.

Rape wn corn.—From 3 to 4 pounds of rape seed per acre are some-
times sown in corn during July, just before the last cultivation. If
the corn is planted on a well-prepared seed bed and kept thoroughly
cultivated, so that the soil will remain moist, the rape usually germi-
nates in about five days. It then furnishes excellent green succulent
forage during the autumn while the corn is being bogged off. If the

Fig. 5.—A one-horse disk grain drill used for planting grain between the rows of standing corn.

corn crop is husked or cut and removed from the field and the rape
allowed to grow until late in the fall, the rape furnishes good pasture
from November 1 to April 1.

Vetch and wheat, or vetch and oats, or vetch alone.—Vetch sown alone
or with wheat or oats in corn at the last cultivation or in the early fall
on spring-plowed stubble land furnishes pasture for hogs during the
late fall, winter, and early spring. One bushel of vetch and a bushel
of oats or 40 pounds of wheat are used per acre. If sown alone, from
90 to 120 pounds of vetch seed are required per acre. The seed is
either planted with a one-horse grain drill which runs between the
rows of corn or it is sown broadcast from the back of a horse. A
one-horse disk grain drill, which can be used for this purpose, is
shown in figure 5. If the latter method is used, a hood is placed over
the head of the horse to keep the grain from falling into the animal’s

14 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ears. If sown broadeast, the last cultivation of the corn covers the
seed.

_ If vetch and wheat or oats are sown in corn when “‘laid by”’ in
July, the pasture is ready for use by October 1; if sown on spring-
plowed stubble land in the early fall, it is ready about November 1.-
The pasture may be used during the winter and early spring. If
other pasture is not available, these crops will also furnish excellent
forage for hogs until late in June. Vetch is also sown alone in the
fall and used during April, May, and June.

English rye-grass—Owing to the excessive winter precipitation
west of the Cascade Mian ane. the ground is frequently so wet that
the tramping of stock is very injurious to most soils. For this rea-
son a grass pasture with a close, tough sod is very desirable for win-
ter use. English rye-grass meets this need admirably. This grass
forms a close sod that stands tramping well. It is one of the first
grasses to begin growth in the spring and one of the last to cease
growing in the fall. A rye-grass pasture may be used from the early
autumn until the following July. During the summer drought, growth
practically ceases. If kept grazed rather closely, the pasture will last
- for years.

A permanent English rye-grass pasture may be started by sowing
from 10 to 15 pounds of seed per acre with oats or wheat in the early
spring or fall. The grain crop is either thrashed or cut for hay. The
grass 1s then ready for grazing the following autumn after being
sown. A permanent pasture may be started also by sowing the grass
seed with vetch, oats, or wheat on stubble land in the early fall. The
mixture of grass, vetch, and grain is used for pasture the following
winter and spring. The second year the pasture is a close grass sod
that will stand grazing when the ground is wet.

Winter wheat.—Winter wheat sown in the early fall for a grain
crop furnishes excellent pasture for hogs during February, March,
and April.

GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF.

Tas ie I1.—Crops to hog off in western Oregon and western Washington.

Crops. When planted. Approximate date when used.
|
Beardless barley.......-.....-..--- arly Spring. - see occn is aes July 1 to July 20.
Winter wileat:: .fi226e. eek aes September and October..........- July 10 to August 10.
Wield Peas 25052 ss eee Cee MADLY SPLINE. 5 weet coc eateiseeeemee July 25 to October 1.
Comiid: & 26:00 2 ee April 20 toiMa yl Oss cee ee September 15 to November 15.

Wheat.—Hogs make rapid and economical gains on wheat until
the chaff becomes thoroughly dry. If they are then supplied with
green feed, they will do much better. If peas are not available for
hogging off during August and September, wheat may be used until
the autumn rains begin. Spring wheat may also be grown to take
the place of the peas.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 15

Beardless barley.—lf no winter wheat is available to hog off, its
place may be filled with beardless barley. In fact this crop may take
the place of corn and peas as well, being used from the time it is in
the stiff-dough stage, about July 10, until winter rains come. Hogs
do exceptionally well on it after the rains have softened the kernels.

Peas.—To furnish autumn pasture, one-half peck of wheat or a
peck of oats is frequently sown with peas that are to be hogged off.
In working upon the mature crop the hogs cause considerable of the
oats or wheat to shatter out. Much of this is covered by the tramp-
ing of the hogs. When the first fall rains come it germinates and fur-
nishes good pasture.

Corn.—Corn is hogged down to good advantage in much of the
territory west of the Cascade Mountains for about six weeks—that is,
from the time the kernels are pretty well glazed and dented until
late in the fall. After the rainy season is well begun, the hogs get
many of the ears down on the wet ground. This causes the corn to
mold and spoil. For this reason it is not best to undertake to hog off
too late in the season. In the Willamette Valley corn reaches the
hogging-off stage about September 15. In the Rogue River Valley
it is earlier and in northwestern Washington much later than in the
Willamette Valley.

SUCCULENT WINTER FEEDS.

Tape IIT.—Swucculent winter feeds for western Oregon and western Washington.

Crops. When planted. When used.
TEC Ie ee irs seg ee Planted in March or April; trans- | October 1 to April 1.
planted in June.
Squash ees csdeedcacssces cscs Maye 2a Ie ot SNe Roa a ie November 1 to January 16.
OLS et yeosteiaicine eeicrcisee sae sicierad PAU Te tos Maivallopeteterisere ete ince November 1 to April 1.
WAntiGhOkeS2s 20-2. oe Sob eae eke. Hanlyas prin Caessseeee see ce Reena Do.

Thousand-headed kale——-Thousand-headed kale is an_ excellent
succulent winter feed for hogs. The mild winters of western Oregon
and western Washington permit kale to stand in the field all winter.
It is cut and fed as needed. Unless fed in a rack or on a clean floor,
_ pigs waste a great deal of the kale by tramping it in the mud. Full
directions for growing kale will be found in Farmers’ Bulletin 271 of
this department.

Squashes.—In order toraise squashes successfully the land is manured
heavily during the fall or winter, plowed about March 1, allowed to
lie for five or six weeks, and then disked, harrowed, and clod mashed
until in good condition. From May 1 to 15 it is replowed. Just
before the seed is planted, about May 25, the soil is again cultivated.

The squashes are gathered about November 1, stored in a dark
place in the barn, and covered with straw to keep them from freezing.
They keep better if gathered before the surface of the squashes has been
frozen. They are fed from approximately November 1 to January 15.

16 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Root crops——The mangel-wurzels, half-sugar beet, sugar beet, and
white French sugar beet are all used for hog feed. Beets may be
stored either in pits or in bins in the barn, or fed from the field. Occa-
sionally there is some loss from freezing if left in the field all winter.
Usually, on the other hand, there is much to be gained by feeding.
from the field, because (1) beets make considerable growth during
the late fall and winter, much of which is lost if they are stored; (2)
when fed from the field the tops are utilized the same as the roots;
and (3) it is much cheaper to feed from the field than to store them
first and feed them later. Beets are fed whole.

Artichokes——Artichokes are planted in rows and cultivated in
precisely the same manner that potatoes are grown. The tubers are
cut into rather small pieces and planted a little thicker and a little
earlier than potatoes.

Artichokes are utilized by turning the hogs into the field in the fall
after the tubers have made their growth. If the hogs have been
ringed, the ground is loosened up with a plow, enough tubers being
plowed out at a time to last a week.

The soil best adapted to the growth of artichokes for hogs is the
sandy land along the watercourses. They can be hogged off on such
land without seriously injuring the soil during the entire winter. The
heavier soils are frequently badly puddled by the tramping of the
hogs during wet weather. This can be counteracted by liberally
oats coarse fresh manure or straw just before the hogs are turned
into the field in the fall. By manurmg heavily and working the
ground early in the spring, artichokes may be grown on the same
land for several years. They are sometimes allowed to volunteer,
the land bemg plowed, worked down, and the crop permitted to come
from the tubers left in the soil. This is not good practice, however,
it bemg muchmore profitable to plant them im rows, so that they can
be cultivated. A crop of artichokes that is ready for the hogs is
shown in figure 6.

Objection is sometimes made to artichokes on account of the dif_i-
culty of getting rid of them when it is desirable to grow some other
crop on the land. They may be eradicated by sowing the land to
clover, clover and rape, or clover and oats, and pasturing with sheep
or cattle during the summer. If no stems and leaves are allowed
to grow, no tubers will form. Close pasturing for one season will
eliminate artichokes.

CROPS FOR THE WHEAT BELT.

The wheat belt of eastern Oregon, eastern Washington, and north-
ern Idaho presents a great variety of agricultural conditions. The
elevation above sea level varies from 1,000 to as much as 3,000 feet.
The annual precipitation also varies from approximately 10 inches
to 25 inches. In some of the more arid districts where the altitude

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 17

is low, the soil is frequently so hght that it is subject to blowing and
drifting. In the districts where the precipitation is heaviest, on the
other hand, the soil is a dark, fertile, silt loam. Owing to these varia-
tions crop production varies widely in the wheat belt. For conven-
ience in discussing the cropping and feeding systems which may be
used for hogs, the wheat belt is divided into (1) the subhumid or
moister: districts and (2) the arid and semiarid districts. There is
no distinct line of demarcation between them, for they gradually blend
into one another.

Fie. 6.—A field ofartichokes in the Willamette Valley, Oreg., thatisready for thehogs. When the lower
leaves began to die, sheep were turned in. They stripped off the leaves as high as they could reach.
Cattle would consume the rest of the leaves.

SuBHUMID oR MorstEerR JD IstTRicts.

The more humid portions of the wheat belt are generally situated
near the mountains. The annual rainfall is usually sufficient to
grow alfalfa successfully without irrigation.

USE OF VARIOUS PASTURE CROPS.

TasLE 1V.—Pasture crops for the subhumid districts.

Number
Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used. othogsan
pasture.
Wanter wheats:..:2- 222... 22- Early in September........--. October 15 to November 15, 5 to8
; March 15 to June 1.
WlOVersae sete ste jones stabs April, previous year.....-...- April 10 to December 1....-... 8 to 15
Pala ee ma Acyl evap cee A previous year........-....-- April 15 to November 15..-.-. 8 to 15
Kale or rape........-...-.--.: aoe and Mayes s-— 5... trees: June 15 to December 1..-.---. 8 to 15
Rape and clover_........-...-. Miaiyplitemee crise meiner. Beane July 10 to November 15....-.. 6 to 14
Winter wheat...............- Wardhy jo MEN oops oseeodeose June 1 to November 15........ 6 to 15
Wihteat pin Corns) 92 -cc-eceen a July 15 to 3) (at last cultiva- | September 15 to November 15. 6 to 12
tion of corn).
Stubble tela DSS See Ae edo atthe oN MENS re Ars eee SRN August 25 to Aprill..........|....-...--

18 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Winter wheat.—Many farmers use the main winter-wheat field for
hog pasture. If the autumn rains begin early enough in the fall
to do the seeding during the first part of September, wheat usually
makes sufficient growth to furnish pasture from October 15 until

the ground is so wet that it is injured by the tramping of the hogs..

If sown during September, winter wheat also makes very early
spring pasture. It is used from the time the ground is settled until
the grain begins to head, or until the hogs begin to chew the heads.
Ordinarily this will be from March 15 until June 1.

Excellent summer and autumn pasture is provided by sowing
winter wheat early in May on a well-prepared seed bed. If not
pastured very closely during the autumn, wheat that is sown during
May can be used during much of the winter.

If sown just before the last cultivation in corn that has been well
cultivated, wheat generally furnishes an abundancé of green feed
during the autumn when corn is being hogged off.

‘Clover and alfalfa—Red clover is adapted to the wheat-growing
districts having a claylike subsoil and the maximum precipitation.
While alfalfa is adapted to the same territory it has a much wider
range of usefulness, for it succeeds with less rainfall and on lighter
soils than clover. Clover begins to grow earlier in the spring and
continues to grow, later in the fall than alfalfa. The young tender
growth of clover is not so easily injured by severe frosts as that of
alfalfa. Red clover fits nicely into short rotations because it is short
lived and so easily killed by plowing. Where the land is to be used
continuously for hog pasture for a number of years alfalfa easily
stands first.

The carrying capacity of both clover and alfalfa is greatly reduced
by the summer drought, and it is usually necessary to provide addi-
tional feed during this time.

The essentials in successfully growing both of these crops are given
in detail in Popular Bulletin 31 and Bulletin 80 of the Washington
Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wask.

Kale and rape.—Thousand-headed kale and Dwarf Essex rape
are very closely related. The mature individual kale plants are
generally larger than those of rape. In the more humid portions
of the wheat belt of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington few crops are
more satisfactory for pasture during the summer and autumn than
kale and rape. The green aphis sometimes attacks both of these
crops during the last of August. While kale is seldom injured very
much, rape is frequently damaged considerably. For this reason
kale is the preferable crop. A fieid of kale is shown in figure 7.

To grow either rape or kale successfully the land to be planted
receives an application of stable manure and is plowed during the
late fall. As soon as the surface soil is dry enough in the spring,

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 19

it is thoroughly cultivated to destroy weeds, germinate weed seeds,
and conserve moisture. For early summer use, say the middle of
June, the seed is planted as early in the spring as the soil has warmed
up well. If the crop is not to be used until July 15, the date of
planting may be delayed until about May 1. Seeding at that date
gives an opportunity to cultivate the ground several times before
the seed is planted. This makes it much easier to keep the crop
free from weeds.

While kale and rape may be sown broadcast, the best results are
secured by planting in rows about 32 inches apart. Kale is thinned
until the plants stand 12 to 14 inches apart in the rows. Rape can
be left a little thicker in the row.

Fic. 7.—Thousand-headed kale on the college farm, Pullman, Wash., planted in drill rows 28 inches apart.
(Photographed August 23, 1909.)

By pasturing and cultivating two or three times, the crop may be
kept green allsummer. After the fall rains come both rape and kale
make a much better growth than clover or alfalfa. They stand a
great deal of severe frost and can generally be used until about
December 15. If used only during the late summer and autumn,
better results are secured by cutting and feeding kale instead of
turning the hogs into the field. When the plants are allowed to
become large, the hogs break down and waste many of the leaves.

Rape and clover—Summer pasture is provided and a stand of clover
established at the same time by sowing 3 pounds of rape seed and 8
to 10 pounds of red-clover seed per acre about May 1. The seed is
mixed and sown together according to the methods described for
sowing clover in Popular Bulletin 31 of the Washington Agricultural
Experiment Station. If sown May 1, the rape and clover should be

20 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

large enough to pasture by July 1 to 10. Rape makes excellent
green forage while wheat, peas, and corn are being hogged off.

Gleaning stubble fields —Wheat farmers who raise hogs give them
the run of the stubble fields from the time the grain is harvested until
the land is plowed the following spring. They feed upon the heads
that are dropped in harvesting and also on the volunteer grain.

It is frequently supposed that the combined harvester and thrasher
will leave so little grain in the field, especially on level ground, that
there is nothing to be gained by gleaning the stubble with hogs. _ It
is also supposed that in gleaning a large stubble field hogs will do so
much traveling that they make no gains. To show that neither of
these assumptions is well founded, the experience of W. H. Steen,
Umatilla County, Oreg., in E epine the stubble field with hogs may
be cited.

On August 24, 1910, 90 head of hogs, weighing 6,261 pounds, were
turned into 178 acres of wheat stubble. They were in the field with-
out ether feed until November 1, when they weighed 8,350pounds.
The gain in live weight per acre was 11.73 pounds. The value of
the gain per acre (11.73 pounds) at 6, 7, and 8 cents per pound
amounts to 70.4, 82.1, and 93.8 cents, respectively. The stubble
land gleaned by the hogs is comparatively level, and a good job had
been done in cutting the grain with a combined harvester. On steep
land the waste in harvesting is always much greater than on level
land, and the gain in gleaning the stubble with hogs sa be cor-
respondingly greater.

GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF.

TaBLeE V.—Crops to hog off in the subhumid district.

Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.1!

Beardlessiparley2.--252-2eo-ee ea arly Sprinessacec, sos. 2- eae July 5 to August 1.

Winter wheat:-sca.2c5 5 eee September and October......... July 20 to August 20.

Wield Peas--.26.<% Jess ec ee ier Spring: 2222. < 22. ee at eee July 10 to November 1.

Spring wheat=. sccm os ssa oeeee se dl sees Ooi oc SEE RPRE = eo eee August 1 to September 1.

Corn: fjshoss cates eet tees Maye Dt10.20. at. Sus: «scene September 1 to November 15.

Blue barley or common beardless | Early spring.............-----.- From beginning of autumn rains
arley. to midwinter.

1 Because of the great variation in altitude in the more humid portions of the wheat belt, there is a corre-
sponding variation in the dates at which crops mature. Barley, wheat, and peas, for example, reach the
hogging-off stage much earlier when grown at low altitudes than at high altitudes. For this reason the
dates in the above table for using the crops are only approximately correct.

A discussion of the use of the crops mentioned in Table V will be
found on pages 6 to 9 of this bulletin. The growing of wheat and
barley is familiar to all and needs no further comment. The growing
of field peas and corn are discussed in Popular Bulletins Nos. 36 and 38,
and Bulletin 99 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station.
These bulletins may be had by applying to the Director of the
Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wash.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS, 21

WINTER FEEDS.

TaBLE V1.—Winter feeds for the subhumid districts.

Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.

MEN 25 oem A previous year..............-...- November 1 to April 15.

IRGOUGS£ S$ eee aS eon eee ee Apriliand Mays. 2 ees Sse Do.

PATI CHOKOS Se peieeans oacecee es sie iNco ral Sarr eset cesta 212s Soe Sass aes October 15 to May 1.

Bundle or headed wheat........-- Hallorispring ost e. eee 1 12 Late fall, winter, and early spring.
Field peas (unthrashed).........-- MaElyiSprin Osa a- =. eee oe ee eee Do.

Bundle or headed barley.....-.-.. Fall or early spring...............- Do.

Alfalfa hay.—Alfalfa hay is probably the most satisfactory winter
roughage that may be provided for hogs in the subhumid wheat dis-
tricts. If intended for hogs, it is cut green a little before the appear-
ance of the first blossoms. It is also best to take it from a portion of
the field where the stand is thick. The hay will then be fine, palatable —
and rich in protein.

t .
OC

'
!

frat OES Ee we 4 oes

END VIEW OF RACK
Fia. 8.—Rack for feeding hay to hogs.

Alfalfa hay is usually fed in one of two ways, whole or cut. Whole
hay is generally fed in racks. Figures 8 and 9 show racks used for
feeding hay to hogs. Hay is also fed on the surface of the ground.
- By either of these methods there is considerable waste, especially if
the hay is coarse. One of the most popular and satisfactory ways
of feeding alfalfa hay to hogs is to run it through a hay cutter, chop-
ping it into lengths of about one-half inch. The hay is then mixed
with chopped or rolled wheat or barley. The mixture is moistened
with all of the water that it will absorb, and allowed to stand for 12.
hours before it is fed. Some soak the hay and add the grain just
before feeding. During very cold weather the hay may be wet with
hot water and fed immediately. Where it is not necessary to hasten
the growth of the hogs alfalfa hay may form one-half of the ration
by weight. Where a rapid gain is desired a ration consisting of one-
fourth alfalfa hay and three-fourths grain is more satisfactory. -

Root crops.—The sugar beet, the white French sugar beet, man-
gels, carrots, and rutabagas are all used for fall and winter hog feed.

22 BULLETIN 68, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The success of root crops largely depends upon the preparation of the
seed bed. In growing sugar beets in the vicinity of Waverly, Wash.,
the following has been found a very satisfactory way of preparing
land for this crop. Stubble land is disked or plowed shallow in the
autumn. As soon as in condition to work in the early spring it is
plowed 7 or 8 inches deep and then harrowed, planked, and rolled
again and again until a firm, mellow seed bed is formed. The time
of planting depends on the season. In localities whose altitude is
from 2,000 to 2,500 feet, root crops are usually planted the last of
April or early in May. For winter use roots are stored either in
cellars or pits. Roots are generally fed in connection with a grain
ration. The hogs usually receive all of the roots that they will clean
up and once grain to make them thrive and grow as desired.

Fic. 9.—An easily and cheaply constructed rack for feeding hay to hogs. The sides consist of ordinary
hog-fencing wire stapled on a frame.

Ariichokes.—On rich, mellow land that retains moisture well arti-
chokes usually yield better than potatoes. But on land that dries
out quickly the yield is not very satisfactory. The methods given
on page 16 of this bulletin for growing artichokes will apply in the
main for this district also.

The hogs are turned in late in the fall, about the time that alfalfa
or clover pasture is failing. Some allow the hogs to work on the
tubers at will from the last of October until May 1. Others prefer
to use artichokes only in the late fall and early spring, the hogs being
removed from the field during the winter, when the ground is so wet
that their rooting will puddle the soil. The hogs are returned to the
field as soon as the ground has settled in the early spring. Used in
this way artichokes fill in two periods, the late fall and early spring,
when oreen feed is scarce. As with the root crops, hogs must also
receive a grain ration of some kind when feeding upon artichokes if

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. ey

rapid gains are desired. When the ground is frozen hard other feed
must be provided.

Unthrashed wheat.—Many hog raisers use headed or bundle wheat
to carry dry brood sows and young shotes through the winter. When
feeding upon the unthrashed grain the hogs get considerable rough-
age in chewing the heads. They are also compelled to eat more slowly
and to masticate their food better than when feeding upon thrashed
grain. When the grain is fed in the straw the thrashing bill is saved
and the hogs are kept busy during much of the time. Unthrashed
wheat and artichokes or roots of some kind make a good combination
for wintering hogs.

Field peas —In some localities field peas are stacked and the
unthrashed vines fed to hogs during the late fall, winter, and early
spring. Mature pea grain is a concentrated feed, very rich in pro-
tein. For this reason hogs should receive other feed in addition to
the peas to dilute the ration. Any of the root crops, artichokes, or
potatoes are excellent for this purpose.

Unthrashed barley.—In using unthrashed bearded barley for winter
feed for hogs, a large quantity is thrown into the feed lot at a time in
order that the beards and kernels may become wet and soften. If
fed dry, the kernels are too hard to be eaten readily.

ARID AND SEMIARID DISTRICTS.

The arid and semiarid districts may arbitrarily be designated as
that portion of the wheat belt whose normal precipitation is insuffi-
cient to grow alfalfa successfully. In much of this region, however,
alfalfa can be grown profitably for hog pasture by keeping the stand
very thin and cultivating it thoroughly in the late fall and early
spring. If sown rather thinly in rows about 24 to 36 inches apart
and cultivated occasionally during the sprmg and summer, alfalfa will
make profitable hog pasture over a very wide territory now consid-
ered too dry for that crop. The crops mentioned in Table VII will
provide pasture during much of the year in the dry region.

PASTURE CROPS.

TasLeE VII.—Pasture crops for the arid and semiarid districts.

Ze ‘ Number
p of hogs
Crops. When planted. . - Approximate date when used. | an acre
P will
pasture
Wainterswheats..--4- "2.5. --- Octobontes: 2 pee. ae Agereitl tio) Witay ses soe pose 6 to 10
Beardless barley............-- February or March........-...- May Ato Sune 155252. 2222s. 5 to 10
Sphing wheat. oe. sn2 sa IMINO se eae, Joe aa Ss aaee|| len? ody asepeecasesnce 5 to 10
eine: wheat for) beardiless! | May.215_ 2. 552:3f220.. eee June 15 to August 1-25..._...-. 5 to 8
barle
Field cont and Early Amber | April 10 to May 10.....---::--- July until autumn frosts....-. 4to7
sorghum
Siubpleneldsesss sieu heaters ilnsu= ah sss py Nee dats | ae teas ATI SUStE2 DIORA DEI SLs eer ee sn Slee ee eee

24 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Wheat.—Wheat is used for hog pasture as follows:

(1) As soon as the surface of the ground is dry in the spring, about April 1, the
hogs are turned into the main crop of winter wheat that is grown for market. Some
prefer to use the winter wheat until it begins to joint; that is, for about a month or six
weeks. Others use it until the hogs begin to chew the heads of wheat, and still others.
harvest with the hogs in the field.

(2) Spring wheat sown the last of February or early in March is generally large
enough for pasture, 3 to 4 inches high, by May 1. By pasturing it rather closely it
will stay green until about July 1.

(3) Summer pasture is provided by sowing either spring or winter wheat about May
1. Land that is sown at this date is plowed during the late fall, in the winter, or
very early in the spring. To destroy weeds and retain moisture it is kept thoroughly
cultivated from early spring until the wheat is sown. The pasture is ready for use in
about six weeks from date of planting. If grazed closely, it should remain green until
in August.

Barley—The common beardless barley is also sown in the early
spring and early in May for sprmg and summer pasture. Barley
comes more quickly and makes more feed than wheat. The hogs
also like it better than wheat up to the time it has headed ott.

Corn and sorghum.—Field corn and several varieties of sorghum
are grown in a limited way in the dry portion of the wheat belt for
hog pasture. The principal varieties of sorghum are kafir, Jerusalem
corn, milo, and Amber sorghum. Just which of these is most satis-
factory when grown as a grazing crop or to cut and feed green has not
been fully determined. On account of the succulency and high sugar
content of its stems as well as its habit of suckering after bemg cut or
eaten down, Amber sorghum is probably the best of the varieties
named above. The variety grown is locally known as Early Amber
sorghum. Field observations seem to indicate that Amber sorghum
is best adapted to the extremely dry districts where the altitude is
rather low, and corn to the higher districts. These crops need to be
further tested in limited areas to determine which are most profitable.

Corn and sorghum are grown in much the same way. To be suc-
cessful, the preparation of the seed bed must receive special atten-
tion. Perhaps the most satisfactory way to prepare the land for
these crops is to plow during the late fall or winter and then cultivate
thoroughly from early spring until planting time. Sorghum is
planted a trifle later than corn, in rows 3 to 34 feet apart with a grain
drill. The seed is dropped 10 to 15 inches apart in the row. To
firm the soil and cause the seed to germinate quickly, a corrugated
roller or subsurface packer is run just behind the drill. The cultiva-
tion is the same as that of corn. The crop is either cut and fed green
or the hogs are turned into the field when the sorghum or corn is
14 to 18 inches high. The former method gives by far the most feed.

Corn and sorghum are generally used in a 2-year rotation with
wheat or barley, the land being in sorghum or corn for summer green
feed one year and in barley or wheat to pasture or hog off the next.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 25

Gleaning stubble fields —If the farm is fenced hog tight, the hogs
have the run of the stubble field from the time the grain is harvested
until the land is plowed the following spring. The volunteer grain
makes the earliest green feed in the spring.

GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF.

Taste VIII.—Crops to hog off in the arid and semiarid districts.

Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.!

Beardless barley.........--------- Barby SOWIE. Se po kk sosasoeosoees June 20 until autumn rains begin.
Winter wheat............-.-.-.--- @cteberse. 2-245 season ss July 1 to opening of stubble field or

: until autumn rains begin
Sprinewwheat..-- 2... 2ccce- 2 cee Early spring, February and | July 15to opening of stubble field or
March. until autumn rains begin.

NGC OGRE soon cu ae eae ae aay eee CO Sn ee OR cic e ae July 20 until autumn rains begin.
’ Blue barley or the common beard- |..... GOS 5 ee a Soe From beginning of autumn rains to
less barley. late winter—October 15 to Feb-

ruary 10.

1 The altitude of the arid and semiarid districts varies from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. For this reason the dates
at which the crops in the above table mature will vary considerably. The dates given for the use of these
crops, therefore, are only approximations.

Whether or not wheat and peas shall be used from the time they
are available in the early summer until the autumn rains have
softened the barley sufficiently to be hogged down will depend upon the
number of hogs kept on the farm. Where only enough hogs are kept
to glean the stubble field, peas and wheat are used only until the
grain is thrashed and the stubble field is open. Where more than
enough hogs are kept to clean up the stubble field, wheat and peas
can be profitably hogged off until the barley is in condition to use.

Somewhat limited observations indicate that field peas in the dry
parts of the wheat belt seldom have nodules on their roots. The
yield also is usually light. The lack of nodules, the light yields, and
the high price of seed make the production of peas questionable.
It is probable that they may be grown profitably in rows as a culti-
vated crop. Atthe experimental farm at Moro, Oreg., peas are planted
in double rows 7 inches apart with 35-inch spaces between the double
rows. ‘The peas are planted in this way with a grain drill by stop-
ping up a part. of the feed cups. The peas support each other and
stand up better when planted in this way. They are cultivated with
a spike-tooth harrow until about 4 or 5 inches high. They then
receive shallow cultivation between the rows until the vines lop over.

WINTER FEEDS.

The feeds that may be used economically to carry hogs through the
winter are standing barley and headed wheat. Field peas may also
be stacked and fed without thrashing.

CROPS FOR THE IRRIGATED VALLEYS.

Much of the irrigated land along the Columbia River, on the one
extreme, is less than 400 feet above the level of the sea. Some of the
irrigated mountain valleys, on the other hand, have an elevation of

26 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

3,500 to 4,000 feet. At the low altitudes pasture is available much
earlier in the spring and later in the autumn than at the higher altitudes.
In the mountain valleys all of the grain fed is raised, while in the lower
districts most of the grain consumed is purchased from the near-by
wheat farms. In the lower districts corn is successfully grown. In
the higher valleys corn has not proved a success.

PASTURE CROPS.

TaBLE [X.—Pasture crops in the irrigated valleys.

Number
Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used. or nees a
carry.
Rediclovertenr. asc by Avett be | ereviOuShyearen. -seeeoee cee see March 25 to November 10... .. 10 to 20
BOTS Seer i ERO Se Bi er | Early spring with wheat, oats, | After grain is harvested to 10 to 20
or barley. November 10.
AN Fal fa cae fscic aa seaeeeeceeee IPTeVIOUS Veale es e-seeeneeee eee April 1 to to November 1....-. - 10 to 20

Alfalfa is most generally used for hog pasture under irigation.
There are many who prefer clover, however, especially in the moun-
tain valleys, because it starts growth earlier in spring and is less in-
jured by fall frost than alfalfa. The two crops are sometimes grown
together. It is claimed that a mixture of the two will carry nearly
one-third more hogs per acre than either grown alone.

In the mountain: valleys where the cereals are important crops,
clover fits into the rotations better than alfalfa. In the Powder River
Valley, Oreg., red clover is grown in a 2-year rotation with wheat, oats,
or barley. The clover is sown in the early spring and after the grain
is harvested makes excellent pasture until winter. The following
June a crop of hay is cut. About the middle of July, when the second
crop is about 10 inches high, the clover is plowed under and the ground
worked down immediately. The following spring the land is again
sown. to clover and wheat, oats, or barley. Where there is plenty of
water for irrigation throughout the season, the clover sod is not
plowed under until during the autumn.

WINTER FEEDS.

TABLE X.— Winter feeds in the irrigated valleys.

Crops. When planted. When used.

AGMA AW. cata aacleee uence A previous year...........-..--- November 1 to April 15.
Root crops !is) sto. 324) April and! Maye 28.2 eee

Bundle or headed wheat .--| Fall or spring......
HWicld peda: sig. esse ee Wanly springemesse tess seme 0.

ATUCNOKES 2 oie soci ge aoe See April (same as potatoes). .......] November 1 to April 15.

1 Artichokes are best adapted to the lower irrigated districts, where the winters are open enough to permit
the hogs to work on the tubers. They are used from the time that alfalfa pasture fails in the autumn until
it is available again in the spring. Even in the lower valleys there are times during the winter when the
ground is frozen too hard for the hogs to root out the tubers. Alfalfa hay, roots, or other feed must then
take the place of the artichokes.

A discussion of the use of these crops will be found under “‘ Winter
feeds,” pages 21 to 23.

PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. TK

CROPS TO HOG OFF.

TasLE X1.—Crops to hog off in the irrigated valleys.

Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.1
Beardless barley..........-------- ene Sioemavy, Iori ose coasscaeoe August 1 to November 15.
Wlulbawihleaitias cee 2-22 cee ee 5 September or October. .......----- August 5 to September 15.
INTICHOERS ese caso Ree eee aEeee Early spring, April...............- August 20 to November 15.
Clulbnwianeaitins aecmc inn. c oe ccc eece | cen CORR re ce ese saie cm cee August 20 to October 1.

1 The dates for using the crops in the table above are applicable to localities whose altitudes range from
3,000 to 4,500 feet. At lower altitudes these crops are ready for use much earlier.

The hogging off of crops under irrigated*and nonirrigated condi*
tions is so similar that the discussion of the use of these crops on
pages 5 to 10 and 14 and 15 of this bulletin will be found applicable
in the irrigated districts.

SUMMARY.

During recent years the hog industry in the Pacific Northwest has
been inadequate to supply the local demands for pork and pork
products. This has caused the average price of pork to be relatively
high and has made it necessary to ship a large percentage of the hogs
slaughtered and bacon consumed from east of the Rocky Mountains.

It is possible to provide pasture for hogs in most of this region
throughout much of the year. In most localities it is also possible to
provide crops that may be hogged off during several months of the
busy season. The crops generally used for this purpose are wheat,
field peas, corn, and barley. By supplementing well-managed pas-
ture with the proper grain rations and utilizing the ability of the hog
to harvest grain crops for himself, the average cost of producing pork
may be materially reduced. These conditions offer an opportunity
for profitable pork production in the Pacific Northwest on a much
larger scale than at present practiced.

ore sak gehen Bet x

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OAGRICULTURE * i,

No. 69

aN
a: H

ET
>

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief,
and the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.

March 28, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK.

By C. Dwicht Marsa and A. B. CLawson, Physiologists, Drug-Plant and
Poisonous-Plant Investigations, -Bureau of Plant Industry, and HapLEIcH
Marsz, Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.

INTRODUCTION.
HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

Among poisonous plants the genus Cicuta is of especial interest,
as it is probably the most violently toxic of all the plants growing in
temperate regions. Since the middle of the sixteenth century the
genus has been definitely known, and the symptoms produced by it
have been accurately described many times. Before that time, if
recognized at all, it was not distinguished from Conium. The term
Cicuta occurs frequently in Latin literature, but without any doubt
was used as the equivalent of the Greek Kwvecov. Whether the hem-
lock used by the Greeks and Romans for the punishment of criminals
and for suicidal purposes was an extract from a single plant or a com-
pound extract of several plants, as thought by some, may never be
known, but in any case it is evident that plants of the genus Cicuta as
recognized to-day were not used. The symptoms produced by the
hemlock are described in detail by Plato in connection with the death of
Socrates and are very different from those produced by Cicuta. There
seems to be little doubt that Conium was the principal constituent of
the hemlock and perhaps the only substance used.

Albert Regel, 1876-77, has gone into great detail in discussing the
history of the “hemlock” and ‘‘water hemlock,” with copious quo-
tations from ancient authors. Inasmuch as Cicuta is not found in
any abundance in Greece and Italy, it may, perhaps, fairly be ques-
tioned whether the Greeks and Romans had any knowledge of the

1 For complete titles of works cited in this bulletin, see list on pages 24 to 27.

Note.—This bulletin describes water hemlock and its toxic effect upon animal life when taken into the
system; it points out the distinction between it and other umbelliferous plants, particularly conium,
with which it is most likely to be confounded. As the toxic principle is largely confined to the rootstock,
the tops and seeds if they become mixed with hay are not a source of danger. The subject is of general
interest, as cicuta is found in nearly all parts of the United States.

24138°—Bull. 69—14——_1

2 BULLETIN 69, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

plant. To Konrad Gesner is generally given the credit of first clearly
distinguishing Cicuta from Conium. In 1541, in his Historia Plan-
tarum, he speaks of it as Sium, but later he calls it Cicuta aquatica.
In his edition of Dioscorides, 1543, he says “‘ Recentiores faciunt duo
genera, aquaticae frigentis naturae, terrestris calide: verum quonam
nullum idoneum praeferunt autorem, vereor ne, ut feresolent,
hallucinentur.”” By the first he probably means Cicuta, and by the
second, Conium. In 1561, in “Horti Germaniae,” f. 253, he says
“ Cicuta aquatica, herba venenosa, Bartzenkraut Saxonibus, G. Circa .
paludes & in paludum marginibus sponte oritur, ut ad lacum Felium >
agri Tigurini plantare si quis velit, in aqua aut loco palustri pangatur
oportet.” .

In 1679 was published ‘“‘Cicutae Aquaticae Historia et Noxae,’’ by
J. J. Wepfer. This book of 336 pages is a rather elaborate work,
based on a case of poisoning in which two boys and six girls were
involved. In the first nine chapters, comprising about one-half the
book, the plant is described and a detailed account of the cases of
poisoning given; there is a discussion of the symptoms, of the
physiology and pharmacology of the cases, and details of the autop-
sies are given. In the tenth chapter is an account of some experi-
mental work. In the chapters from the eleventh to the twenty-first,
inclusive, other poisons are taken up and discussed. The twenty-
second chapter is concerned with the uses of Cicuta, and the twenty-
third and last with remedial measures in cases of poisoning. While
written in a diffuse style, with much extraneous matter and con-
taining many errors, it is on the whole a very remarkable work.
When treating of facts Wepfer’s statements are clear-cut and accu-
rate. His description of the symptoms of the poisoned children is
not only one of the best accounts of the symptoms of Cicuta poisoning
ever written, but is handled in a graphic style that could hardly be
excelled. (See pp. 17-18.)

In 1687 Wepfer published a short paper giving details in regard
to four cases of poisoning, one of them being fatal. While Gesner
was the first to distinguish what is now known as Cicuta in his Cicuta
aquatica, Wepfer was the first to set forth clearly the peculiar poison-
ous properties of Cicuta.

Wepfer attempts to give the synonomy of preceding authors; for
example, he gives—

Oenanthe cicutae facie succo viroso crocante Lobel, 1570, p. 326.
Cicutaria palustris tenuifolia Bauhin, 1623. Lib. IV, Sec. V, p. 161.
Cicuta aquatica Gesneri Bauhin, 1651. Lib. X XVII, p. 175.

In regard to these and other identifications, it may be said that the
plant descriptions of that time were not complete enough to make
identification certain from morphological characters. The habits of
these two genera, Conium and Cicuta, however, sometimes show
pretty clearly which is meant. Conium grows in fairly dry ground

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 3)

in the neighborhood of towns, while Cicuta grows in wet places.
So when Ray speaks of Cicutaria palustris, 1704, Lib. VIII, p. 257,
we can be reasonably certain that he means Cicuta. If the symptoms
of poisoning are given, as in Wepfer’s work, the identity of the plant
is without question.

During the seventeenth century Cicuta was mentioned by other
authors, but little was written of it as a poisonous plant.

In 1723 Helds, Weinmann, and Goritz deseribed a case of three
students near Regensburg who ate the root of Cicuta wrosa with
resulting illness and two fatalities. There are three independent
accounts, one by each of the writers mentioned, and the symptoms
and autopsy findings are described in some detail. Weinmann tells
of the death of seven persons. near Nuremberg. Goritz grew the
plant and gives a description of it.

The next account of importance was by Schwencke in 1756. The
original paper was in Dutch, but a German translation by Miller
was published in 1776. After a description of the plant he gives
the details of the poisoning of four children near the village of
Overschie. They were left to themselves in their home, and the
mother on her return found them scattered about the floor “strug-
gling with death.” Three of the four died. Autopsies weremade
on two, and Schwencke gives the details of the autopsies and discusses
the symptoms fully.

Up to the nineteenth century there were many other references to
Cicuta, some of which gave some little information in regard to its
poisonous properties, but the foregoing account includes the more
important papers. All of these accounts were concerned with the
European species, Cicuta virosa.

During the nineteenth century a large number of cases of poisoning
by Cicuta virosa were reported, the greater number being in Ger-

many. ‘These reports bear a close resemblance to each other. Most
of the cases were of children, and the descriptions of symptoms
differ but little, except that in some cases greater detail is given.
Much of this literature will be referred to in the further discussion of
the subject.

Apparently the first mention of Cicuta as a poisonous plant in
America was by Schwencke, who speaks of it as the Virginian ‘‘ Wasser
Schierling.”” Schoepf, in his Materia Medica Americana, 1787, makes
the following statement: ‘‘Ob affinitatem genericam cum Cicuta
virosa partim, suspecta esse deberet; id quod testimonium Schwenku,
de Cicuta aquatica, p. 28, confirmat, qui hance plantam Cephalalgiam
et vertiginem causare dicit.”’

In this connection it should perhaps be noted that the so-called
Cicuta venenosa described in connection with a case of poisoning by
Greenway, 1793, was not Cicuta. In the Kew index this name is

4 BULLETIN 69, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

given as a synonym of Angelica hirsuta, A. villosa. The symptoms
described do not at all correspond to those produced by Cicuta.

Stockbridge, 1814, tells of the poisoning of three boys, with one
fatality, giving details of the symptoms and treatment. He tells
also of another case of a boy 6 or 7 years old who died after violent
convulsive fits “and the most awful and exquisite sufferings I ever
witnessed.”

Ely and Muhlenberg, 1815, tell of a similar case of three boys, two
of whom died. Bigelow, 1817, describes the plant, giving a general
statement in regard to its poisonous properties, and refers to the
cases mentioned by Stockbridge and Ely.

Hazeltine, 1818, tells of the “fatal effects of a poisonous root.”
He did not identify the plant, but his account of the symptoms
makes it certain that it was Cicuta maculata. |

During the nineteenth century a considerable literature in regard
to poisoning by Cicuta in North America grew up, a large part of it
relating to losses of live stock, although there have been very many —
recorded cases of the poisoning of human beings, and it is known
that many cases, perhaps the larger number, have not been published.
Most of these accounts are more or less fragmentary in character, and
it is not considered necessary to give a synopsis of them.

' THE GENUS CICUTA.

The following description of the genus Cicuta is compiled from the
last edition of Gray’s Manual: *

A perennial umbellifer growing from a rootstock, with pinnately compound leaves
and serrate leaflets. Involucre usually none, involucels of several slender bractlets,
flowers white. Fruit ovoid to nearly orbicular, glabrous, with strong, flattish, corky
ribs, the lateral largest; oil tubes conspicuous, solitary; stylopodium depressed; seed
nearly terete.

The genus is distributed in the northern contiments. A large
number of species have been described, most of which are so closely
related to each other that im many cases the validity of the species
has been questioned. The common species of the eastern United
States is maculata, which has been, by some, considered as not
specifically distinct from the European wirosa.

Probably all species are equally poisonous, and in popular parlance
no distinction of species is made.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN CICUTA AND CONIUM.

From the standpoint of a poisonous plant Cicuta is more likely to
be confounded with Conium than with any other umbelliferous
plant.

1 Seventh edition, p. 614.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 5

For comparison with the diagnosis of Cicuta there follows a diag-
nosis of Conium compiled from Gray’s Manual:

A biennial umbellifer with spotted stems, large decompound leaves with lanceolate
pinnatifid leaflets. Involucre and involucels of narrow bracts, flowers white. Fruit
ovate, flattened at the sides, glabrous, with prominent wavy ribs; oil tubes none, but
a layer of secreting cells next the seed, the face of which is deeply and narrowly
concave.

Leaves and flowers of water hemlock (Cicuta vagans) are shown
in Plate I, while a young plant of the same species is illustrated in
Plate II. For comparison, a branch of Coniwm maculatum is shown
in Plate III.

It will be seen that Cicuta and Conium are clearly distinguished
morphologically by the leaves and fruit and by the presence of an
involucre in Conium and its absence in Cicuta. These character-
istics, however, are hardly sufficient to enable one unskilled in botany
to make the distinction readily.

A peculiarity of the rootstock which is not mentioned by the sys-
tematic botanists makes it comparatively easy to distinguish Cicuta
from any other umbellifer that is likely to be found in the same
locality. If the rootstock is cut longitudinally there will be seen,
more or less clearly, a number of transverse chambers, as shown in
Plate IT.

These chambers are not as distinct in the spring as later in the sea-
son, but they can always be recognized. This peculiarity of the
root was noted in Flora Danica in 1765, a figure showing the cham-
bers. They were mentioned by Trumel, 1838, and Maly, 1844, and
have been figured by a number of more recent authors. It should be
noted, too, that while Conium grows in fields and waste places, Cicuta
grows in wet places, like swamps’ and along irrigating ditches, the
old specific name aquatica being a particularly appropriate one.

POPULAR NAMES.

Among English-speaking people the Cicuta is most commonly
known as ‘‘water hemlock” or ‘‘cowbane.”’ Other names are
“parsnip” (or ‘‘wild parsnip’), ‘‘snakeroot,” ‘‘spotted hemlock,”
‘‘spotted parsley,’ ‘‘snakeweed,’” ‘‘beaver poison,’ ‘‘musquash
root,” and ‘‘muskrat weed.”

In New Mexico it has been known as ‘‘pecos.’’ According to
Muhlenberg, an Indian name was ‘‘utcum.”’

Among the Germans it is known as ‘‘Wasserschierling,’”’ some-
times as ‘‘eiftiger Schierling.”” ‘‘Schierling” seems to be more
commonly applied to Conium, although apparently this distinction
between ‘‘Wasserschierling”’ and ‘‘Schierling” is not always made.
It is also known as ‘‘Wiiterich,” ‘‘giftiger Witerich,” ‘‘Parzen-
kraut,” ‘‘Tollkraut,” and ‘‘Tollrube.”’

1 Seventh edition, p. 613.

6 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

By the French it is known as ‘‘Cigué vireuse,”’ ‘‘Cigué tachetée”
being applied to Conium.

SPECIES OF CICUTA REPORTED AS POISONOUS.

The following species of Cicuta have been reported as poisonous:
C. maculata, bulbvfera, vagans, bolanderi, occidentalis, californica, curtisii,
douglas, purpurea, tenuifolia, and virosa. In some cases this belief
is supported by strong experimental evidence. This evidence is
especially strong in regard to maculata, vagans, occidentalis, califor-
nica, and virosa. There is every reason to believe that all species of
Cicuta are poisonous, and possibly all equally so.

LOCALITIES WHERE CICUTA POISONING HAS OCCURRED.

The number of reported cases of poisoning by Cicuta in Europe is
very large, by far the greater number having occurred in Germany.

Fic. 1.—Map of the United States, showing the distribution of recorded cases of poisoning by
Cicuta. Dots indicate the locations of poisoning of human beings, while crosses show the
locations of cattle poisoning.

In figure 1 the recorded cases of poisoning in the United States
have been plotted, dots indicating the places where members of the
human family have been poisoned, while crosses show the localities
of cattle poisoning. This chart has been compiled from publications
and from definite records in the Office of Poisonous Plants of the
United States Department of Agriculture. The first published ac-
count was by Stockbridge, 1814. Figure 1 by no means represents the
entire number of cases. The compilation of this chart brought out
in a surprising manner how imperfectly such cases have been put on

_ CICUTA, OR WATER iP NILOOK. 74

record. For example, there seems to be no definite record of poison-
ing in Montana. Yet in the year 1900 alone, according to Chesnut
and Wilcox, there were five cases of poisoning of human beings in
the State, resulting in four fatalities, and a loss of 30 head of cattle
and 80 sheep. These could not be plotted, as no definite localities
were given. The writers of this bulletin have been informed of many
losses of cattle in Colorado, but no accounts were sufficiently definite
to admit of plotting.

In regard to sheep, we have a definite local record of only one case
of poisoning, at Klamath Falls, Oreg. Yet the yearly losses are
heavy. Figure 1, then, must not be considered as giving more than
a very incomplete record.

The greater number of cases recorded in the East as compared
with the West is partly due to the greater density of population and
partly to the special interest taken in the subject in some localities.
The number of locations in Wisconsin is largely due to the interest
which Prof. Power took in verifying reported cases in that State.

LOSSES OF LIVE STOCK FROM CICUTA POISONING IN THE UNITED STATES.

There are no data from which we can make a reliable estimate of
the stock losses from Cicuta poisoning. One man in Oregon, pre-
sumably estimating the loss in his immediate neighborhood, makes
it 10 per cent. Slade, 1903, estimates a loss of a hundred head of
cattle a year in Oregon.

Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, say that in 1900 in Montana 30 head of
cattle and 80 head of sheep were lost. Probably the losses in the
aggregate are very small. Individual owners of stock have occasion-
ally lost rather heavily, but the total loss does not compare at all
with the deaths from other poisonous plants, such plants, for exam-
ple, as the locos and larkspurs. ,

USES OF CICUTA.

Most plant substances with positive, evident characteristics have
been assumed to have properties useful in medicine. As would be
supposed, Cicuta, with its violent toxic character, has attracted
attention and has been used for a great variety of diseases. Wepfer,
1679, Chapter XXII, discusses its uses in some detail, but most, if
not all, that he says refers to Conium rather than Cicuta.

Gadd, 1774, says that the Finns drive crickets from their homes
with Cicuta. It may be questioned, however, whether this is any-
thing more than a story that he had heard.

In later times Cicuta has been used in medicine to a limited extent.
Rafinesque, 1828, p. 110, says:

A few grains have been given in schirrose and scrofulous tumors and ulcers, with
equal advantage, but a larger dose produces nausea and vomiting; the doses should

be very small, often repeated, and gradually increased. It has been used as a gargle
for sore throat, but safer substances ought to be preferred.

8 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In Siberia the crushed nut is used for syphilitic symptoms, and in
Norway for gout, while the seeds have been used as a diuretic.

In the nineteenth edition of Wood and Bache’s Dispensatory of
the United States, p. 1449, are the following statements: ‘“‘At present
the plant. (Cicuta virosa) is never used internally, and rarely ex-
ternally as an anodyne poultice in local pains.”

“Oieuta (maculata) has been highly lauded as a specific in nervous
and sick headache, but is rarely, if ever, used.’’ (Stearns, 1858,
p. 253.) |

Dragendorff, 1898, p. 487, states that in Oregon Cicuta is used
as al arrow poison.

Cicuta has sometimes been used for committing suicide, although
it is probable that the statement which is made by some writers to
the effect that it was kept by the people of Marseilles for this pur-

_pose is inaccurate, as it is more likely that Conium was used.

Rafinesque, 1828, page 110, says ‘The Indians when tired of life
are said to poison themselves with the roots of this plant.”

Caillard, 1829, tells of a laborer who purchased and ate the root
for suicidal purposes, but recovered after being given an emetic.

Trojanowsky, 1874, relates how a laborer, after a drunken spree.
and a domestic quarrel, left home and was the next day found dead,
the cause of death being-Cicuta. The evidence was considered
sufficient to prove that he ate the root of Cicuta virosa with the
deliberate purpose of committing suicide.

Trojanowsky refers aiso to another case, the ‘“ Kobeilla’sche Proc-
ess,’ but it has been impossible to verify this, as the reference in
Trojanowsky’s paper is evidently wrong.

Piibram, 1900, tells of an interesting case. A woman having
suffered considerable domestic infelicity, on her way to arrange for
a divorce called on a fortune teller to find out whether she would
succeed in the separation. The fortune teller told her that the sepa- -
ration was unnecessary, as her husband would not live more than
one year and advised her to measure the shadow of her husband with
a stick, throw the stick upon a stream, saying ‘“‘I lay down not this
stick but thy life, and as the stick becomes broken in its passage, so
shall thy life be cut off.” Upon the woman replying that she did
not wish her husband to die, the fortune teller went to a swamp and
gathered three roots, calling them “neapte de boalta,’”’ and told her
to make a mash of two of these roots, two potatoes, some corn meal,
sheep cheese, and onions, and bake a cake of it for her husband to eat.
After eating this root, her husband would go about for three months
in a stunned condition and would not abuse her or compel her to
live with him. If her husband after eating the cake should become
ill, the fortune teller would give her tea, so that he should nct die.

1 Brandt, Phoebus, and Ratzeburg, 1838, p. 111.

Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Hd. Penipe

CICUTA VAGANS, SHOWING LEAVES AND FLOWERS.

PLATE

Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

A YOUNG PLANT OF CICUTA VAGANS, SHOWING THE FORM OF THE ROOTSTOCK.

Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

CONIUM MACULATUM, SHOWING LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND FRUITS.

PLATE III.

Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Case No. 119 (CALF) AT 10.27, 10.29, 10.37, AND 10.40 A. M.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 9

The woman followed these directions, using one root instead of
two. An hour later her husband complained of pain and was nause-
ated, afterwards falling senseless. Apparently he did not entirely
lose consciousness, for he was helped into the home and sat down, but
soon fell unconscious and shortly afterwards died, his death occurring
about two hours after eating the cake.

It was shown by examination that the root furnished by the
fortune teller was that of Cicuta virosa.

THE POISONOUS PRINCIPLE OF CICUTA.

When the rootstock of Cicuta is cut open, drops of an aromatic oil
are noted, which give the root its peculiar odor, and this oil is popu-
larly thought to be the poisonous substance. The poisonous principle,
however, is not in the oil but in a resin, and has been separated under
the name of cicutoxin and especially studied by Boehm, 1875-76,
Wikzemski, 1875, and Pohl, 1894. It has properties similar to
picrotoxin and with these two are commonly grouped coriamyrtin,
cenanthotoxin, and santonin.

Kunkel, 1901, p. 934, describes this poisonous principle as a clear
brown, sticky resin with an acid reaction, which does not harden
when dried. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, chloroform, and dilute
alkalis, and is precipitated from alkaline solutions by acids. It is
slightly soluble in cold water and more readily in hot water.

Wikzemski, 1875, gives in detail the results of subcutaneous injec-
tions of the poison in frogs. His conclusions are as follows:

(1) The poisonous principle of Cicuta virosa produces in frogs clonic-tonic convul-
sions of the whole body and in doses of 4 to 6 milligrams of the ether extract kills with
paralysis.

(2) The effect of the poison limits itself to the central nervous system. The activity
of the heart and organs of respiration is influenced in a secondary way.

(3) The principal effect of the Cicuta poison is upon the ‘‘convulsion center” at
the end of the medulla oblongata. The upper part of the brain is not affected, while
the terminal paralysis of the spinal cord apparently results from the complete exhaus-
tion following the convulsions.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

EXPERIMENTS IN COLORADO.

Crcuta occidentalis grew in considerable abundance along the ditches
in the irrigated land of Ohio Creek Valley, Colo., at the head of which
the Mount Carbon Station was located. The ranchers recognize it as
a poisonous plant and some of them make a business of cutting it out.
It is never, however, entirely destroyed, and sometimes large quanti-
ties of it are cut with the hay.

24138°—Bull. 69—14——2

‘

10 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The experimental work had three objects in view:

(1) To determine whether the plant was poisonous in summer and early fall.

(2) To settle definitely the question of the danger to live stock from eating hay
containing Cicuta.

(3) To obtain material for verifying and amplifying the description of symptoms |
and the effects of Cicuta poisoning.

This work was carried on in the summers of 1910 and 1911.

FEEDING CICUTA TO SHEEP IN 1910.
In Table I is given a summarized account of the sheep-feeding
experiments of 1910. The details of the cases follow. An attempt

was made to feed two other sheep, but neither could be induced to
eat the material.

TasLe I.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1910. (Sheep.)

Animal. Weight. | Amount fed. Period of feeding. Part of plant fed.
Pounds. Pounds. ;
INO. J08SS5 S255. 2 100 DIsbe| Aue et4aTtoi23 sees ese pene Regt stems, leaves, and
seeds.
IN OSs G4 Se 25. Shee 91 41 Aug. 26 to Sept. 9........- Roots.
Noy ii2bn ae See eee 100 91 Aug. 26 to Sept. 11........ Stems, leaves and seed.
No.AQ2E See ees 93 2.5) SSD tel piLOLO Seeneeee meer Roots.
No sige eters. c= 96 | (Very little.) | Sept. 15 to 21.............. Do.
aS Cope IG a ee 48 | (Very little.) | Sept. 17 to 21.............. Do.
. * Amount Location
Period of sickness : Hatin of fed to 100 | from which
Animal. (until able to Remedy used. Result. 1s Tena pounds of | plant fed
stand). ofanimal, | Weight of was
animal. obtained.
; Pounds.
NO. AG8e setae Short attack; 35 | Potassium per- | Recovery. A Taea bl?) $1.5 | Sellinger.
minutes. manganate.
About 1 minute. .-
No: 3045555522 i to 2 minutes... -- None 7 tase ee leas doles. 1259 45 Allison.
23 minutes........
ING sl 25 teeter sc es ae ee eee | eae GOs See eee Not sick 19 ly i 91 Do.
ING L022 ees Se Cast Bee eae en ee dove: A jeeeee Death....- 1:37.2 PAW Do.
No. dO en eee ek coke See Ges Seer Not 'sick:: 5)... 3: S52 ese pacer ee Do
ING: ieee | ee eee ees | eee Goes st -skomeeoe lee G0... ois, -| eee 4 Gee eee eens Do

-Case No. 108.

Case No. 108, a wether weighing 100 pounds, was taken out of the pasture on the night
of August 12 for feeding with Cicuta. The feeding was commenced at 11.30 a. m.
on August 14, when he was given ground tubers of Cicuta occidentalis. During the
day he ate very little except what he got accidentally in picking out oats that had been
thrown upon the ground material. On the morning of August 15 he was given an
additional quantity of Cicuta roots, this being mixed with hay with the feed that had
remained from the preceding day. Apparently very little of this was eaten except
what was obtained accidentally in connection with taking the hay, but by the night
of August 16 he had eaten a considerable amount of roots. On August 17 he was
fed stems and tops of Cicuta, the plant being in seed. This was entirely eaten up
with what remained of the Cicuta roots by the night of August 17. On the morning
of August 18 more of the ground roots was fed with cut hay and it was all eaten.
Because of lack of material he was not fed on August 19. On August 20 and 21 he

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 11

was fed stems, leaves, and seeds. Up to this time no effects had been noticed from
the feeding.

On the morning of August 22 he was again given ground Cicuta roots in cut hay,
receiving at this time 2 pounds. At 12.30 noon, the animal was found down and
apparently unable to get up when disturbed, but when raised to his feet was able to
stand. He frothed a little at the mouth. About 15 minutes later he appeared to be
all right and ran about the corral actively. No further symptoms were noticed on
this day.

On the morning of August 23, at 8.30a.m., this sheep was given 5 pounds of ground
Cicuta roots in cut hay. At 6.30 p. m. he was found lying down on his side with legs
extended and with head raised and turned to one side. His eyes were turned down,
showing the white above the iris. His breathing was rapid and noisy, groans accom-
panying the expirations. When raised on his legs he stood for a minute with hind legs
braced apart and stretched out behind, then trembled violently and fell, acting as
if he were choking. Potassium permanganate and aluminium sulphate were admin-
istered in a drench, although it was difficult to make him swallow. He kept his
mouth closed tight and ground his teeth together. At 6.45 his pulse was 176. At
7 his respiration was 62, apparently growing slower. At 7.05 he got upon his feet
with assistance and stood with his legs braced apart. His pulse was 180, full and
strong. At 7.08 his respiration was 46 and the groaning had ceased. At 7.15 the
pulse was 168 and respiration 26. At 7.20 his pulse was 168. Some of this time he
remained on his feet, gradually growing stronger, and at 8.30 had walked a few steps. '
At that time he was stupid and weak. When he walked he staggered and dragged
his hind feet. His pulse was 84, respiration 20.

On the morning of August 24, while somewhat weak and uncertain on his feet,
he appeared fairly well and was turned into the pasture, showing no further symptoms.
His weight at that time was 91 pounds, showing that inthe course of the experiment
he had lost 9 pounds. On the last day of the feeding, August 23, of the 5 pounds of
Cicuta roots he had eaten about 34 pounds.

The impression from the experiment was that the stems, leaves, and seeds had
been fed without effect and that the poisoning was directly the result of feeding
the roots on August 23.

Case No. 104.

Case No. 104 was brought in from the pasture for Cicuta feeding on August 24. This
wether weighed 91 pounds at 6 p. m. on August 25. Feeding was commenced at 9.50
a. m., August 26, when he was given 24 pounds of ground Cicuta roots mixed with a
pound of cut hay. He did not eat readily, but during the day disposed of perhaps
two-thirds of the amount fed in the morning.

On August 27 part of the feed remaining was removed and more was supplied in cut
hay. Feeding was carried on in this manner through August 28, 29, 30,and 31. During
the day of August 31 he had eaten all the Cicuta supplied and was given some addi-
tional hay.

On September 1, the supply of Cicuta being exhausted, he was fed hay. The
feeding of the ground roots was resumed on September 2 and continued until the
morning of September 8 before any results were noted.

At a little after 10 a. m., September 8, the animal was found down, apparently ina
fit. He was able to get up, however, without assistance. He frothed at the mouth
and was weak in the hind legs, but was able to run about. When down he kicked
about convulsively. At 10.20 his pulse.was 80 and fairly strong. At 10.25 he had
apparently recovered and showed no further marked symptoms. He had eaten
very little of the material fed, and the poisoning apparently resulted from the feeding
of the preceding day.

12 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

On the morning of September 9 the uneaten material was removed and at noon he
was given 4 pounds of fresh-ground Cicuta roots with a half pound of cut hay.

At 5.55 p. m. he was found down on his left side, kicking convulsively and unable
to rise. When raised to his feet, however, he walked to the side of the corral. Res-
piration was 28 and rather deep. He was fairly strong and able to run about the
corral rather actively, so it was difficult to take his pulse. From the time he was -
found down and helped up he showed no marked symptoms except weakness and
uncertain movements of his head. He appeared abnormally excitable, starting at
the slightest sound or movement, sometimes giving a sudden start without apparent
cause. At6.55 p.m. he wasfound down again. He was lying on his belly and unable
to rise. His temperature was 102.5°; pulse, 128. At 6.56 he had a convulsion with
opisthotonos, followed by violent kicking of the fore and hind legs, rolling over on
his side. At 6.58 he managed to rise; his pulse was 132; his head moved about in a
spasmodic way, resembling hiccoughs, and suggested spasmodic contractions of the
diaphragm. At 7 he was standing with his legs braced apart, unable to walk. His
pulse was 172. At 7.06 he fell down again and went into a violent convulsion, more
severe than the preceding. His head was drawn up, with his chin against the breast,
apparently held by a violent muscular contraction. He then rolled over upon his side
with the head thrown back. This was followed by violent movements of his legs
and head. Then he lay upon his belly, his legs doubled under him and the hind legs
extended. His breathing was labored and the hiccoughing or spasmodic jerking of
the sides and head continued. At 7.09 he was still on his belly and unable to rise.
His pulse was 180. He was raised to his feet. When his shoulders were raised he fell
again, but when his hind quarters were raised he managed to get up, or, in other words,
apparently he was especially weak in his hind legs, but was able to use his fore legs.
At 7.20 he was able to walk a little when urged. At 8 he-was still on his feet and able
to walk about, but weak in his hind legs. His pulse was 140 and rather strong. He
passed a large quantity of urine. He occasionally belched gas and ground his teeth.
The hiccoughing had practically stopped.

From this time on there were no noticeable symptoms, and on the morning of Sep-
tember 10 he was turned back with the band in the pasture. He weighed at the time
86 pounds, showing that during the feeding he had lost 5 pounds. All told, he had
eaten 45 pounds of roots. It is to be noted, however, that the feeding was continued
over quite a long period and that the poisoning may be considered to have resulted
from a comparatively small amount eaten within a short time.

Case No. 125.

Case No. 125 (a wether) was brought in for Cicuta feeding on August24. Thissheep
weighed 100 pounds at 6 p. m. on August 25. Feeding was commenced at 10a. m. on
August 26, when it was given leaves, stems, and seeds of Cicuta. This feeding was
continued during August 26 and 27. Because of lack of material none was fed on
August 28 and 29, but the feeding was resumed on August 30. Because of lack of
material no more was fed on August 31 and September 1, but the feeding was resumed
on September 2 and continued to September 12.

The animal ate with fair readiness the fresh young leaves and succulent stems, but
objected to the dried material, and it was rather difficult to make it clean up the stems
and the seed tops. Up to August 30 fresh plants were fed, the seeds being rather green.
From September 2 to 6 the material was dry and was eaten less readily. From Sep-
tember 7 to 11 the material was fresher, but the seed tops were past maturity. Itis
estimated that in the course of the feeding the animal ate 91 pounds. The plant pro-
duced no toxic effect and the sheep was turned out on September 12, apparently in
good condition. It weighed at this time 94 pounds, having lost 6 pounds in the course
of the experiment,

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 13

It should be noted that the feeding was rather desultory in character and was ex-
tended over such a long time that it could not be considered as a conclusive experiment
as to the tops, although the impression among the observers was that the tops were not
injurious.

Cass No. 102.

Case No. 102 was brought in for feeding with Cicuta on September 14. At8p.m.,
September 15, this wether weighed 93 pounds. At2.05p.m.,it was fed 1 pound and 9
ounces of ground Cicuta roots. On the morning of September 16 it was given a little
hay, mixed with the Cicuta which remained from the feeding of the preceding day.
At 5.50 a. m. it was given 1 pound and 10 ounces of ground Cicuta roots and at 9 p. m.
was found dead in the corral. It had eaten, all told, in the two days 2 pounds and 8
ounces, or on the basis of 100 pounds of weight 275 pounds.

This sheep was autopsied on the morning of September 17. It was bloated; there
was opisthotonos; it had frothed at the mouth and had evidently kicked about in the
corral. It was lying on the left side. The surface of the heart was congested. The
left ventricle was contracted and the right ventricle dilated. The lungs were strongly
congested, and the inner walls of the trachea and the bronchi inflamed. The walls
of the lower part of the ileum and cecum were inflamed. The brainand the membranes
of the spinal cord were congested. A piece of the kidney was preserved and sectioned.
It showed strong congestion. In the medullary portion the walls of the tubules were
in good condition, and the blood was confined to the vessels and was not broken down.
In the cortical portion the walls of the tubules were degenerated to some extent. The
blood was very abundant and was all through the tissue, not being confined to the
vessels. In the cortex a large part of the red corpuscles were ‘‘ghosts,’’ the pigment
having been broken down and appearing outside the corpuscles in the form of granules.
The blood vessels of the tissue of the kidney contained some very large bacteria,
probably putrefactive organisms. The conclusion is that this condition of the cortex
is due to a combination of an acute nephritis and post-mortem decomposition. A piece
of liver was also embedded and sectioned. The liver contained a great deal of blood,
most of which was hemolyzed and broken down. The liver cells seemed to be normal.
Large numbers of bacteria similar to those found in the kidney were present in the
liver.

FEEDING CICUTA TO CATTLE IN 1910.

Case No. 119.

Case No. 119, a heifer weighing 300 pounds, was brought in September 13 for feeding
with Cicuta. The animal at that time was in good condition. Feeding was com-
menced at 8.30 a. m. on September 14, when she was given three roots, to see whether
she would eat the plant. At9.10a.m. she was fed 1 pound and 5 ounces of the whole
roots. At 10.20 a. m. she was found on the ground in a fit. The animal got up,
but soon went down again in a violent spasm. She kicked, straightening her legs
rapidly, extended her head, and frothed at the mouth, emitting an occasional bellow.
She staggered about the corral in a dazed way and went down, kicking violently.
An attempt was made to give her a drench of magnesium sulphate and tannin, but
her struggles were so violent that it was impossible. A series of photographs taken
between 10.27 and 11 show the condition and attitudes assumed. (PI. IV.) At
10.35 she was given three grains of morphin hypodermically.. At 10.45 the struggles
were somewhat less violent, perhaps because of exhaustion, and at 10.50 she died.

An autopsy was made immediately. The skin was very much congested, the teats
being violet purple in color. The surface of the heart was congested, the left ventricle
contracted, and the right expanded, with slight congestion on the inner wall. The
lungs and inner walls of the trachea and bronchi were congested. The walls of the
anus were inflamed, the kidneys were congestéd, the brain slightly congested, and
the membranes of the spinal cord somewhat congested. The omentum had spots of

14 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

inflammation 2 or 3 inches across. The lower part of the small intestine was deeply
inflamed. The general condition of the circulatory system would indicate that the
animal died from respiratory failure. The section of the kidney prepared for micro-
scopic examination showed very great congestion, especially in the cortical portion,
where portions of the convoluted tubules appeared somewhat degenerated. The
blood vessels and some of the spaces outside the veins were filled with red corpuscles. .

Case No. 121.

Case No. 121 was a yearling, weighing about 300 pounds. He was brought in for
feeding with Cicuta on the evening of September 8. Feeding was commenced at
9.15 a. m. on September 9, when he received 24 pounds of whole roots. At noon it
was noticed that he was not eating readily. The material had been mixed with cut
hay and he had eaten a few of the roots. He was somewhat salivated at this time.
Feeding was repeated at 6 p.m. On September 10 he was fed at 10.30 a. m., and
at 6 p. m. he was frothing somewhat at the mouth. At this time a large portion of
his food had not been eaten. On September 11 he was fed more hay, in order to
induce him to clear up the Cicuta; and additional Cicuta was ground and mixed with
moist cut hay to induce more complete feeding. This feeding wasat10.15a.m. At
12 noon he was found salivated, breathing with a peculiar contraction of the nares
and elevation of the corners of the mouth.

While the station force was at supper a sound was heard of an animal apparently in
distress. This animal was found down on its side, but immediately got up. This
was about 7.50 p. m. He walked about uneasily, jerking his head more or less as
though having hiccoughs. . His pulse was 50 and full. Suddenly he commenced to
back, jamming himself first against one side of the corral and then against another,
his muscles contracting violently.. He went into a fit and fell, the head going down
first. He kicked violently and frothed at the mouth. The violent kicking gradually
subsided. At 8.05 his pulse was 112 and the breathing was labored and noisy. At
8.08 his pulse was 73 and his respiration 36. At 8.15 the breathing was quieter, the
respiration 32.

A little before this he raised himself and lay on his belly with his fore legs doubled
under him. Immediately afterwards his eyes were turned in, he struggled convul-
sively, turned himself about, and fell upon his side, but raised himself again upon his
belly. At 8.20 he raised himself again, coming back upon his belly. At 8.22 he had
another spasm, going through the same motions. At 8.25 he went into a violent fit.
There was marked opisthotonos. He kicked violently, his legs stiffened, standing
out rigidly from the body. He frothed at the mouth and was in a strong perspiration.

At 8.30 his pulse was 142. The fit continued, its violence, however, varying. At
8.45 he was given hypodermically a quarter of a grain of strychnin. This was admin-
istered in the midst of a fit and he died almost immediately, before the strychnin
could have had any effect. Death was caused apparently by respiratory failure, as
the action of the heart continued an appreciable time after respiration ceased.

An autopsy was held on September 12. The right auricle was much congested and.
full of blood. The inner wall of the right ventricle was deeply congested. This
ventricle contained little blood and was partly contracted. The left auricle and
ventricle contained little blood and were not congested. The wall of the first stomach
at the pyloric end was deeply inflamed, as was the wall of the second stomach. On
the wall of the fourth stomach were a few inflamed spots. Through the length of the
small intestine there were small spots of congestion, while the lower part of the ileum
was deeply inflamed. The rectum was somewhat inflamed. The kidneys were con-
gested. The brain was congested, as well asthe membranes of the spinal cord. Micro-
scopical section of the kidney showed great congestion, especially in the cortical
portion. Portions of the walls of thewbules were degenerated. A great many of the
blood corpuscles were broken and stained only very lightly, while through the whole

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 15

section were granules which did not stain and were probably broken-down blood
pigment. The blood vessels also contained bacteria. This animal ate, all told,
approximately 104 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 35 pounds of
Cicuta.

Table II gives a summarized statement of these feeding experiments.

Taste I1.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1910. (Catile.)

Part of

Animal, Weight. |Amountfed.| Date or period offeeding. plant fed
Pounds. Pounds.
TG, LG Ges A Oy ee ee aE 300 1.5 Septeil4 eee asaoeseae Roots.
ING, TAAL A SUN ee Re Un Aiea 300 10.5 (?) | Sept. 9 to1l...-.....-. Do.
. Amountfed| Location
Ratio of | 01,000 |from which
Animal. Remedy used. Result. a ht of pounds of | plant fed
Saal weight of | was ob-
‘ animal. tained.
Pounds.
NIG TO Ra INfoTie ye Beara Ga a Death seen ete Mey 1: 200 5 | Allison.
INO LZ Rare ee Ona BL eels OT UM aE GON a ea Ls 1: 28:5 35 Do.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK OF 1911.

The feeding experiments of 1911 were made to determine whether
the tops and seeds of Cicuta are poisonous.

Table III gives a summarized statement of the cattle experi-
ments, the details of which follow.

TaBe IlI.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1911. (Cattle.)

Mina), cuene et |, Amoune Period of feeding. _ Part of plant fed.
Pounds. Pounds.
No. 641 .- 450 TS) |) Aullhy PS WO) PS oo Soe sk bee kee Leaves, stems, and flowers, with
chopped hay.
No. 648 -. 500 133 July 30 to Aug. 2..-.......- Leaves, stems, flowers, and some seed.
: Amountfed
Period ofsickness to 1,000 Location from
Animal. (until able to Remedy used. Result. pounds of | which plant fed
stand). weight of | was obtained.
animal.
Pounds.
INO G41b soe 552 Noney Ssseee see NOTE AE ea wol ks INOne Hvac ees 170 | Near Castleton.
No. 648....--- HEHE Bee COC eek earl ese (0 Koper eee) | ae (5 Ko pares Sia ee 266 Do.

Two head of cattle, Nos. 641 and 648, were fed. No. 641 during the
three days from July 26 to 28 received, per 1,000 pounds of weight,
170 pounds of leaves, stems, and flowers of Cicuta. This was fed with
a little hay in order to induce the animal to eat it more readily. No.
648 during the four days from July 30 to August 2 received 266
pounds of leaves, stems, flowers, and some seed of Cicuta. Neither of
these animals suffered any ill effects from the feeding.

16 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The more extended feeding of the summer was done in the ease of
sheep. Table IV shows a summary of these experiments. In addi-
tion to the thirteen animals listed in the summary, two (Nos. 145
and 152) were brought in for feeding, but ate so little that they are not
included in the sum total of the summer’s work. Five of the sheep .
(Nos. 136, 137, 149, 151, and 158) were fed upon the leaves and stems
of Cicuta and received, per 100 pounds of weight, from 11.4 pounds,
in the case of No. 137, to 143.3 pounds, in the case of No. 158. These
amounts were fed in periods varying from one week to about ten days.
None of the animals suffered any ill effects from the feeding, although
in the case of No. 158 it ate of the plant nearly 50 per cent more than
its weight. In all of these cases the sheep were fed exclusively upon
the leaves and stems, with the exception of one or two cases, like
No. 136, where a little hay was mixed with the material in order to in-
duce the animal to eat it more readily. Nos. 157 and 143 were given
leaves, stems, and flowers, mixed with enough hay to induce them to
eat it more readily. No. 143 in eleven days ate 16.5 pounds per 100
pounds of weight, while No. 157 in ten days ate 109.1 pounds, or
just about the equivalent of its weight.. Neither of these animals
suffered any ill effects.

Taste IV.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1911. (Sheep.)
Weight.
5 unt Date or period of
Animal. sae ay fre nee e Part of plant fed.
Before. After.
Pounds Pounds. Pounds.
No. 136 153; disse. Pease TOSS UNeR ato oeeeeeee Leaves and stems.
No. 137 UGE e eee see Lonel aseee Gos steer aes Do.
No. 149 TOO Pees 52 June 24 to 30......- Do.
No. 151. 22D Ace Bh ae 50 PEEEORS (ne Bee sees Do.
No. 157. ODS Eee eee 119.5 | July 8to18........ Leaves, stems, and flowers.
No. 143. 1224 120 205251) Sulys8itorl Gees ee Stems and flowers.
No. 158. LOTS |eoee hy Saas 145.5) | duly, 9 ton Ghee emnee Leaves and stems.
No. 144. 103 98 54.5 | August 5 to 12...._. Young seed and seed stems.
No. 135. 136 127 2.2 | August 16 to 17.---. Young seed.
No. 142. 117 100 2.65 | August 19.........-. Seed.
No. 148. 137 130 11.5 | August 19 toi232-—-2 Young seed and seed stems.
No. 151. i OL earn Se 404 WAT PUSti 2b seese ee ner Seed.
No. 140. 115 106 4.4 | August 30_....2.-.- Do.
Period of sick edt ah
eriod of sick- fed to 100 : :
Animal. | ness (until | Remedy used. Result. pounds of | Location ae E RT fed
able to stand). weight of Wao OR CALE
animal.
Pounds.
No. 136. INONO eee oe 12.7 | Near Castleton.
INOS 187, 5 oa bo QO t cise oe alo Os pete email ere Gok se 11.4 Do.
Na 40 SARA? GOR Shy Se [eee Onan cc [aces GOh. cee 52 Do.
Nostbi. oleae. Got oe 5: ca Pees aonc mee Lela eine (6 (oye Hae 41 Do.
ING Oa Ne OO come ule DOM em 109.1 Do.
INOS 43 el oe rs 200s acs ee: So Or tere= tse wei Gow. 52262 16.5 Do.
ING 158.2) |(2 Sedo. mes Shr et doe seme-ealcees COsseeren 143.3 Do.
Bah Papp © eae EY are Fs Rye VMI occ Uo Jae as | Gopee ees 52.9 | Near Hinkle’s.
Wollas eich te doce. wees lee. dO. ue |e, dotetetree 1.6 Do.
No. 142. Recovery..-.- 2:3 Do.
No. 148. INONG252%).5 52. 8.4 Do.
NO ee es OS on real ek eB OOks corneal edes Colo aera 3.6 Do.
ING AU eerste OO secs soled ns Once tos eis. cet UOven 3.8 Do.

1 Estimated.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 17

Two sheep, Nos. 144 and 148, were fed upon the seeds and seed
stems, No. 148 eating 8.4 pounds per 100 pounds of weight and No.
144 receiving 52.9 pounds, or about one-half its own weight. This
latter quantity was fed in about a week’s time. These animals suffered
no harm.

In order to make certain that a large amount of the seeds was
taken in a short time, four animals were drenched with the seeds
ground up and mixed with enough water to make it possible to
administer them in this manner. No. 135 received in two days 1.6
pounds of seed, No. 142 in one day received 2.3 pounds, No. 151
in one day received 3.6 pounds, and No. 140 in one day received 3.8
pounds. Of these animals No. 142 was the only one that sustained
any harm.

No. 142 was brought in for feeding on August 18, 1911, weighing
at that time 117 pounds. On:August 19, at 9.50 a. m., it was given,
in a drench with about 14 quarts of water, 200 grams of ground
Cicuta seed. This dose was repeated at 11.15 a. m., 1.50, 3.00, 7.30,
and 9.30 p.m. This sheep was given a little hay on August 20, and
on August 21, when an attempt was made to turn it out of the
corral, it ran part way round the corral, stood, and leaned against
the fence, trembling all over. It moved to another part of the
corral, and fell there, with the head thrown back, and went into
convulsions. These lasted about one minute. The teeth were grated
and the muscles contracted. It soon got up, but appeared for several
minutes as though dazed. It breathed rapidly for a time and some
trembling was noticed for about 15 minutes. The next day, how-
ever, it appeared to be all right.

The symptoms were so much like Cicuta poisoning that this con-
dition was considered as due to the effect of the Cicuta seeds, although
the poisoning was strangely delayed. None of the animals suffered
any harm from the material which they received as a drench.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

SYMPTOMS OF CICUTA POISONING.

Perhaps no better description of Cicuta poisoning has ever been
written than that given in 1679 by Wepfer, who tells howchildren after
eating the roots returned home “‘laeti,” one of the little girls tearfully
complaining of the selfishness of the others in not giving her her share
of the root; he then goes on to tell the symptoms exhibited by each
of the children. The following is his description of one case:

Jacobus Maeder, puer sex annorum, capillis albis praeditus, tener vegetus tamen,

domum rediit hilaris ac subridens, quasi re bene gesta: paulo post conquerebatur, de
praecordiorum dolore & vix verbum effatus, humi prostratus urinam magno impetu ad

18 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Virialtitudinem eminxit: mox terribili aspectu, cum omnium sensuum abolitione con-
vulsusfuit, osarctissime clausit, ut nulla arte aperiri valuerit, dentibus stridebat, ocu-
lus mire distorquebat, sanguis ex auribus promanabat: circa praecordia tumidum quod-
dam Corpus pugni virilis magnitudine, Patris afflicti manum & miserandi Pueri prae-
cordia, maxime circa Cartilaginem ensiformem, validissime feriebat: singultiebat crebro:
Vomiturus quandoque videbatur, nihil tamen ore arctissime clauso ejicere valuit:
artus mire jactabat & torquebat, saepius caput retrorsum abripiebatur, totumque
dorsum incurvabatur in arcum, ut puellus subtus per spatium inter dorsum & stratum
inoffense repere potuisset. Cessantibus convulsionibus per momentum matris opem
imploravit: mox pari ferocia illis redeuntibus nulla vellicatione, nulla acclamatione,
nullove alio ingenio excitari poterat, donec viribus deficientibus expalluit, & manu
pectori-admota exspiravit. Durarunt haec Symptomata vix ultra horam dimidiam.

Not only is this a vivid and accurate description of the symptoms
of Cicuta poisoning, but it has a touch of pathos in the call of the
child for assistance from his mother.

Since the time of Wepfer a large number of descriptions of the
symptoms of this form of intoxication have been written, most of
them being cases of the poisoning of man. There is sreat uniformity
in these descriptions, the difference bemg mainly in the greater or
less stress laid upon particular phases of the symptoms. In minor
particulars there has been some contradiction, but this is no more
than would be expected, for it is inevitable that among such a large
number of observers some would make inaccurate statements.

The symptoms of the lower animals are like those in man, only less
marked because of the less susceptible nervous system.

The generally recognized symptoms are as follows:

Pain, especially in the region of the stomach; but it may be quite general in char-
acter.

Nausea, leading sometimes to violent vomiting; at others, to spasmodic attempts at
vomition without result.

Generally diarrhea and polyuria.

Dilated pupils.

Labored, stertorous breathing, at times irregular.

Sometimes, frothing at the mouth.
Pulse weak, intermittent, and rapid.

Temperature observations have been made in only a few instances,
probably due to the fact that most of the recorded cases occurred
before the use of the clinical thermometer was common among
medical men. According to French, 1866, there is elevation of
temperature.

The convulsions are most violent, both tetanic and clonic, accom-
panied by gnashing of the teeth and trismus, and in violent cases,
as in Wepfer’s story, by opisthotonos. These convulsions may be
accompanied or followed by unconsciousness, and in fatal cases grow
more violent until ended by death.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 19

The observation of the cases at Mount Carbon added little to what
was already known in regard to the symptoms, but gave a more
complete picture.

Excessive salivation, “frothing at the mouth,’’ was generally the
first symptom noted, and this occurred in the mild cases. It was
followed or accompanied by uneasiness and pain. The animal soon
fell in a violent convulsion. Peculiar spasmodic contractions of the
diaphragm occurred before and after fallng. The convulsions were
most violent. The animal would kick, sometimes extending the legs
rigidly. It would throw back the head, sometimes with marked
opisthotonos, and would bellow and groan as though in great pain.
The pupils were dilated and the eyes sometimes turned in or down.

The pulse was weak and rapid, running as high as 180, and respira-
tion was noticed as high as 62.

Gnashing of the teeth and convulsive closing of the jaws were
noticed in the Mount Carbon cases.

The convulsions were intermittent and increased in violence in the
fatal cases.

In those that recovered there was a gradual slowing of the pulse
and respiration.

So far as the observations went there was no change in temperature.

This train of symptoms is so pronounced and so different from those
produced by any other poisonous plant in the temperate regions that
a diagnosis of Cicuta poisoning is positive and easily made.

AUTOPSY FINDINGS.

A considerable number of autopsies upon man and the lower
animals have been reported. Nearly all reports agree as to finding
a hyperemia of the brain and central nervous system. Several
found inflammation of the walls of the stomach and a fluid condi-
tion of the blood. This lack of coagulation of the blood was re-
ported by Wepfer, 1687, and has been noticed repeatedly since that
time. ‘Trojanowsky, 1874, says that the poison is antiseptic, as
evidenced by the delayed process of decay.

Velten, 1839, found inflammation of the larynx, trachea, and
bnonelniel tubes, and French, 1897, and Nevermann, 1912, naqgowted
congested lungs.

Some writers have reported more or ne inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the stomach.

Three autopsies were made at Mount Carbon—two upon cattle
and one upon a sheep. These autopsies confirmed the reports of
previous observers, and some additional facts were noted. The left
ventricle was contracted and the right dilated, while the walls of the
heart were more or less congested. The most marked feature was
the extreme congestion of the venous blood vessels, The lungs,

20 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

kidneys, and membranes of the central nervous system showed
strong congestion. The mucous membrane of the trachea and
bronchi was inflamed, as were also the inner walls of the small intes-
tine and stomach and in some cases other parts of the alimentary
canal.

In the kidneys the congestion was most marked in the cortex and
was accompanied with some nephritis. It was noticed that the red
blood corpuscles in the kidneys were more or less broken down.
Death resulted from respiratory failure.

TOXIC DOSE.

Very little has been known in regard to the toxic dose of Cicuta
beyond the fact that only a small quantity is necessary to produce
poisonous effects. .

Stockbridge, 1814, says that in a fatal case about 1 dram was
eaten. Hedrick, 1897, states that a piece the size of a walnut was
found by experiment to be sufficient to kill a cow. Other similar
estimates have been made, all more or less indefinite. In cases of
accidental poisoning it is very difficult to estimate how much has
been eaten, and there has been little exact experimental work.
About all that has been known is that the rootstock is extremely
poisonous and that fatal aes have followed the eating of very
small quantities.

The experimental work at Mount Carbon gave very little definite
information in regard to the toxic dose. The sheep that died ate
in two days 2.7 pounds per hundred pounds of weight. From the
records, two other sheep which became sick apparently ate a very
large quantity of the roots, but the circumstances of the feeding
indicate that the actual poisoning was produced by a comparatively
small quantity. Heifer No. 119 died as the result of eating 5 pounds
per 1,000 pounds of weight in a single day. These deaths occurred
at a time when, as stated elsewhere, there is reason to think that
the Cicuta is not as poisonous as at other seasons.

All that can be said definitely is that a very small quantity of the
root of Cicuta may produce death, but the amount varies with
the season and also with the period of time during which it is
eaten.

ANIMALS POISONED BY CICUTA.

It is probable that most, if not all, of the higher animals may be
poisoned by Cicuta.

Wepfer, 1679, showed experimentally that dogs, wolves, and
birds could be poisoned.

Gadd, 1774, says that horses, oxen, cows, and goats are poisoned.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 21

Krause, 1837, describes a case of poisoning of horses and gave
details of some experimental work which seemed to corroborate the
correctness of his diagnosis.

Oeltze, 1837, and Scholler, 1853, give specific instances of the
poisoning of swine.

It has been repeatedly stated in literature that sheep and goats are
not affected; where this statement originated is not clear.

Bulliard, 1784, page 99, says that goats eat Cicuta without harm.
Gray, 1821, page 508, says that it is poisonous to mankind and kine,
but not to homes, sheep, or goats.

Rafinesque, 1828, page 109, states that “sheep and goats eat them
[Cicuta plants] aid “genet. and even cattle do not appear injured
by them when mixed with hay.”

Kunkel, 1901, page 935, says that goats and swine are not poisoned,
but that horses and all carnivorous animals are very susceptible.

Instances of the poisoning of swine are so specific and given in such
detail that we can hardly question their accuracy.

Chesnut, 1901, and Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, tell of cases of poison-
ing of sheep in Montana, and the experimental work of the Mount
Carbon Station, already detailed, gives conclusive evidence that sheep
are affected by Cicuta.

In regard to goats there appears to be no record of definite cases.
It does not seem very probable, however, that these animals are
immune to Cicuta poisoning.

It will appear later in this paper that Cicuta tops are not poisonous
or do not possess enough of the poisonous principle to affect cattle and
sheep, and it seems possible that the stories of the immunity of goats
may have arisen from cases in which the tops only were eaten and no
harmful results followed.

WATER POISONED BY CICUTA ROOTS.

Gadd, 1774, related in some detail a case of poisoning of cattle from
drinking water in which were Cicuta roots. Since that time a num-
ber of authors have made the statement that cattle trampling the
roots along bodies of water from which they drink have rendered the
water poisonous. While this may be possible, the evidence does not
seem very conclusive.

THE PART OF THE PLANT WHICH IS POISONOUS.

There seems to have been some difference of opinion as to whether
or not the whole plant of Cicuta is poisonous. There is a general
consensus in regard to the toxic properties of the root, but authori-
ties are contradictory in their statements about the stems and leaves.

Gadd, 1774, states that the poison is mostly in the root and lower
leaves.

29 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rafinesque, 1828, page 109, says that ‘‘even cattle do not appear
injured by them [the stems and leaves] when mixed with hay.”

Schiinemann, 1891, says “‘die ganze Pflanze ist sehr giftig.”’

Krause, 1837, gives the details of the supposed poisoning of horses
by Cicuta in hay. He fed the stems and leaves experimentally to
three horses. All became sick and two died.

Hedrick, 1897, says ‘‘it is probable that the poisonous constituent
is found only in the underground stem and the roots.”

Ladd, 1899, states that the roots and seeds are especially poisonous
and that the tops are poisonous in hay.

Brodie, 1901, experimenting with Cicuta vagans, fed all parts of
the plant in May, July, and August without results, but killed an
animal in November after the stems and leaves were dead.

Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, page 82, speaking of Cicuta occidentalis,
say: .

Field observations indicate that leaves and stems, including the basal portion of
this plant, at least during the early stages of growth, contained sufficient poison to
produce death. The roots contain a virulent poison.

Blankinship, 1903, page 89, states that the roots and foliage are
more poisonous in early spring and that cases are reported of poison-
ing from eating “‘slough hay.” It is to be presumed that these latter
cases were poisoned by the tops.

It appears, therefore, that the preponderance of opinion, we can
hardly say evidence, is in favor of the whole plant being poisonous.
This subject is discussed in the experimental part of this paper
(pp. 15-17).

The feeding experiments at Mount Carbon show that there is little
danger, if any, from the aerial parts of the plant. In 1911, Cicuta
tops, from the time they were 8 inches to a foot in height until matur-
ity, were fed to sheep with no ill effects. The quantity fed was many
times that which would be taken in grazing. It is possible that just
as the plants are starting to grow the shoots may be harmful, but it
seems more probable that at times the animals poisoned get some of
the rootstock. In the experimental work with seeds the animals were
drenched with 1.6 to 3.8 pounds of seed to 100 pounds of their weight
and only one animal showed symptoms of poisoning. This quantity
of seed is evidently vastly more than a sheep could obtain in hay.

It seems clear, then, that hay containing Cicuta tops and seeds is
harmless, and that practically the only danger from the plant is from
ingestion of the roots.

SEASON WHEN CICUTA IS MOST POISONOUS.

It is generally stated that the plant is most poisonous in the spring.

Some authors say that as the stored material of the rootstock is

used up in the growth of the plant, it ceases to be poisonous. Cer-
tainly most cases of poisoning occur in the spring.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. Pa)

Hedrick, 1897, pages 7 to 9, gives notes of experiments of Prof.
French in feeding roots of Cicuta vagans in March. One 2-year-old
heifer died in an hour and a half from eating not more than 2 drams
of one root. Another one was fed ‘‘two bulbs the size of an egg ”’
and died in two hours and a half. The bulbs were kept growing in
a greenhouse, and feeding experiments conducted early in May,
in which several times the quantity used in March produced no ill
effects. This seeméd to prove conclusively that the roots diminish
in toxicity as the growth progresses.

The experimental work at Mount Carbon gave very little exact
information in regard to this. The feeding of roots occurred from
the middle of August until September 21. Of the sheep, two were
made sick and one died. The two cattle experimented upon died.
In all cases the quantity eaten was considerably more than that
reported by others as poisonous in the spring. The smallest quan-
tity was in the case of No. 119, which ate five pounds per 1,000
pounds of weight, September 14. Of course, at this season, the
middle of September, the plant is mature, and if the toxic principle
accumulates in the rootstock it might be expected to be as poisonous
as in the spring unless some chemical change takes place during-the
winter. The experiments in August indicate that the roots are
poisonous at that time. It seems probable that they are poisonous
at all times of the year, but that the toxicity is very much diminished
during the growing season of the plant.

REMEDIES FOR CICUTA POISONING.

It was noticed by the older authors that when the eating of Cicuta
was followed by vomiting, the patient usually recovered. The logi-
cal remedy, then, is an emetic, and when this is given promptly with
the first symptoms the prognosis is favorable. What is known of
the poisonous principle, cicutoxin, would indicate that it is probably
dissolved in the stomach slowly and with some difficulty, and that
prompt evacuation of the stomach may remove most of the trouble.
The emetic is logically followed by a cathartic to facilitate elimina-
tion.

When the convulsions are violent, some form of opium may be
given to control them, but the main reliance must be upon the emetic.
This has been the treatment used through the whole history of Cicuta
poisoning, and no change has been made in modern times beyond
the use of more efficient means of emptying the stomach.

In the practical handling of poisoned live stock little can be accom-
plished in the great majority of cases. The convulsions are so vio-
lent that it is difficult to give any remedy per os.

Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, page 85, recommend hypodermic
injections of morphin to control the convulsions, giving sheep 14
grains and cattle and horses 3 to 10 grains. This may assist in

24 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

bridging over the period of convulsions, and doubtless a purgative
would help in carrying off the effects of the poison. Most cases,
however, are hopeless, and to reduce the losses attention should be
paid to the obvious methods of prevention rather than to any remedies.

SUMMARY.

(1) The poisonous properties of Cicuta have been recognized since
the middle of the seventeenth century, and a large number of cases
of poisoning of men and animals have been reported.

The toxic principle has been separated and its properties deter-
mined. ‘This toxic principle is probably common to all species and
there is reason to think that all species are equally poisonous.

(2) There is a definite train of symptoms, marked by nausea, pain,
and violent convulsions, which makes it easy to diagnose cases of
Cicuta poisoning.

The prominent lesions, as found in autopsies, are congestion of the
lungs, kidneys, and central nervous system, with inflammation of the
alimentary canal.

(3) So far as known, all the higher animals are poisoned by Cicuta.

(4) The quantity necessary to poison is very variable, depending
probably on the stage of Erwan The plant is ery, poisonous at all
times.

(5) The toxic Esa ioieh is flevoele confined to the rootstock. The
tops under ordinary circumstances are not poisonous, and neither the
tops nor the seeds when found in hay are a source of danger.

(6) The best remedy is an emetic. Very little can be done for
poisoned live stock.

LITERATURE CITED.

The following bibliography includes only the titles of articles
cited in this paper. A full bibliography of Cicuta has been prepared
and is filed for reference in the Office of Poisonous Plants.

BigELow, JACOB.
1817. American Medical Botany, v. 1, Boston, p. 125-132, pl. 12.

3LANKINSHIP, J. W.
1903. The loco and some other poisonous plants in Montana. Montana Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Bulletin 45, p. 89-91, fig. 3.

Boerum, R.
1876. Ueber den giftigen Bestandtheil des Wasserschierlings (Cicuta virosa)
und seine Wirkungen; ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Krampfgifte.
Archiv fiir Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, Bd. 5, Heft
4/5, p. 279-310.
Branpt, J. F., Paorsus, Pump, and Ratzesura, J. T. C.
1838. Abbildung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland Wild Wachsenden und
in Girten im Freien Ausdauernden Giftgewichse nach Natiirlichen
Familien Erlautert, Abt. 1, Berlin, p. 109-111, pl. 29.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 25

Bropre, D. A.
1901. Poison parsnips in western Washington. Washington Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin 45, 12 p., 1 fig. 5

BULLIARD, PIERRE.
1784. Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France. Paris, p. 97-99.

CAILLARD.
1829. Empoisonnemens par la Cigué vireuse et par ]’émétique; prompte guéri-
son. La Clinique des Hopitaux et de la Ville, t. 4, no. 9, p. 33-34.
CuHeEsnut, V. K.
1901. Some poisonous plants of the northern stock ranges. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Yearbook, 1900, p. 310-314, fig. 39, pl. 33.
and Witcox, E. V.
1901. The stock-poisoning plants of Montana; a preliminary report. U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Division of Botany, Bulletin 26, p. 80-86,
pl. 7-8.
DioscoripEs, PEDANIUs, of Anazarbos.
[1549]. De Medica Materia, Francofurti, lib. 4, cap. 67; lib. 6, cap. 11; p. 510.
DRAGENDORFF, GEORG.
1898. Die Heilipflanzen, Stuttgart, p. 487.
Ey, Wmu1am, and Musitenserc, Henry.
1815. Venomous qualities of the water-hemlock, or Cicuta maculata, an indige-
nous plant of North America. Medical Repository, v. 17 (n. s., v. 2),
p. 303-304.
Fiora Danica, v. 2 [fasc. 4], Hafniae, pl. 208.
1765.
Frencu, H. T.
1897. Cattle poison. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Press Bulletin,
We ll, MO. Os WA.

FreEncH, S. P.
1866. Poisoning by hemlock. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, v. 74, no.
21, p. 428-429.

Gapp, P. A.
1774. Anmiarkningar om Cicuta, och upgift at utrota denna giftiga Vaxt infran
Angar och Beteshagar. Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar,
v. 35, Juli/Aug./Sept., p. 231-244.

For a German translation, see Anmerkungen iiber die Cicuta und Vorschlag
dieses giftige Gewichs von Wiesen und Weiden auszurotten. Der Kénigl.
Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Abhandlungen, Bd. 36,
1774, p. 236-248. 1781.

GESNER, KONRAD.
1541. Historia Plantarum. Paris, 261 p.
1561. Horti Germaniae. Jn Cordus, Valerius. In hoc Volumine Continentur
Valer1i Cordi Simesusij Annotationes in Pedacij Dioscoridis Anazarbei
de Medica Materia Libros V, p. 253.
Gray, ASA. :
[1908.] New Manual of Botany. Ed. 7, New York, p. 614, fig. 825.

Gray, S. F.
1821. A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. London, v. 2, p. 507-508, 513-
514.

26 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GREENWAY, JAMES.
1793. An account of a poisonous plant, growing spontaneously in the southern
' part of Virginia. (Extract.) Transactions, American Philosophical
Society, v. 3, p. 234-239.

HaZE.LtTIne, RIcHARD.
1818. Fatal effects of a poisonous root. New-England Journal of Medicine and
Surgery, v. 7 (n. s., v. 2), no. 3, p. 219-222.

Heprick, U. P.
1897. A plant that poisons cattle—Cicuta. Oregon Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletin 46, 12 p., 4 pl.
HeE.tps, GOTTFRIED, WEINMANN, J. H., and Gorirz, J. A.
1723. Von der Cicuta aquatica, und denen aus Geniessung derselben erfolgten
jahen Todesfillen. Sammlung von Natur- und Medicin-Geschichten,
1722, Winter-Quartal, p. 285-294.

KRavse.
1837. Ueber die bei Pierden nach dem Genusse von trockenem Wasserschierling
(Cicuta virosa) beobachtungen Zufille. Magazin fiir die Gesammte
Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 3, p. 238-248.

KunkKEL, A. J.
1901. Handbuch der Toxikologie, Halfte 2, Jena, p. 934-935.

Lapp, E. F.
1899. A case of poisoning.—Water hemlock. North Dakota Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin 35, p. 307-310, 1 fig.

Maty, Jos. i
1844. Uber die Vergiftungen mit vegetabilischen Mitteln tiberhaupt, und mit
dem Wasserschierling, Cicuta virosa, insbesondere, nebst Andeutung
einiger Antidote. Osterreichische Medicinische Wochenschrift, Quartal
3, No. 39, p. 1065-1068; No. 40, p. 1097-1100.

NEVERMANN.

1912. Vergiftung durch Wasserschierling. Verdffentlichungen aus den Jahres-
Veterinir-Berichten der Beamteten Tierairzte Preussens. Jahrg. 10,
1909, T. 2, p. 39.

OELTZE.

1837. Vergiftungszufaillen bei Schweinen. Sanitits-Bericht fiir die Provinz
Brandenburg, 1835, p. 381-383. Also in Magazin fiir die Gesammte
Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 7, Quartalheft 2, p. 256-257, 1841, under title
Wabhrscheinliche Vergiftung mehrerer Schweine durch Wasserschierling.

Pout, JULIUS.
1894. Zur Kenntniss des giftigen Bestandtheils der Oenanthe crocata und der
Cicuta virosa. Archiv fiir Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharma-
kologie, Bd. 34, Heft 3/4, p. 259-267.
PRipram, R.
1900. Ein Fall von Vergiftung mit Wasserschierling. Archiv fiir Kriminal-
Anthropologie und Kriminalistik, Bd. 4, Heft 1/2, p. 166-173.
RAFINESQUE, C. S.
1828. Medical Flora, v. 1, Philadelphia, p. 107-110, pl. 22.
Ray, JOHN.
1704. Historia Plantarum, v. 3, Londoni, lib. 8, p. 257.
REGEL, ALBERT.
1876-1877. Beitrag zur Geschichte des Schierlings und Wasserschierlings. Bulle-
tin, Société Impériale des Naturalistes, Moscou, t. 51, pt. 1, no. 1, p.
155-203, 1876; t. 52, pt. 1, no. 1, p. 1-52, 1877.

CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 27

Scnuoeprr, J. D.
1787. Materia Medica Americana Potissimum Regni Vegetabilis, Erlangae, p. 36.
See Linné, Carl von, Amcenitates Academicae, v. 10, Erlangae, 1790.
ScHOLLER.
1858. Vergiftung mit Schierling (Cicuta virosa). Magazin fiir die Gesammte
Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 19, Quartalheft 2, p. 262-263.
ScHtUnemann, H.
1891. Die Pflanzen-Vergiftungen, Braunschweig, p. 15-17, fig. 2.
ScHWENCKE, M. W.
1756. Verhandeling over de Waare Gedannte, Aart, en Uytwerking’, der Cicuta
aquatica Gesneri, of Groote-Waterscheerling. ’S Gravenhage. 54 p.,
4 pl.
1776. Abhandlung von dem grossen Wasserschierling, desselben Kennzeichen
und Wirkungen. Aus dem Hollindischen tibersetze von A. 8S. Miiller.
Munster und Leipzig, 37 p., 3 pl.
Stave, H. B.
1903. Some conditions of stock poisoning in Idaho. Idaho Agricultural Experi-_
ment Station, Bulletin 37, p. 157-190, 3 fig., 2 pl.
STEARNS, FREDERICK.
1858. The medicinal plants of Michigan. Proceedings, American Pharmaceutical
Association, 7th annual meeting, p. 253.
STOCKBRIDGE, JOHN.
1814. Account of the effects produced by eating a poisonous plant, called Cicuta
maculata. New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery, v. 3, no. 4,
p- 334-337.
TROJANOWSEY, C.
1874. Zur Wasserschierlingwurzel-Vergiftung. Dorpater Medicinische Zeitschrift,
Bd. 5, Heft 3, p. 181-229.
TRuMEL, J. A.
1838. Quels sont les caractéres des diverses plantes connues sous le nom ae
Cigué? Les comparer entre elles, et indiquer leurs propriétés médicales.
Théses Faculté de Médicine de Paris, No. 239, p. 5-9. °
VELTEN.
1839. Vergiftung durch Cicuta virosa. General-Bericht, K6énigl. Rheinisches
Medicinal-Collegii, [Koblenz], 1837, p. 183-186. Also in Wochenschrift
fiir die Gesammte Heilkunde, No. 19, p. 308-311, 1840.
Weprer, J. J.
1679. Cicutae Aquaticae Historia et Noxae. Basiliae, 336 p., 5 fig.
1687. Cicutae aquaticae noxa. Miscellanea Curiosa sive Ephemeridum Medico-
Physicarum Germanicarum Academiae Imperialis Leopoldinae Naturae
Curiosorum, [Norimbergae], dec. 2, ann. 6, p. 221-241.
For a German translation, see Von der Schidlichkeit des Wasser-
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Auserlesene Medicinisch-Chirurgisch-Anatomisch-Chymisch- und Bo-
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For a French abstract, see Sur les mauvais effets de la Cigué aqua-
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WIKSZEMSKI, ADAM.
1875. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Giftigen Wirkung des ‘Wenteuselmievbuage (Cicuta
virosa). Dorpat, 58 p. Inaugural-Dissertation.
Woop, G. B., and BacHsr, FRANKLIN.
[1907.] The Dispensatory of the United States of America. Ed. 19, rev., Phila-
delphia, p. 1449. :
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se)) USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE %

No. 70

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.
Apmil 15, 1914,

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE.

By Joun R. Monter and ApvotpH HicHHorn,
Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry

INTRODUCTORY.

Among the diseases of horses with which the veterinary authori-
ties are concerned glanders is probably the most important, and
unless strict measures for its control are enforced the tendency of
the disease is to spread more or less rapidly. This fact is due to the
character of the disease, to the prevailmg methods of caring for
horses, and, probably more important than all, to the frequent
latent existence of the disease in apparently healthy animals. The
destruction of all infected animals has been accepted as a matter of
course in all civilized countries, and owing to the dangerous character
of the disease and the possibility of transmission to man, this action
appears to be the sanest and most reasonable procedure in its control.
On the other hand, the possibility of a method of immunization of
healthy animals is worthy of consideration and would be of great
advantage.

Ever since the discovery of mallein as a diagnostic agent for glan-
ders, experiments have been conducted by various investigators
relative to its immunizing and curative value. Many favorable
reports have been made by veterinarians of the results obtained.
On the contrary, others appear to have had no satisfaction from its use.
Since it has been proved that cases of glanders may recover it is
rather difficult to establish the value of the immunizing agents as to
their action on the disease. Fortunately, we now possess a means
by which the presence of immune bodies can be demonstrated in the
animal upon which attempts at immunization are made. With the
serological tests at our command we may control to some extent the
action of an immunizing substance and observe how long the immune
bodies are present in an animal receiving immunization treatment.

24133°—14

2 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

It is unfortunate, however, that the demonstration of immune
bodies does not indicate the degree of immunity in the animals.

We may obtain in glanders immunization an agelutination value
of 1 to 5,000 or over or a complement fixation with 0.02 of a cubic
centimeter of serum which may continue for a period of several.
months, yet this same animal, which apparently is supplied with a
great amount of immune bodies, can be readily infected with glanders
bacilli. Therefore, in tests undertaken for establishing the degree
of immunity against glanders in the horse, it is necessary to expose
the injected animals to an infection such as occurs under natural
conditions. Observations of such animals as to the clinical appear-
ance of the disease and periodical ophthalmic tests with mallein are
the methods by which the most accurate results of the immunization
tests can be obtained. Serum tests in these cases are of little value,
as they invariably demonstrate immune bodies or antibodies in the
immunized animals, and since even small quantities of mallein
injected into a horse are sufficient to produce antibodies which remain
for 3 or 4 weeks.

PREVIOUS RESULTS WITH VARIOUS IMMUNIZING AGENTS.

Curative results from mallein were reported by Leclainche, Hueppe,
Nocard, Johne, and -Wladimiroff, while its immunizing value against
glanders was studied by Schindelka, McFadyean, and Semmer, but
the results were unsatisfactory. Taking into consideration the litera-
ture at our command and drawing conclusions from the results ob-
tained, it appears that mallein possesses very little immunizing value
and no great benefit can be expected from its use as a curative
agent.

Other investigators attempted to immunize horses and other
animals against glanders with the use of killed glanders bacilli and
the literature contains some favorable results from this method of
immunization. The preparations which were employed for this pur-
pose were in most instances suspensions of glanders bacilli killed by
heat. Of the various products which have been prepared and are at
the present time used to a limited extent for the immunization of
glanders, ‘‘farase,’”’ so termed by Levy, Blumenthal, and Marxer,
gives apparently the best results. It is prepared by killing glanders
bacilli with 80 per cent glycerin or 10 per cent urea. The bacilli are
then dried and the substance is used in that condition for the immu-
nization. It does not contain living bacteria. Favorable results were
obtained with farase by Bautz and Machodin, and by Dediulin. The
results of Dediulin are probably the most remarkable, since he reports
that on an estate where previous to immunization 276 glandered ani-
malshad been destroyed, he injected 303 animals and after one year and

IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE, 3

four months not a single case of glanders developed, although in the
meanwhile 14 cases of glanders developed among 300 nonimmunized
animals. |

Bautz and Machodin subjected farase to various tests to establish
its immunizing value. Their results on guinea pigs, cats, and horses
were very satisfactory. Guinea pigs which were given two injections
of farase resisted six weeks later an intraperitoneal infection with
1/2500 and 1/5000 mg. of glanders bacilli. Of six horses which
received two immunizing injections of farase, two were given 1/2590
mg. of glanders bacilli subcutaneously, two received 1/500 mg. of
glanders bacilli per os, and two were exposed with the other animals
45 days after the second injection. For each of the groups one check
was used. Post-mortem examination of the check animals four to
five weeks after the infection showed typical glanders, while the two
immunized animals which received subcutaneous injections of
glanders bacilli failed to show any lesions of the disease. No record
was obtained of the four remaining immunized animals, as they were
turned over to another laboratory for study of the duration of immu-
nity in these horses.

One of the recent works on the immunization of glanders was pub-
lished by Zurkan, who studied the formation of specific antibodies in
the blood of horses under the action of glanders antigens. He con-
cludes that of various antigens such as farase, killed glanders bacilli,
mallein, and malleo-aggressin, the first and the last (farase and malleo-
ageressin) proved most active in the production of immune bodies.
The degree of immunity in the animals was established by Zurkan
from the comparative results of the serological reactions he obtained
with the complement-fixation, agglutination, precipitation, and
opsonic tests. Since there were no practical tests made on these
animals, his statement that malleo-aggressin may be used for the
immunization of horses against glanders can not be accepted as
conclusive.

At the meeting of the American Veterinary Medical Association in
Indianapolis, MacKellar presented his conclusions on the protective
effect of glanders vaccine. The proportion of infections in the stables
where these outbreaks occurred, as indicated by the agglutination
test, is astonishing. As there is no mention made in the article of the
time the agglutination tests were applied subsequent to the mallein
test, it suggests that the large proportion of reactors to the agglutina-
tion test were the result of the mallein injection and not due to the
presence of the infection. If this be true, then the effect of the
vaccine remains indefinite and the control of the disease must be
accredited to the other precautions which were observed. At best it
will require several years before the value of any method of immu-
nization can be satisfactorily established.

4 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPERIMENTS WITH DRIED GLANDERS BACILLI.

The New York City board of health has been conducting immu-
nizing experiments with a vaccine prepared in their laboratory, con-
sisting of a suspension of dried glanders bacilli. Each cubic centi-
meter of the suspension contains 2 mg. of dried bacilli. Through the
courtesy of Dr. William H. Park, director of the laboratory, a suffi-
cient quantity of such vaccine was obtained for conducting a series of
investigations relative to the possibility of conferring immunity to
animale injected with this vaccine.

GUINEA-PIG EXPERIMENTS.

The experiments were made on guinea pigs and on horses. Twenty
guinea pigs, about 600 grams in weight, were divided into 4 groups,
4 pigs of each group receiving three immunizing injections of a definite
amount of vaccine at intervals of one week. The size of the doses
and other details are presented in Table 1. After the conclusion of
these vaccinations one pig from each group was subjected to infection
with suspensions of glanders bacilli. These injections with infectious
material were administered at various intervals. In all instances the
same strain of glanders bacilli was used for the infections. The fifth
pig in each group was not vaccinated, but served as a check, receiving
only a corresponding quantity of glanders bacilli.

The results of these guinea-pig tests showed that there was not a
sufficient increased resistance among the vaccinated guinea pigs to
warrant any hopes of successful immunization by this method. Itis
to be regretted, however, that in the infection of these pigs probably
too large a quantity of glanders bacilli was used. On the other hand,
it would appear that if there had been any appreciable immunity
present in the vaccinated guinea pigs they would have manifested it
by a greater resistance against the infection.

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6 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPERIMENTS ON HORSES.

In the experiments conducted on horses, 17 animals were used,
which were purchased on the open market. Most of the animals
were aged, but otherwise in fair condition. All the horses were
subjected to the ag gglutination, complement-fixation, and the ophthal-
mic mallein tests, prior to the vaccination. All of them proved free
from glanders on all the tests. Since the amount of vaccine to be
injected for immunizing purposes has not been established, it was
deemed advisable to employ varying quantities for the injections,
and in order to determine the resistance of the animals against
infection during and after the vaccination they were subjected to
exposure at different times during the investigation.

The smallest amount of the suspension used for the vaccination
was the quantity recommended by the New York City Board of
Health, viz, 1, 3, and 5. c. per injection, while the largest amount
any of the horses received was 4, 8,.and 12 c. c., respectively. Two
of the vaccinated horses received an infection on the nasal mucosa
with glanders bacilli, taken up on the end of a platinum loop, one
week after the last vaccination. Both of these horses promptly
developed glanders and one of them, No. 102, died of an acute form
of the disease 21 days after the infection. Thus, there appeared to
be no resistance, or at least no increased resistance, against artificial
infection. .

To establish the resistance of the vaccinated animals against
contact infection a corral was built where all the animals, including
two artificially infected glanders cases, were kept. They were fed in
common feed boxes and were watered from a common trough. Only
one hayrack was used for all animals. Simultaneously with this
exposure a stable with three stalls was likewise used for exposing
the horses. The construction of the stalls in this stable was such
that the animal in the center could reach to the feed boxes of either
of the horses in the side stalls. ‘The horse placed in the center was
a good discharging case of clinical glanders, whereas the horses
placed in the side stalls were either two immunized animals or two
controls, all of which were given one week’s exposure with this
infected horse. This was accomplished by changing the horses in
the two side stalls every week, and bringing in two others from the
corral, so as to make the exposure as uniform as possible in all ani-
mals, including the checks. The conditions of exposure were appar-
ently severe, yet they did not exceed the exposure which occurs in
the stables of large cities where the sanitary conditions are very
poor and where poor light and ventilation afford a splendid oppor-
tunity for the propagation of the disease. In fact, the exposure in
the corral was rather slight, since the sunlight no doubt had a
destructive influence on the infection.

IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE. 7

All animals were subjected periodically to clinical examinations
and only four of the vaccinated horses developed signs of the disease
up to the conclusion of this experiment, although some of them were
exposed since May 16. Horse No. 99, which received 4 immunizing
injections and was exposed to a discharging case of glanders in the
stable, died 15 days after the exposure from acute broncho-pneu-
monia malleosa.

In order to determine whether any of the vaccinated horses were
infected with the latent form of the disease, all were subjected July
23 to the ophthalmic test. This gave surprising results. Two of
the vaccinated animals gave a marked reaction (P+++). A
similar reaction was also obtained in the affected horses used for
exposure, while of the two check animals which were not vaccinated
but had been exposed to a similar extent as the vaccinated animals,
only one responded to the test; the other check animal failed to give
any reaction. One month later all horses in the experiment were
again subjected to the ophthalmic test. The results were the same
as on the previous test, but it was noted that the intensity of the
reaction was not as pronounced as in the first test. The inflammation
and amount of purulent discharge were somewhat less than in the
previous test. This observation coincides with that of Meyer, who
states that after several eye tests in positive cases of planers the
degree of the reaction becomes less distinct.

The detailed account of the results of the immunizing tests in
horses is given in Table 2

BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE. 9
AGGLUTINATION AND COMPLEMENT-FIXATION TESTS.

In order to study the effect of the immunizing injections on the
serum tests, the blood of the horses in this experiment was subjected
to the agglutination and complement-fixation tests from the time of
the first injection until the conclusion of the work. It was found
that the agglutination value of the serum of the vaccinated horses
as a rule increased from the third day after the first vaccination and
continued to rise for a time. A decrease was again noted from two
to four weeks after the last vaccination and appeared practically
normal after six weeks to two months. A complement fixation with
the sera of the vaccinated horses was obtained from the seventh to
the ninth day after the first vaccination and they continued to give
positive fixations from two to three months after the last vaccination.

These negative serological results which followed the positive reac-
tions due to the injected vaccine, appeared only in the animals which
gave no reaction to the ophthalmic test, while the blood of those vacci-
nated horses which gave a positive reaction to the eye test continued
to give a positive fixation until they had been destroyed and proved
to be affected with the disease. The same condition was observed
in the animals which had been artificially infected with glanders.

The serological results from these investigations appear to have a
great significance with reference to the immunity produced by the
injection of dead glanders bacili. The fact that the demonstration
of the presence of immune bodies in the vaccinated horses ceased
entirely in two or three months from the last vaccination would
indicate that after the lapse of such a time the animals have very
little or no immunity against the disease. This is further substan-
tiated also by the agglutination value of the sera returning to the
normal level. As a matter of fact, previous investigations carried
out by Dr. Buck, of this laboratory, showed that one or two sub-
cutaneous injections of mallein will give a complement fixation which
may last from one to two months. The agglutination value of the
serum of such animals is also markedly influenced by subcutaneous
malleinization. The serum reaction of horses following the sub-
cutaneous injections of mallein is given in detail in Table 4. From
this it seems that a mallein injection has almost the same action on
the production of immune bodies in a horse as killed glanders bacilli.
Table 3 indicates the results obtained with the agglutination and com-
plement-fixation tests in the animals used in this investigation.

On August 20 two vaccinated horses and one check animal which
gave positive results to the eye test were destroyed, and in all three
animals marked pulmonary glanders was observed. Horse No. 105
showed the presence of glanders nodules in the lungs in very great
numbers, some of which were of the size of a walnut. In the two
other cases, while the nodules were very numerous and from their

10 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

appearance appeared to be active, they were of smaller sizes, ranging
from a pinhead to the size of a pea. Horses Nos. 110, 120, and 124
were killed on the same day, although they had failed to show any
indication of glanders by the eye test, which was also substantiated
by the complement-fixation test with the blood of these animals.
Post-mortem examination showed no signs of glanders in these animals.

The final results are quite striking relative to the deficiency of
immunization against glanders by killed bacteria.

Of the remaining horses which were kept under observation, as
indicated in Table 2, Nos. 117 and 119 died on October 17 and 25,
respectively, of acute glanders after developing the clinical form
of the disease. No. 86 also showed indications of the disease in
-the early part of October. The final test on the remaining horses,
namely, Nos. 86, 111, 121, and 123, was undertaken in the early
part of January, 1914, when they were subjected to the ophthalmic
and subcutaneous mallein tests and also to the complement-fixation
and agglutination tests. All horses reacted to these different tests
with the exception of No. 86, which reacted to the fixation, agglutina-
tion, and ophthalmic tests but failed to react to the subcutaneous
mallein test. Two days following the tests all the animals were
destroyed and careful post-mortem examinations were made. The
results showed glanders lesiens in all animals, including No. 86, in
varying degrees. ‘The lungs in all cases contained numerous glanders
nodules most of which were in an active stage, and in horse No. 86
the apex of the left lung showed a typical glanderous pneumonia
with the characteristic gelatinous infiltration and numerous nodules
of various sizes throughout the remainder of the pulmonary tissue.

It is interesting to note that all these vaccinated horses returned
to the normal serum reaction of a negative case on or before the
twelfth week after the vaccination, as may be seen from Table 4.
The exposure in the corral was continued the same as during the
entire course of the experiments and the weekly changes of stable
exposure were also carried out. The appearance of the disease in
these remaining animals seems to offer a more substantial basis for
drawing conclusions as to the unsatisfactory results of these vaccina-
tion tests.

From our experience with outbreaks of glanders in stables, it
appears that these experimental horses did not develop clinical
manifestations of the disease in greater proportion than is the case
with the average exposed horse. It is true that the exposure of the
horses in the experiments was continuous although not unusually
or unreasonably severe. Whether the horses which were included
in this final test possessed a certain degree of immunity as a result of
the vaccination, during the period including the time between the first
exposure and the last negative eye test, it is impossible to say; but

—
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IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE. 13

from the sanitarian’s standpoint this would be of theoretical impor-
tance only, since even if such should be the case an immunity of from
two to four months could not be considered sufficient for practical
vaccination purposes. Furthermore, it should be remembered that
some of these horses developed a latent form of the disease in
less than three months from the last vaccination during the period in
which the blood still contained the so-called immune bodies.

CONCLUSIONS.

The results obtained by these investigations appear to be sufficient
to demonstrate the unsatisfactory results of this method of immuni-
zation. Of the 13 immunized animals, 9 contracted the disease
from natural exposure, which is a large proportion when it is consid-
ered that all animals were aged and kept most of the time during
the exposure out of doors. Of the 4 remaining immunized horses,
1 died of impaction after the second vaccination, while the other
3 animals were killed August 20, 1913, in order to ascertain by post
mortem examination the possibility of glanders existing in these
animals which had given positive serum reaction, but which had
returned to normal. In artificial infections of the vaccinated ani-
mals they showed no resistance whatsoever, as both vaccinated
horses promptly developed an acute form of the disease from touch-
ing the Schneiderian membrane with a platinum loop which had
been touched to a growth of glanders bacilli. For the present,
therefore, it seems advisable to abstain from immunizing horses
by this method, as a practice of this kind may do more harm than
good. Owners having horses which are supposedly immunized
would naturally become careless, thinking their animals were resistant
to the disease, and thus even a better opportunity would be offered
for the propagation of the disease than if the horses were not vac-
cinated. Furthermore, the fact that the blood of vaccinated ani-
mals can not be utilized for serum tests for two or three months
after the injections is also a great disadvantage in the eradication
of the disease.

As a result of this preliminary work it appears that the control
and eradication of glanders must still be dependent upon the con-
centration of our efforts in eliminating infected horses and the adop-
tion of proper precautions against the introduction of infected ani-
mals into stables free from the disease. The results achieved in
Germany, Austria, and Canada by these methods-have proved very
encouraging, and no doubt if executed in the same spirit in this
country a marked reduction in the cases of glanders would result.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
: WASHINGTON, D. C. E
g AT

5 CENTS PER COPY
V

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE

No. 71

Santas

Contribution from Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director.
April 30, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

THE WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA AND
THEIR DRAINAGE.

By CHARLES W. OKEY, Drainage Engineer.
INTRODUCTION.

Louisiana ranks second among the States in the area of swamp land within
its borders and in the percentage of its total area that is classed as swamp
land. Of a total area of 45,420 square miles, 15,930 square miles, or 35 per cent,
are classed aS Swamp and overflowed land. The drainage of these lands is
a public improvement of very great importance to the future wealth and pros-
perity of the State. Although the magnitude of the task has long been recog-
nized and the tremendous advantage that the reclamation of these lands would
bring to the State has been admitted by all concerned, it is only recently that
the work of putting the swamp land into condition for cultivation has been
attempted on any large scale. A number of conditions are responsible for this
delay in the work, among which the following are important:

First, a very large proportion of the swamp lands of the State was at one
time subject to overflow by the Mississippi River. The first step in the drainage
of these lands was to protect them from river overflow by levees constructed
along the main river channels. This phase of the work has been going on in
some parts of the State for more than 100 years, and in nearly all parts of the
overflowed section since about 1875. It has been carried forward as fast as the
funds could be secured for the work. Second, the former abundance of cheap
and well-drained agricultural land in this and other parts of the country made
these lands unattractive. Third, the necessary State laws were not until re-
cently enacted.

As the above-mentioned obstacles are now in a measure removed, the work
of swamp-land drainage is attracting serious and widespread attention. The
most active field of drainage operations is at present in the southern por-
tion of the State, and it is here that the Office of Experiment Stations, United
States Department of Agriculture, has for about four years been carrying on
drainage investigations. The purpose of this work hag been: (1) To study the
soil, climate, and other natural conditions with special reference to the drain-
age problems encountered and the value of the land for agricultural purposes
when successfully drained. (2) To collect such technical data and to examine

Notn.—This bulletin contains information of value to landowners, engineers, and others
interested in drainage by pumping, especially of the wet prairies along the Gulf Coast.

25102°—Bull. 71—14 At

———— rl

2 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

such details of present practice as will afford information of value to landowners,
and especially to engineers interested in the reclamation of such lands. (3) To
disseminate in available form the results of the investigations and to encourage
land drainage by emphasizing the benefits to be derived from bringing such
lands under cultivation. ;

The work in this field was started in 1909 by Prof. W. B. Gregory, of Tulane
University, New Orleans, and Mr. A. M. Shaw, then a drainage engineer in the
employ of this office. It was continued under their direction until early in
1910, when C. W. Okey, drainage engineer, was placed in charge. Certain
lines of investigation have been carried forward continuously since 1909, but it
has not been possible to give the work uninterrupted personal attention since
1910. At frequent intervals reports have been made of results obtained, and as
often as seemed advisable partial reports have been published.*

It is the purpose in this bulletin to include all of the salient features of the

_ information so far published and to give also the results of later investigations.

Where direct quotations from earlier publications are made, credit will be given,
but much of the material contained in the earlier publications and reports will
be so interwoven with later and more complete information that no specific
mention will be made of its source. The scope of this bulletin is as follows:

First, a description of general conditions in this section of the State, of such
a nature and in such detail that persons unfamiliar with this or similar sec-
tions of the country will be able to form a fairly accurate idea of the nature of
the problems encountered in the successful drainage and cultivation of these
swamp lands.

Second, a statement and brief consideration of some of the larger drainage
problems encountered, emphasizing the need of more complete cooperation be-
tween the various interested parties in the study and solution of such problems.

Third, the results of detailed examinations of a number of drainage districts,
reclaimed or in process of reclamation, and a summary of such results.

Fourth, a consideration of the problems involved in land drainage by means
of pumps in Louisiana. This discussion might be considered as a continuation
of a former bulletin published by this office dealing with pumping in the upper
Mississippi River Valley.”

LOCATION AND GENERAL CONDITIONS.

As shown by the accompanying map (fig. 1), the area under consideration
lies on the immediate Gulf coast. A range of hills running eastward from
Baton Rouge, the State capital, to Lake Pontchartrain, forms with the lake the
northern boundary of the portion lying east of the Mississippi River. Most of
the land in this area is from 1 to 3 feet above sea level, with a very small per-
centage lying along the river and the larger bayous having an elevation of
from 4 to 15 feet above sea level. To the westward, between the Mississippi
and the Atchafalaya Rivers, the land gradually rises from sea level along the
Gulf to an elevation of perhaps 15 or 20 feet along a line drawn from Baton
Rouge to Lafayette, except that in the immediate vicinity of the Atchafalaya
River the land is but very little above sea level. As in the area to the east of
the Mississippi River, there is in this section a small percentage of higher land
along the rivers and bayous. To the westward of the Atchafalaya River there
is a strip of swamp land which borders the coast line and which gradually
rises from sea level to approximately 10 or 15 feet above, at a distance of 20
or 30 miles inland.

1 See especially U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Rpt, 1909, p. 415,
2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas, Bul, 243,

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DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

SOUTHERN LOUISIANA

SCALE IN MILES

10 A Q 0 20 ss 4p

LEGEND
eights of Storm Tide, in feet, above Mean Tide.
Indicate areas of wet lands

FIG./ -Map of Southern Loulsiana, showing wet lands, ond Aelghts oF storm tide on September 20, /909.

The area of the district is roughly 12,000 square miles, of which amount about
10 per cent is high enough to be drained by gravity, this representing the per-
centage of the total area that is already drained and under cultivation. The
remainder is so low that artificial means must be used to get an outlet for
drainage water. The area shown in figure 1 is about one-fourth that of the
entire State, yet the tract contains nearly two-thirds of the State’s swamp land.

Throughout the entire district are connecting lakes and bayous, many of
which are navigable with boats of considerable draft and beam. The total
length of such navigable streams is, roughly, 1,600 miles. The main waterway
is the Mississippi River. The Atchafalaya River has lately been opened to deep-
water navigation through a dredged channel at its mouth, and vessels of a draft
of not more than 20 feet can safely enter it. This system of waterways insures
excellent water transportation to the entire district, in addition to the facilities
afforded by the railroads, a number of which traverse the district.

Besides the cities of New Orleans and Baton Rouge, there are several con-
siderable towns in the district, including Morgan City, with a population of
about 5,000; Houma, 5,000; Donaldsonville, 4,000; New Iberia, 7,500; Lafayette, ©
6,400; and Crowley, 5,000. Lake Charles, the principal railroad center of the
western part of the State, has a population of 12,000.

The very small percentage of this area that is under cultivation is worked
very. intensively and supports a population of over 200 to the square mile.
While the principal industry of the whole region is agriculture, the wealth de-
rived from other sources, including sea food, lumber, oil, gas, salt, and sulphur,
is almost as great.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA, 3

CLIMATE.
TEMPERATURE.

The United States Weather Bureau has issued summaries of the climatologi-
cal data of the United States by sections. Southern Louisiana is designated
as section 45, and from the summary for this section’ the following is taken:

Climatic conditions over southern Louisiana are marine in character; the
proximity of the Gulf of Mexico and the numerous streams and lakes of this
region all conspire to modify the temperature conditions and prevent sudden
changes therein, and extremely warm weather in summer and severe cold in
winter seldom occur. Southerly winds from the Gulf temper the climate and
prevent, both in winter and summer, extremes that might otherwise occur.
The annual mean temperature is 67.9° F. January is the coldest month, with
a mean temperature of 52.4°, while July and August are both warm, with mean
temperatures of 81.6° and 81.7°, respectively. The highest annual mean tem-
perature is 70.1° at Burrwood, at the mouth of the Mississippi River, and the
lowest 66.4° at Cheneyville. The highest monthly mean temperature is 83°
at Lawrence in August, and the lowest 49.6° at Cheneyville in January. The
range in the annual mean temperature is very slight, and within 100 miles of
the coast amounts to only 1°. After passing inland the change is more abrupt,
and over the second hundred miles the gradients are steeper than over any
other portion of the State, where the fall in the annual mean temperature
amounts to 2° in about 100 miles. The stations with the same mean tempera-
ture in July and August are situated in the piney woods and the prairie section.
The coast marsh and the alluvial region have the highest mean temperature in
July. The greatest difference between the July and the August mean tempera-
ture amounts to but 0.7°. January averages about 1° to 2° colder than De-
cember and February. The range in the mean temperature between the hottest
and coldest months is 29.3°.

There is a narrow strip along the coast where the temperature has probably
never reached 100°, and even as far north as New Orleans it has not reached
this degree except in two years, 1901 and 1909. The highest temperature re-
corded in the section is 108° at Creneyville, Rapides Parish. The extreme

1U, S, Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bul, W, sec, 45,

4 BULLETIN 71, U. §. DEPARTMENT uF AGRICULTURE.

range in maximum temperature amounts to 11°, New Orleans may be taken
as a representative station for the southern portion of this section. The maxi-
mum temperature has exceeded 100° in but one year, 1901, when 102° was
recorded, although a maximum of 100° was recorded in 1909. The temperature
reaches 90° every year, but there have been 14 years out of the last 39 in which
the temperature did not reach as high as 95°. During 36 years there have been
only 78 days when the maximum temperature rose to or above 95° at New:
Orleans.

The minimum temperatures of this section of Louisiana range from 1° at
Amite and Hammond to 19° at Lakeside, the range in minimum temperature
being 18°. During 36 years the minimum temperature has been below 32° at
New Orleans only 181 days, or an average of less than four times a year. The
temperature at New Orleans has fallen below 20° during a period of 36 years
in only 4 years, as follows: 1886, 15°; 1895, 16°; 1899, 7°; and in 1905, 18°.
Freezing temperatures occur to the Gulf coast in the months of January and
February, but owing to the season of the year and the ample warnings given
by the bureau to interests affected these frosts seldom cause any loss.

It has been found that the recording stations in the country give somewhat
lower mean temperatures and also lower minimum temperatures than stations
situated in large cities, as New Orleans. Houma, in Terrebonne Parish, is
chosen as representing average conditions in the country in the alluvial sections,
and Cameron, in Cameron Parish, as being typical of the coastal plain region
in southwest Louisiana. The following frost and temperature data are taken
from the records of the Weather Bureau:

Average earliest and latest dates of killing frosts at Cameron, Howna, and’ New
Orleans, La.

Cameoroni..¢ .adsiers ses Se eee ee ee 15 | Nov. 26 | Feb. 22} Oct. 25) Mar. 20

MU OUIMA 2). ohincs cess oreen sneer eee eee ee ae ee eer 18 | Nov. 20 | Feb. 28 |....do...| Mar. 25

News Orleans cit cece oseen oocee nee ca Sle Ee Ue epee 37 | Dec. 10| Feb. 3 Nov. 11 | Mar. 27

Highest, lowest, and monthly and annual mean temperatures, in degrees Fahren-
heit, at Cameron, Houma, and New Orleans, La.

HIGHEST TEMPERATURES.

Num- :
Station veue Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. eee
record
Cameron..... 16 85} 101 89 94} 101} 101} 103) 102} 104) 100 89 87 104
Houma. ..... 19 81 84 88 92 95 100 | 102 99 98 93 89 82 102

New Orleans. 39 82 82 86 89 94 98} 102) 100 96 94 85 83 102

LOWEST TEMPRPRATURBES.

Cameron..... 16 17 13 14 35 39 44 61 45 49 30 20 13 13
Houma...... 19 17 5 25 30 42 51 58 56 44 32 25 10 5
New Orleans. 39 15 7 30 38 52 58 66 63 55 40 29 20 7

MONTHLY AND ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURES.

Cameron..... 14 | 51.7 | 53.9 | 62.6 | 69.3 | 75.2] 80.7] 81.8 | 81.9 | 79.0] 69.4 | 61.8] 54.9] 68.5
Houma. ..... 18 | 54.3 | 55.3 | 63.4 | 68.8] 75.3 | 80.3 | 81.2 | 81.4 | 78.5 | 67.8] 61.0] 54.1] 68.4
New Orleans. 39 | 53.9 | 56.8 | 63.1 | 68.7 | 75.1] 80.6 | 82.3 | 82.1] 78.8] 70.3 | 61.6 | 55.4) 69.1

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 5

RAINFALL.

’ In regard to the yearly rainfall the Weather Bureau summary of the climato-
logical data for section 45 says:

There is a gradual and well-defined decrease in precipitation from the east-
ern toward the western portion of this section. The average annual precipita-
tion is 55.76 inches, and ranges from 48.86 inches at Lakeside, Cameron Parish,
to 63.02 inches at Amite, Tangipahoa Parish. The precipitation is practically
all in the form of rain and is well distributed throughout the year. Snow
occurs on an average of once in three to five years, and disappears soon after
haying fallen. Although droughts occur, they are seldom long continued, and
are not so serious as in regions where the level of the ground water is So much
farther below the surface of the earth. June and July are usually the wettest,
and October and November the driest months.

Rain falls about once in three days. The average number of rainy days is
108 in the eastern and from 77 to 80 in the western portion of this section.

The following rainfall data are taken from the Weather Bureau records:

Monthly and annual mean rainfall, in inches, at Cameron, New Orleans, and
Houma, La.

Station. Jan. | Feb.| Mar.| Apr.| May.| June.| July.) Aug.| Sept.} Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |Annual.
Cameron.........- 3.67 | 3.34 | 3.39 | 3.61 | 3.61 | 5.60 | 7.57 | 4.04 | 5.44 | 2.88 | 4.12 | 3.28 50. 55
New Orleans. ..... 4.54 | 4.28 | 4.56 | 4.53 | 4.06 | 5.39 | 6.53 | 5.65 | 4.49 | 3.25 | 3.81 | 4.54 55. 63
Houma...........- 3.45 | 4.78 | 3.52 | 4.29 | 3.59 | 5.98 | 8.92 | 6.43 | 5.92 | 3.00 | 2.73 | 4.31 56. 92

The rainfall in this section is more or less tropical in character, especially
during the summer months. The rains are nearly always purely local during
the summer, and the amount, both daily and monthly, may vary greatly for sta-
tions separated by only a few miles. Thus we have a monthly total in August,
1911, of 28.5 inches at Donaldsonyille, at the northern edge of this section, and
but 12.27 inches at Houma, only about 40 miles away.

The United States Weather Bureau records at the New Orleans station show
that there have been 48 storms in the past 22 years, during which the precipita-
tion in 24 hours exceeded 3 inches. These storms are classified as to their
intensity as follows:

43 rains exceeding 3 inches in 24 hours.
19 rains exceeding 4 inches in 24 hours.
7 rains exceeding 5 inches in 24 hours.
3 rains exceeding 6 inches in 24 hours.
2 rains exceeding 7 inches in 24 hours.
2 rains exceeding S inches in 24 hours.
0 9

rains exceeding 9 inches in 24 hours.

HEALTH CONDITIONS,

As regards the healthfulness of this climate the Bureau of Soils says:*

A most serious check to the attraction of a desirable class of immigrants to
this section is the impression which has gotten abroad as to its unhealthfulness.
That this idea had) some foundation in the past can not be denied, but such a
condemnation can not now be applied to the State as a whole or to this par-
ticular vicinity. The records of the medical board of New Orleans show that
the city has an excellent health record for a city of its size. * * * Outside
of the city sanitary conditions are naturally much better. The dwellings of
both the owners and the tenants of the plantations stand on the higher land
along the Mississippi River, where there is adequate natural drainage. Not-

2U. §. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, pp. 448, 444.

6 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

withstanding the proximity of the swamps and standing water, malaria, though
occasionally occurring, is not dreaded. Until within the last few years epi-
demics of yellow fever caused frequent alarm, but this disease has now been
thoroughly eradicated, and with the methods of treating the disease and prevent-
ing its spread it is not to be dreaded as formerly, even if it should again appear.

Since it has been demonstrated that malaria, like yellow fever, can be trans-
mitted to man only through the bite of a certain species of mosquito, it may
be expected that drainage, which destroys the breeding places of these pests, will
result in a decrease in whatever malaria may now exist. As a matter of fact
malarial fever is very rare on the immediate coast line, and the health of people
from the North seems to be fully as good as that enjoyed by the natives.

SOILS.

The area under discussion contains soils that are peculiar to the section and
these are now for the first time being drained and cultivated. In the following
section are set forth the results of first-hand investigations along with the
classification and general descriptive matter taken from publications of the
United States Bureau of Soils. ;

AREA EAST OF THE ATCHAFALAYA RIVER.
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS.

The soil of the area east of the Atchafalaya River and in parts of St. Mary,
Iberia, and St. Martin Parishes is of alluvial origin and is largely the result
of deposits made by the Mississippi River and its branches. It has been built
up from a depth of several thousand feet to the present elevation above the
Gulf. In the very newést portions of the Delta at Port Eads, at the mouth of
the river, a considerable subsidence of the land is yet going on, the measured
rate being about 0.11 foot per year. That this subsidence is due to a compact-
ing of the newer deposits is shown by the fact that permanent bench marks
along the Mississippi River record a decreasing settlement as the distance
from the mouth of the river increases. Except in this relatively small area,
near the mouth of the river, the remainder of this section of the State shows
no change in elevation. As is typical of delta regions, ridges of sandy soil are
found along the main river channel and along its branching outlets. The
manner in which these ridges were formed is well brought out in the following,
from A Preliminary Report upon the Bluff and Mississippi Alluvial Lands of
Louisiana, by W. W. Clendenin.*

With every fiood the river now overflows its flood plain and deposits much
of the sediment from its headwaters. As with a slight increase in velocity the
transporting power is vastly increased, so with a slight checking of velocity,
as occurs over the flood plain outside of channel, deposit takes place. As
the greatest decrease in velocity takes place near the channel, there the heaviest
and coarsest sediment is deposited, and in greatest quantity. The river banks
are thus built higher by each fiood and a system of natural levees is produced.
There is thus a marked difference in the “front lands” and the “ back lands”
along the river. The former are higher and coarser textured than the latter,
and therefore much more easily cultivated and drained.

Drainage from the very channel margin is away from the river, and unless
forced by the topography of the land, will not reach the river proper, but unite
with some outlet of the river produced during some extraordinary flood period
and kept open by the escape of water during ordinary periodic flood stages.
As the feeders of the river are called tributaries, these outlets have not inaptly
been styled distributaries.

1 Louisiana Stas. Rpt. Geology and Agriculture, Pt. IV, p. 263.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. (i

Since practically all land in the delta region is now protected from overflow
by levees along the Mississippi River, and as overflow is now very rare, all
building up of the low marshlands has been checked. However, at the mouth
of the Mississippi River, deposition of material is continually taking place.

Even before the construction of the artificial levee system, there was no
raising of the general level of the marshes during periods of normal flow and
probably little sedimentation of the river bed excepting at its mouth, the most
of the material which was carried in suspension to the lower portion of the
river being carried out and deposited in the Gulf. As the river rose, however,
the waters constantly sought additional outlets through the various bayous of
the delta country. At times of extreme high water there was a general break-
ing over the banks of the river and its outlets. It is probable that the most of
the building up of the lands above sea level has been done at such times.’

The above statements show that while the Mississippi River and its various
distributaries are continually extending themselves through deposition at their
mouths, it was only at times of overflow that the ridges along the channels were
raised or widened. The peculiar branched nature of the Delta, with bodies of
land extending fingerlike into the Gulf, with open spaces of water between, is
also thus accounted for. As these ridges gradually widened they approached
each other, thus forming lakes and bayous. ‘Tidal action usually kept these
ridges from inclosing the open water between them, and heavy and prevailing
winds would no doubt often change their character and direction. It is a notice-
able fact that the trend of the majority of the waterways in this section is
toward the southeast. As the prevailing winds are from the southeast, and as
the usual Gulf currents flow from that direction, most of the sediment was
deposited on the western side of the channel. As a result the deeper water
always remained to the eastward, and the deposition on the western shore
continually forced the channel to the eastward. It is reasonably certain that
the large inland lakes, such as Lake Des Allemands and Lake Salvador, were
inclosed in this manner.

The fact that the silt-bearing capacity of water is directly dependent upon the
velocity is clearly demonstrated by observing the natural embankments formed
by streams of various sizes. In the case of smaller streams when the water over-
flows, its force is soon spent and the silt is quickly deposited near the stream,
forming narrow ridges with steep side slopes, while those formed by large
streams are broad with slight slopes. Three typical examples, showing this
difference and the manner in which the land surface has been raised on the
marshes are given in figure 2, A, B, and C.

The sections were taken as follows:

A—From the right bank of the Mississippi River across the Willswood
plantation, about 10 miles above New Orleans. This section is about 2 miles
long and a part of the lands crossed have been under cultivation for a great
many years, while those farthest from the river were reclaimed only 12 or 15
years ago., The lowering of the surface of the cultivated and drained fields
due to the shrinkage of humus soils is here well illustrated. There are many
examples of highlands having been built up for much greater distances from
the river than this, but as such accretions are indirect, on account of being
formed by a number of small bayous or temporarily contracted areas of over-
flow which assisted in maintaining the velocity, these have not been considered
as being typical.

B—The right bank of Bayou Lafourche at Lockport, extending back through
the village of Lockport and beyond to Lake Fields. Until 1903 Bayou Lafourche
served as an overflow outlet for the Mississippi River, the opening at Donaldson-
ville not haying been permanently closed until that year.

C—This is a very small bayou extending to about 4 miles west of Lockport.
The abrupt rise of the ridge from the surrounding marshes is especially notice-
able and is characteristic of smaller bayous.

4 Manuscript report of A. M. Shaw.

8 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Important exceptions to the foregoing general statement as to the relation
between the size of bayous and the ridges built by them are frequently found.

=
BS
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z °
e 3
= cs)

4000

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS
2000

cee
oe Silo orl

caused by small bayou near Lockport.

(ose
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RTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ie
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2

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Fic. 2.—Typical examples of Louisiana marshland formation: A, Profile through area No. 1; B, section. through area No. 2; C, formation

Prominent among those are the Bayou L’Ourse, in the southeastern part of
Lafourche Parish, and the Wax and Little Wax Bayous, in St. Mary Parish.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 9

Bayou L’Ourse is an insignificant stream, occupying the center of a long and
important ridge. It is probable that at one time this bayou served as an out-
let for the Lafourche or possibly of some predecessor of the latter bayou,
draining in a more easterly direction through Bayou Blue, Lake Fields, and
Long Lake. Wax and Little Wax Bayous are streams of erosion rather than
of sedimentation and have been formed wholly or in part by the action of
storms and the tidal flow which is quite strong along this portion of the
coast. Asa result, the bayous are bordered by the marsh or by very low ridges.
Both streams are from 10 to 50 feet in depth and 100 to 200 feet in width.*

In addition to the above, Bayous Terrebonne and Black, in Terrebonne Parish,
are typical examples of the sedimentation type, while Bayou des Allemands, the
connection between Lake Des Allemands and Lake Salvador, is an excellent
_ illustration of the tidal-erosion type. °

From the foregoing it may be seen that the chief difference between the
various types of soils is the variation in fineness of material, rather than differ-
ence in chemical composition.

CLASSIFICATION AND EXTENT OF SOILS.

The various types of soil grade imperceptibly into one another, but the fol-
lowing classifications have been made by the Bureau of Soils of this department :
Yazoo sandy loam, Yazoo loam, Yazoo clay, Sharkey clay, muck, and Galveston
clay.

The first three classes are ridge soils and are limited in extent, forming a
very small percentage of the total area. These soils have sufficient elevation
to drain naturally, and as they are practically all well drained and cultivated
no discussion of them will be given. For additional information the reader is
referred to the publications of the Bureau of Soils.

The last three classes include practically all the undrained soils of this
section. The Bureau of Soils says of this first type: ?

The Sharkey clay is the heaviest soil of the New Orleans area. It is the
most extensive type, and as only a small proportion of it is under cultivation,
the subject of the reclamation of the large unused area is attracting consider-
able attention.

The soil is a heavy black clay to a depth of 5 or 6 inches. The dark color
is due to the large content of organic matter which has been derived from the
heavy growth of vegetation as the clay was slowly deposited. This decayed
vegetation has had a marked beneficial effect on the structure of the soil by
causing it to break under the plow into little blocks and to assume a much
more favorable condition than is usually possible with this type. The subsoil
is a brown or drab waxy clay of a most impervious and tenacious character.
The percentage of organic matter is much smaller than that of the soil.

The Sharkey clay shrinks greatly upon drying, and the surface of a drying
field is always checked by large sun cracks.

The Sharkey clay occupies the entire land surface of the area, with the ex-
ception of narrow strips along the rivers and bayous, where the swifter over-
flow waters have built up natural levees of coarser sediments, and excepting
also considerable areas where it has been covered so completely by decayed
vegetation that a muck type has been established. * * * The Sharkey clay
areas are for the most part forested. The exceptions are those comparatively
small areas in cultivation and the treeless prairies which cover a considerable
area in the southern part of the present survey. In the very wet, poorly drained
tracts there is an almost impenetrable growth of cypress, willow, maple, water
oak, and sometimes ash. On the better drained portions the woods are more
open and the palmetto flourishes near the border.

Of the soil classed as muck, the Bureau of Soils says: ?

Between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain are extensive areas
where the dense growth of vegetation has decayed and accumulated on the sur-

1 Manuscript report of A. M. Shaw.
2U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 451.
2U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, pp. 452, 453.

25102°—Bull. 71—14—_2

ee:

Oe I

10 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

face of the Sharkey clay to a depth of from 1 foot to more than 3 feet. This
more or less decomposed mass is made up of the trunks and leaves of trees,
but more largely of the rank weeds and grasses which flourish in this locality.

The extensive tracts covered by the muck are poorly drained and almost
impenetrable. The only places where this type can be seen under any favorable
conditions of drainage are between the drainage canals which lead from New
Orleans to Lake Pontchartrain. Clearings have been made and it has been
demonstrated that the muck can be reclaimed, but so far none of it has been
cultivated. The muck in many of the localities in which it was observed is
finely divided and well decomposed and should be well adapted to the cultivation
of those crops which thrive on the peaty soils.

Of the type called Galveston clay the Bureau of Soils says: *

The Galveston clay consists of a mucky mass of vegetation in various stages
of decay, interspersed with a fine clay of drab color. Along the borders of the
marshy prairies covered by this type the soil closely approaches in texture
the Sharkey clay, and passes into a subsoil similar to that of the Sharkey clay
at lower depths, but the lower lying strips nearer the bayous are little more
than peat bogs to a depth of more than 3 feet.

The Galveston clay forms a broad border along the Bayous des Allemands,
opening out a short distance above the town of Des Allemands to a width of
several miles outside of the present area, with an arm extending northward
toward the town of Hahnville. The latter extension follows the course of a
sluggish bayou with its many ramifications through the marsh.

The topography of the type is that of a low marsh but little elevated above
sea level. Water stands over much of the surface at all times in pools Hou
channels and renders the marsh almost impenetrable except by boat. * *
The areas occupied by this type are entirely treeless and devoid of other vege-
tation, except sparse marsh grasses which have little value for grazing. This
absence of vegetation, in Such contrast to the dense Swamp growth on the
Sharkey clay, is due largely to the brackish nature of the water which ascends
the bayous at high tide, and perhaps in part to the peaty nature of the soil,
with its poor drainage.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the type called Galveston clay is a
combination of the so-called Sharkey clay with muck, with the former as a
subsoil. Over the whole of the wet prairie section of the Delta this type of soil
is found, the muck varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet. The
tracts of land that are now being reclaimed in southern Louisiana all contain
more or less of this muck land, and many of the districts are entirely covered
by it.

DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS.

As the ultimate success of most of the reclamation districts of this section
will depend on the successful drainage and cultivation of these muck lands, a
rather detailed study of them was made. In investigating these soils it was
the endeavor to get a careful description of their physical characteristics, to find
the percentage of water by volume that they would contain when in good condi-
tion for growing crops, and to ascertain the amount of water they would hold
when completely saturated.

The muck is a mass of vegetation in varying stages of decay and contains
varying amounts of river silt. In character it differs according to the kind of
vegetation from which it was derived; thus the muck of the cypress swamp is
much darker and less fibrous than the muck or turf of the open grass-covered
prairie. Also, according to stage of decay, it may be tough and fibrous and able
to bear the weight of a man, or it may be soft and even semifluid if consid-
erable water be present. Being thevresult of growth rather than of deposit,
it has been formed in layers, the depth of which depends largely on the time
involved. When a layer of vegetation is covered with a heavy layer of silt all

1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 455.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 11

addition to the former ceases, and if conditions are favorable, a new layer of
vegetation is formed on the silt above. Thus we have strata of muck varying
in thickness from an inch to several feet, with intermediate strata of silt of
depths of from 1 inch to perhaps 2 feet. About half of the waterways that
extend through these swamps are streams of tidal erosion, and along these
streams the high ridges of river silt are absent and the muck is especialiy deep.
Bayou des Allemands, Wax Bayou, and Little Wax Bayou are streams of this
character.

The samples of muck examined were taken at just sufficient depth below the
surface to insure the optimum percentage of water—i. e., the amount of moisture
considered by local plantation owners to be the best for the growth of general
field crops. No samples were taken immediately after a rain nor after a long
dry period. At the time of taking the samples a description of each field was
made, including depth of water table, length of time the field had been drained
and cultivated, time since last rainfall, character of original vegetation, nature
of present crop, and other conditions peculiar to the tract in question.

The following tables show the results of tests made during the spring of 1910:

Results of soil tests on area No. 3, Raceland, La.

Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterin soil by volume.

7 Hay ene eS SET adas den pegs os [Eig i 18

10 44.0 |........ 9.4 A ee Sia eI Ue 20

10 45.8 62.3 12.4 53. 4 79.8 26.4 20

10 ASE ON ein see 10.7 Fae a ban Pe re 20

10 46.7 60. 7 14.0 52.3 74.7 22.4 20

14 41.3 61.5 7.6 53.9 86. 2 32.3 20

14 ALS heen 7.9 Be at | eee BEET 20

14 Ela 7401s helenae 7.9 COPA uA Ms IE aay ae 22

14 47.3 57.6 eB 64.0 80.5 16.5 22

U 57.9 71.3 21.2 58.7 80.5 21.4 20

i Cy eg saa 22.8 GUS 5 anon el eae eee 20

7 64.0 77.6 29.5 55. 2 77.0 21.8 18

a QO osocscoes 30.0 OTs | epee eras | Meee eet ate 18

7 53.7 67.9 14.9 62.0 84.8 22.8 20

a HA lleasccascs 16.9 (GPROA |E a MRR en ee fe 20

10 SARS See ie oe 16.9 GORGH RP ras |aaiee aes 24

10 46.7 64.9 8.7 60.8 89.9 29.1 24

1 Turf and silt after being mixed by two years of cultivation.

The above samples were taken from the soil on area No. 3, which lies about 5
miles from Bayou La Fourche and the same distance from the town of Race-
land. This district is a part of the open grass-covered prairie and has been
well drained for about three years. Its elevation is perhaps a foot above mean
tide level, and the soil probably would be classed as “ Galveston clay.” The
fields from which these samples were taken were in cultivation in 1909 and were
planted to corn or sugar cane in the spring of 1910. The original vegetation was
a wild prairie grass, locally called ‘‘ paille fina.” It was from this grass that the
muck or turf was formed. The soil of the top 4 to 5 inches was quite soft and
dry, having been recently cultivated. Just below the depth of cultivation the
soil became moist, and when compressed water would drip from it. The muck
here was of a dark-brown color and was very light and spongy; after drying
it became much darker in color. It seemed to be a mass of partially decayed
grass and grass roots, and had very little, if any, silt in its composition. The

12 BULLETIN "1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

depth of the muck on this tract varied from 6 to 18 inches. Below this came a
layer of mixed turf and silt about 1 foot in thickness, and from here on down
to a great depth occurred pure silt which would be classed as “ Sharkey clay.”
The ground-water level stood a little less than 2 feet below the surface, which
is about the average depth of drainage secured on this tract. The first 10
samples in the table were taken from the layer of pure turf, the next four, Nos.
10, 11, 14, and 15, from the layer of mixed silt and vegetation just under the
layer of pure turf, and the last four, Nos. 16, 17, 26, and 27, from a field on the
same tract that had been cultivated for two years, but had not been cultivated
in 1910 when the samples were taken. The condition of these last four sam-
ples.shows the result of plowing deeply, thus mixing the silt and the pure turf,
and gives an idea of the conditions that may be expected after the fields have
been cultivated for a time.

The following table gives the results of tests of the muck on area No. 4,
which lies a little farther out from Bayou La Fourche than does area No. 3.

Results of soil tests on area No. 4, Raceland, La.

Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterinsoil by volume. D
Depth | ber of epth
No. ofsample. of

1 Samples 34 and 35 were undoubtedly too moist for optimum percentage of moisture.

The conditions on area No. 4 were similar to those on area No. 3, except that
the land on No. 4 had been well drained only eight months and had not been
cultivated. .The top of the muck was covered to a depth of about 4 inches with
a tough sod full of heavy grass roots, but below this sod these roots tapered
out to very fine rootlets. The samples contained pure turf, which was very
similar to samples 12 to 33, inclusive, of area No. 3.

The samples recorded in the following table were taken from area No. 2,
which lies about 1 mile back from Bayou La Fourche, near Lockport, La.

Results of soil tests on area No. 2, Lockport, La.

Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterin soil by volume.

Depth | ber of peo
No. of sample. of days eat
sample.| since | Nor- | Satu- | p, Nor- | Satu- | ga: : ble.
rain. | mal. | rated. Y- | mal. | rated. ci
Inches. Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Inches.
10-15 4 5424 lie caeiereet 21.9 5250s on erase reek 22
8-13 4 5220) ese cece 13. 4 61 84k eee ibe saree 22
7-12 14 52.9 73.0 14.0 62.2 94.4 32.2 26
8-13 14 52.0 61.5 10.7 66. 1 81.3 15.2 22
3- 7 4 DIZS0})\. 2 \- tee 88. 6 BUsOreeee aeelee es ee 24
2-7 4 S000) SL Sees 48.3 50.7) icone cae Peeameee 24
2-7 14 74.8 85.6 47.0 44.5 61.8 17.3 26

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 13

This tract was a part of the grass-covered prairie which contained a number
of scattering groves of small willows. It had been cleared and drained for about
five years. Its elevation above mean tide level is about 1 foot. The top soil is
a layer of almost pure silt which had been laid down on a layer of muck at a
comparatively recent date. The layer of silt varies from 6 to 10 inches and the
layer of vegetation is perhaps 12 inches in depth. Below this turf is a deposit
of pure silt extending to a great depth. The turf or muck in this tract is per-
haps older than that of area No. 3; it seems to have been formed from the
same kind of vegetation but it is heavier and much darker than that of the
latter district. This is probably due to the weight of the layer of silt which
had been deposited on it. The ground had been cultivated in 1910 and the part
moved by cultivation was quite hard and dry; however, this cultivation did
not reach below the layer of silt, into the muck. The first four samples were
taken from the layer of muck, while the next four were taken from the silt
overlying the muck. The object of testing both layers of soil was to get an
idea of the combined water capacity of the two varieties, for many of the
plantations have a mixed soil much like that of area No. 2.

The samples recorded in the following table were taken in Bayou La Fourche
sandy loam near Lockport and about one-fourth mile back from the bayou.

Results of soil tests near Lockport, La.

Weight per cubic
| Depth Mes foot. Waterin Pepey
No. of sample. of Sine soil by Sse
sample aati volume. tabl

Astaken.| Dry. Glos

Sandy loam: Inches. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent.| Inches.
eRe eae ee cincee eine vest cet 3- 8 14 105. 9 81.2 39.5 40
37 ARPst Ry. Ye ae we Ot NEI S DS ot E ED hye 3- 8 14 105. 4 80. 6 39.7 40
SAE CORO REE SER EEGs Beta Sate Sees Coe Sees 6-11 14 105. 9 75.4 48.8 40
OMA ER Aas eet eee ee tA ee chie ef 6-11 14 105. 4 78.1 43.7 40

The soil in this tract is representative of the average soil conditions in the
bayou-front plantations. It is also of much the same nature as the ridges of
silt that occur in many of the turf or muck lands. The soil has been cultivated
for a great many years and little vegetable matter was present. It had already
been cultivated in 1910 when the samples were taken. The ground was quite
moist to the touch, but was perhaps a little drier than usual. ‘The soil was
much the same to a very great depth. The tests were made for the purpose of
comparison with the tests of the muck.

It will be noted by comparing samples 40 and 42, in the summary of rectilta
of soil tests in area No. 2, with samples 36 to 39, inclusive, taken near Lock-
port, that the muck soil seems to be more retentive of moisture than the sandy
loam of the bayou ridge. The samples of each class of soil were taken at
approximately the same depth and on the same date, yet the muck contained
nearly 50 per cent more water than the sandy loam. Later in this same season,
which was unusually dry, the crops on the muck soil withstood the effects of
the drought better than those on the sandy ridge soil.

In general, the layers of turf or muck of southern Louisiana are quite similar
in character to those of other swamp regions of the United States, but having
been formed on an alluvial deposit and in many cases mixed with silt, the
turf after a few years of cultivation works up into a most excellent soil, which
is well balanced in chemical composition. This is proven by the excellent
yields of both truck and general field crops on such lands near Lockport and

14 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Raceland. The muck of the cultivated fields has a greater density and a darker
color than that where the land is undrained and uncultivated. In its original
state the pure turf is a light brown, but as it dries and decays it becomes
darker and finally is almost black. When first drained it is very light and
spongy and when plowed breaks up into rather large pieces, sometimes as
much as a foot square, which are pushed ahead of the plow instead of being
turned in a furrow. After the second year of cultivation the muck loses its
fibrous nature and resembles old sawdust in texture, although being a little
darker in color. As cultivation continues the muck mixes more and more with
the underlying silt and a much heavier and more impervious soil results.

As such soils dry out and decay they shrink and settle to a considerable
degree. In the tests made the average shrinkage of the muck, due to drying
alone, was a little over 60 per cent. In average field conditions the shrinkage
would never reach this figure, due to drying alone, for the soil would never |
become as dry as the samples tested. However, on area No. 1 (fully described
in succeeding pages) the lowering of the surface of the land by drying and
decay after 10 years of cultivation has amounted to about 24 feet. Samples
of soil, once thoroughly dried, would not resume their former volume even when
immersed in water for 12 days, and would absorb only 35 per cent of their
former volume of water; while originally, when in average condition for
growing crops, they had held about 65 per cent of water by volume.

In the reclaiming of turf lands of this charatcer there is always more or
less danger that the muck will burn. On some of the newer plantations trouble
has been experienced in burning off the growths of weeds and grass that coy-
ered the muck. This burning off can be done with safety only when the muck
is still wet from a recent rain. During the spring of 1910, which was the driest
in southern Louisiana since Government weather records have been kept in the
State, the muck began to burn on area No. 4, near Raceland. This tract had
been drained but about eight months. A rain of three-fourths of an inch failed
to extinguish the fire. It became necessary to dig a ditch around the fire deep
enough to reach to the silt below. This method of checking fire is practicable
and efficient if it is adopted soon enough.

The danger of the burning of any considerable area of the reclaimed land is
very remote. The system adopted in reclaiming this land—that of dividing it
up into comparatively small levee districts—would limit the extent of the fire,
and the division of the districts themselves into small areas by the lateral
ditches makes it impossible for the whole of any plantation to be in great danger
from fire. The danger from extensive burning to the muck of unreclaimed —
swamp land is not great even when the muck is very dry, for the ridges of
river silt which occur at frequent intervals would serve as effectual checks
to any great progress of the fire. Even if the muck be burned from a tract of
land the underlying silt makes a very excellent although a somewhat heavy and
impervious soil.

AREA WEST OF THE ATCHAFALAYA RIVER,
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS.

Most of the land to the westward of the Atchafalaya River, except as pre-
viously noted, is of different origin and character from that of the area just
described.

As most of the land of this section consists of recent coastal plain deposits
rather than of Mississippi River alluvium, the surface conditions are somewhat
different from those encountered in the eastern or delta section of the State.
Instead of a succession of ridges and shallow lakes such as occur in the delta

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 15

section we have a coastal plain gradually rising from south to north. Along the
immediate coast line there is a more or less unbroken sandy ridge through
which the local rivers have cut channels. Immediately in the rear of the ridges
are stretches of salt marsh very little above sea level, but which gradually rise
to the north so that at a distance of some 5 to 10 miles inland they become
fresh-water marsh. The larger streams, such as the Mermentau, the Calcasieu,
and the Sabine are still depositing alluvium, and since the coast line was ele-
vated these streams have considerably extended the land adjoining them. AS
the waters of these outlets are very sluggish and are not heavily loaded with
silt they have not built up large ridges along the immediate river banks. The
alluvial portion is nearly level and the strips of alluvial land along the channels
gradually widen as the streams approach the Gulf. These alluvial strips are
still in process of formation and of elevation by deposition, since at each high
water the adjoining lands are flooded, the rivers not having been leveed.

CLASSIFICATION AND EXTENT OF SOILS.

As before stated, the Bureau of Soils has not made surveys of this section,
but has examined and classified the soils immediately north of it. These vari-
ous clays, clay loams, silt loams, and sandy loams, are described in detail in
publications of that bureau.’ Toward the Gulf the above-enumerated soils are
overlaid with muck and alluvial deposits and thus become subsoils.

The lands of this section might be divided into two main divisions, as indi-
cated in the paragraphs on origin and formation: (1) The general wet prairie
land, with a comparatively shallow deposit of silt and muck on the surface;
and (2) the strips of alluvial land along the river channels or streams. The
first class includes the great bulk of the lands of this section. As noted above,
the subsoils of this portion are the solid loams, etc., of the higher land, thus af-
fording a solid foundation which is quite different from the soft yielding allu-
vial silt of the Mississippi Delta swamps. Overlying this subsoil occurs a
shallow deposit of partly alluvial silt caused by local erosion and weathering.
On the higher and better drained portions there is little or no muck on the
surface, although the silt of the top 6 inches is rich in vegetable matter due
to the decay of the grasses that grow on these sections. These portions are
covered with water only during the rainy season, and during times of long
drought ordinary wagons can be driven over them quite safely. Toward the
south, however, the land is water-covered practically all of the time, and a
layer of muck has formed from decaying prairie grass. In the essential
characteristics this muck is very similar to that of the Mississippi Delta sec-
tion. It averages from 6 to 18 inches in thickness, although in low depressions
and shallow bayous it may be several feet deep. Owing to the absence of any
extensively silt-bearing streams the muck of these wide level prairie sections
is composed almost entirely of vegetable matter, and its dry weight is less than
that of the average muck of the delta section. This, however, should not be
an undesirable feature, as most of it is so shallow that the cultivation will soon
extend into the silt below. As the coast line is approached, as noted before, the
marsh becomes salt, but it is covered with practically the same depth of muck.
In various places in this section there are broad zones where the silt deposit
between the muck and the underlying subsoil is quite deep, perhaps 3 or 4
feet, and has a chocolate-brown color quite similar to the soil of the Sharkey
clay regions. These areas are more numerous in the lower portions of the
prairie.

1U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1901 and 1903.

— hl

16 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Along the larger rivers, especially near their mouths, the alluvial belts of
soil are quite wide. In these sections the rivers have laid down alluvium
many feet in thickness on the older deposits. The building up of these flood
plains has been very slow, and the marsh-grass growth has been continuous;
thus we have near the top a muck with a high percentage of silt grading down.
into a silt with a large percentage of vegetable material at a depth of from 1
to 4 feet. Parts of this alluvial section are quite soft—almost semifluid—
although the land immediately along the river channels is sometimes quite
firm. The muck in these alluvial sections is quite similar to that of the
Mississippi Delta section, except that the silt is well mixed with the muck
instead of occurring in alternate layers.

CROPS.

The staple crops grown in this section of the State are sugar cane, rice, corn,
forage crops, and truck. In certain parts, especially along the lower portion of
the Mississippi and in other districts near the Gulf, large areas are planted in
oranges and other citrus fruits. In the eastern or delta portion of the section
sugar-cane is the most profitable general field crop, while in the western por-
tion rice is grown almost as exclusively as is sugar-cane in the eastern part.
In both sections some corn is grown, but not enough to supply the local demand;
as a result, good prices are maintained. Of the adaptability of the type of soil
called the Sharkey clay, the Bureau of Soils says:*

The Sharkey clay was not especially adapted to cane and cotton and was no
temptation to producers of these commodities, but the increased interest of late
years in the production of rice has given a new value to this soil, and if the
problem of drainage can be cheaply and successfully solved, the soil is admirably
adapted to the production of this crop. Near New Orleans the reclaimed areas
are devoted to the dairy business and to market gardening. The fertility of
Sharkey clay is almost inexhaustible, and when well drained it is adapted to
any crop which requires a fertile clay soil. The crops most profitably grown
near New Orleans are onions, cabbage, eggplant, and tomatoes.

From observations on the various reclaimed districts it would appear that all
crops grown on the older lands bordering the river can be suecessfully grown
on the prairie lands, although there are’ some differences in the methods of
cultivation. 'The lands just recently brought under cultivation are much more
fertile than these older lands, and with intelligent farming should not require
an application of fertilizer for a long term of years.

NATURAL DRAINAGE CONDITIONS.

The natural surface drainage of this section is away from the Mississippi
River and larger bayous of sedimentation, directly into the Gulf by way of
bayous of the tidal erosion type. However, numerous canals are being cut
through the bayous of the first type from the low-lying swamp or prairie lands,

- thus aiding in the drainage. Water covers the surface of the undrained lands
for the greater part of the year. This water comes from three different
sources—direct precipitation, river overflow, and tidal overflow.

OVERFLOW DUE TO DrREcT PRECIPITATION.

The water to be removed from these lands comes mostly from direct precipi-
tation, and it is with reference to the removal of this water that the nature
and capacity of natural drainage channels will be discussed. Owing to the

1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 452.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 17

slight elevation of the land above sea level all of the streams are very sluggish
in character. Their surface slopes are always very slight and are due entirely
to the piling up of the water in the interior until sufficient head is created to
force the water out to the Gulf. At times of high tide in the Gulf and small
precipitation in the interior, the current is often reversed in many of the
streams, and salt water then flows many miles inland. However, at such times
the water in the channels is so low that the tide rarely causes a stage suffi-
cient to flood any of the adjoining land. (This condition should not be con-
fused with tidal overflow, which will be discussed later.) The fluctuation in
water level, due to direct precipitation, in the various bayous and interior
lakes is never very great and depends quite as much on the direction of the
prevailing winds as on the amount of precipitation. Bayou La Fourche is one
of the largest and longest natural drainage channels in this section, extending
about 120 miles into the interior. A gauge has been maintained for more than
three years at a point about 70 miles inland from the Gulf, and back 1 mile
from the bayou on a short canal which connects with the general water level
in the Swamps. The extreme variation of the water surface observed at this
gauge was 3.4 feet. At the time of the lowest gauging the salt water had
reached this point, so that it was approximately sea level. This low stage was
_ caused by a combination of the following conditions: A prolonged and record-
breaking drought, only 1.12 inches of precipitation having fallen in the pre-
ceding two months; warm weather giving high evaporation; and northerly
winds followed by southerly winds, which later caused a gradual rise by
bringing in the salt water. This low stage was 1.3 feet below mean tide for
this point. During the winter of 1911-12 the stage reached its greatest height
for the three years beginning June, 1909. It was then 3.4 feet above low tide,
which is approximately sea level, and 2.1 feet above mean tide. This high
stage was caused by a combination of the following conditions: Heavy and
continual precipitation, 9.7 inches having fallen in the preceding 40 days, cold
weather and small evaporation, and continued southerly winds.

At points farther inland the fluctuation in water level is proportionately
greater. The situation on Bayou La Fourche is mentioned because it 1s
typical of all the long sluggish bayous that carry away the drainage water.
Most of the interior watercourses are connected with each other by cross
bayous and canals so that they are all somewhat similar in their action. The
drainage areas are very poorly defined, and no doubt lap somewhat, as some of
the connecting canals and bayous often reverse direction of currents, according
to the stages of water in the various parts of the system; for this reason it
is practically impossible to measure the run-off from these drainage areas. It
is probable that the natural run-off is very low, due to small slopes and the
rank vegetation on all the land, only about 10 per cent along the bayous being
under cultivation. The bayous of sedimentation are quite free from growth of
vegetation, many of them having a considerable boat traffic which tends to
keep them cleared out and in good condition as drainage channels. Those of
tidal erosion are apt to be overgrown with water hyacinths, but owing to their
greater depth these are also quite efficient channels. As shown in figure 1,
many parts of this section discharge their drainage water almost directly into
the Gulf, or into large interior lakes that undergo very little fluctuation in
water surface. Thus these areas are relieved of all drainage water due to
direct precipitation without great rise of water in the carrying channels. In
the interior portions, such as that contiguous to the upper part of Bayou La
Fourche, there are often rises of water level of several feet in the main drain-

25102°—Bull. 71—14——3

18 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

age channels. In this flat country a rise of 3 to 4 feet in the main drainage
outlet is a very serious matter, and one that demands attention.

In reclaiming land in this section the usual practice is to inclose the district
with levees to keep out the surrounding water; the drainage water of the land
so inclosed is then pumped over the levee into some natural bayou that leads
to the Gulf. If the fluctuation in water level in this dutlet bayou is great, not
only is a more expensive pumping plant equipment necessary, but the cost of
the levees is very greatly increased. As the usual height of the levees is but
from 3 to 5 feet above the ground level of the marsh, a rise of 8 to 4 feet in
the outlet bayou will often endanger the levees or at least cauSe a considerable

seepage through them. The danger from seepage is especially great because

the fluctuation of the water level takes place very slowly. Thus in the vicinity
of the tidal gauge in Bayou La Fourche, near Lockport, the water stood, dur-
ing January, 1912, more than 14 feet above mean tide. Districts in this vicinity
that were exposed to this tide did a large amount of pumping to set relief from
Seepage water.

Up to the present time little attention has been given to the problem of the
disposal of the drainage water after it is pumped over the levees. Some sec-
tions never will be compelled to give this matter consideration, owing to their
favorable locations on or near the Gulf or some other large body of water. On
the other hand, there are sections of wet prairie that are isolated from any
large bodies of water by distances of from 20 to 75 miles along the shortest

natural outlet channel. Thus far few of these districts have experienced any >

difficulty in getting outlets, for the surrounding limitless prairie is so little
above sea level that the drainage water can immediately spread out, and thus
causes no trouble. The.percentage of land yet reclaimed is so very small that
no effect on the carrying capacity of watercourses could yet be expected.

As the work of reclamation goes forward and district after district is re-
claimed, until a considerable portion of the whole area is appropriated, the
drainage water when pumped over the levees can not spread over the surround-
ing prairie, for the latter will be inclosed by the levees of adjoining districts.
The water will then be forced to flow through long winding channels to the
Gulf, this distance often being as great as 75 miles. This will mean that the
water level on the outside of these interior districts must rise until sufficient
head is created to cause a movement of the water to the Gulf, thus greatly
increasing the cost of reclamation and rendering unsatisfactory much of the
work that is now apparently finished.

In the planning of gravity drainage districts the common interests of ad-
jacent districts in securing good outlet facilities have in all parts of the country
long been recognized. Experience has shown cooperation between such dis-
tricts to be necessary. As yet, most of the reclamation districts that secure
drainage by pumping are independent of each other, and, as pointed out above,
those which are fortunately situated will remain so. On the other hand,
interior sections will eventually need better outlet facilities to the Gulf if the
present policy of developing small independent districts is continued.

It is evident that the various districts should be so correlated that there will
be no interference between the different interests. This makes necessary a
general survey of this district, covering the topographic and hydrographic fea-
tures. A survey of this scope would show the probable future necessity of in-
creasing the present capacity of the natural drainage channels, or perhaps of
providing additional outlet channels for some of the more isolated sections. It
is quite likely that such additional channels could be used as commercial canals,
thus making them doubly valuable. The section of the country lying between

3ayous La Fourche and Terrebonne, in the parishes of the same names, is an

; eR
ee
shi Rea eee
, re ad

imeul

FIG.3

U.S.DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

CREVASSES AND AREAS OVERFLOWED
SOUTHERN LOUISIANA
MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLOOD OF 1912

Sai FELICIANA
E St. Francisville

From map of Mississippi River Commission.
Courtesy of Capt.C.0.Sherrill,
Corps of Engineers,U.S.Army

SCALE IN MILES
a ae

NOTE: Shaded portions represent areas overflowed.

(Ez es {LAKE PONTCHARTRA!
& C_ pe oe a / ! J
/ 9 \\) “ \
me 4 XS
SN, P Se

Donaldsonvilles
j x

m_f Franklin
OS) Z he, . ~
Qe VERMILLION (lo Za )))
bay SUS f{~St
PS So i
@ x. |

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 19

excellent illustration of an area that eventually will need better outlet facili-
ties, parts of this area discharging drainage water through 80 miles of natural
drainage channel to reach the Gulf. As shown by the gauge at Lockport, the
natural water surface in the swamps already has a large fluctuation, and any
further extensive reclamation of land without improvement of the main
drainage channels will doubtless considerably increase this fluctuation. A
survey of this area would be needed to determine whether or not the present
channel should be improved or whether any channels should be cut through the
central portion of the district. Local landholders have suggested the possi-
bility of combining such a main drainage outlet with a commercial canal to the
Gulf, thus affording the district better transportation facilities. A thorough
survey of the district would determine the feasibility of such a combination of
interests.
RIVER OVERFLOW.

Like all delta regions this one was originally subject to periodic overflow.
The smaller floods of the Mississippi River were confined within the natural
levees that the stream itself has built up, but at irregular intervals of some
years great floods would for months cover practically all of the delta. As soon
as any serious attempt was made to bring this land under cultivation, levees
were built along the Mississippi River banks to protect the lands from overflow.
Districts were finally organized which included long stretches of river, and in
all millions of dollars have been spent in levee improvements. This expendi-
ture, with such Federal aid as has been available, has built a continuous levee
system on both banks of the river throughout its length in the district under
consideration. The levees have been increased in size as fast as the protected
land could supply the money. In the earlier years, owing to insufficient cross
section of levees and low grade line, crevasses were of frequent occurrence in
times of high water. As more and more work was done on the levees a greater
degree of protection was secured, until now crevasses and consequent overflow are
very rare and occur only at times of record-breaking fioods. The levee system is
still far from complete. As illustrative of the flooding possibilities due to crevasses
in the present system of levees, figure 3, published by courtesy of the Mississippi
River Commission, shows the area overflowed during the record-breaking flood
of 1912. It is evident that not only the reclamation of the swamp land but
the successful cultivation of practically all of the higher land east of the Atcha-
falaya River is dependent upon the prevention of overflow of. the Mississippi
River. The interests involved in such overflow and the damage resulting are
of such ever-increasing magnitude that there is every reason to believe that the
work of completing these levees will be done in the immediate future. Promi-
nent levee engineers who are acquainted with the problem believe that with
the completion of the levee system this whole area will be protected from over-
flow of the Mississippi River. The above remarks apply to the alluvial section
of the country, as very little land west of the Atchafalaya River is affected by
Mississippi overflow. Some of the larger streams, such as the Calcasieu and the
Sabine, flood the alluvial flats of land immediately along their banks to a depth
of perhaps 4 feet, but as a whole the wet prairie lands of this western portion
of the coast are free from river overflow.

TIDAL OVERFLOW.

The daily range of tide along this portion of the Gulf coast is quite small, the
average being from 0.5 to 1.5 foot. However, as is true of all low, flat coasts
bordering on wide areas of comparatively shallow water, heavy winds which

20 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

blow for any considerable length of time directly on shore may cause a rise of
several feet in the water. Such rises are commonly called storm tides. Their
effect is so great that often they reverse the ordinary tide, and the maximum
height of water may be reached at the usual time of low tide. Storms of this
character usually. occur during the months of August, September, and October,
and are known as tropical hurricanes. Those that are severe enough to cause
large rises in the tide occur at comparatively long and irregular intervals.
Sometimes they will affect only a comparatively small portion of the coast line,
while at other times a general rise of several feet will be recorded all along the
coast line, with a limited region where the storm center strikes the coast ex-
periencing a tide of perhaps twice the height of the general rise. One of the -
most characteristic as well as one of the most severe storms ever experienced
in this section occurred September 20, 1909.7 It produced high tides all along
the coast and gave the maximum tide at the mouth of Bayou Terrebonne, about
40 miles west of New Orleans.

As it was apparent that this storm was very general in character and caused
high tides all along the coast, Mr. A. M. Shaw, who at that time was carrying on
investigations in this section for the Department of Agriculture, made special
efforts to ascertain the maximum height reached by the tide, and for this pur-
pose visited points all along the coast. The height of the tide was ascertained
by the combined testimony of all reliable parties who were on the ground and
by high-water marks on buildings. Only information from reliable sources was
accepted. To quote from Mr. Shaw’s report:

The high-water marks obtained were fairly consistent, and were quite gen-
erally above any authentic high-water mark in the same locality.

Figure 1, page 2, shows the section under discussion, with the maximum
heights of water above mean tide. With few exceptions this was the highest
tide ever experienced on the coast, although more violent storms of limited
extent have been recorded. Commenting on these high-water marks Mr. Shaw
says:

These may be considered authentic, excepting that the heavy seas that swept

over the site of the camp at Sea Breeze made it impossible to get an accurate
record at this point. The record shown of 15 feet may be in error 2 or 3 feet.

In regard to the extreme height at this point, he further says:

An examination of the accompanying map will show that the mouth of Bayou
Terrebonne lies between two large bays, and it is possible that this unusual
rise may be accounted for, at least in part, by the sudden veering of the wind,
thus concentrating the extreme tides of both bays on the central point. The
foregoing report of the progress of the storm at New Orleans shows that such
a sudden change in the direction of the wind did occur at that point and a
similar decided change was described by a number of persons on both Bayous
Terrebonne and La Fourche, all of the accounts agreeing that this change took
place while the storm was at its worst.

An examination of the conditions at this point on the coast shows further
reason for this extreme height of tide. The water in both Timbalier and Terre-
bonne Bays is comparatively shallow, ranging in depth from +4 to 12 feet. It
has been the observation of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey that
where the water is shallow for a great distance offshore, heavy winds cause a
flow of the entire depth of water, thus allowing no undertow. This action would
give the water a tendency to pile up wherever it encountered an obstacle. This
explanation is further supported by the fact that on more exposed portions
of the coast, but where the water was deeper, the tide was not nearly so high.

7 For a minute description of this storm at New Orleans, see U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Monthly
Weather Review, 1909, p. 623.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA.’ 21

Thus on Timbalier Island, directly opposite the mouth of Terrebonne Bayou,
the rise, according to the lighthouse keeper, was only 6 feet. At Port Eads,
which is practically 12 miles out in the Gulf, and where the water is much
deeper, the rise was only 3.4 feet and subsided in a few hours.

To the westward of this portion of the coast line the tides due to this storm
were not nearly so high. This was doubtless due to the difference in the
character of the coast line, and to a less intensity and duration of the storm.
Concerning this section Mr. Shaw says:

In the western portion of Terrebonne Parish, the flood height amounted to
about 5 feet with a gradual falling off to the west. On the Big Wax and Little
Wax Bayous and Bayou Sale, in St. Mary Parish, the maximum floods probably
do not exceed 4 feet.

As mentioned in the general description of this section, the coast line of
the western portion is very regular in outline, and immediately along the beach
there is an almost continuous ridge of sandy material. The water directly
offshore is deeper than that along the eastern coast, at least is deeper than the
numerous lakes and bays of the eastern section, and as a result the tides due
to wind have never reached the height experienced along the coast of the
eastern part. The high tides have never overtopped these ridges, and as the
water only poured in through the low places it did not enter in sufficient volume
to flood the land deeply before the recession of the tide occurred. By closing
these comparatively short gaps in this ridge, complete protection from tidal
overflow would be secured for the western section, but some provision would
necessarily have to be made for discharging the natural drainage water from
the interior.

From an examination of figure 1 it would appear that reclamation districts
on many portions of the coast will be compelled to build levees not only to keep
out the water of the surrounding swamps, but also to prevent tidal overflow
in times of storm. The heights of the tide indicated on this map are the highest
that have been experienced since the country has been settled, and should govern
the height of levees on districts in the various localities. From a study of the
nature of these tropical hurricanes the Weather Bureau forecaster at this point
has concluded that there is an area of maximum velocity of wind in these
storms that strike the coast, and that at or near where this maximum velocity
occurs a much higher tide than the average may be expected. In the storm of
September 20, 1909, the area of highest wind velocity struck the coast at or
near the mouth of Bayou Terrebonne. As the storm center may strike at any
point in future storms we may expect tides over limited areas exceeding those
of the above-described storm, but it is unlikely that in general the present
records will soon be exceeded. It is probable that these severe storm centers
will occur on the Gulf coast with about the same frequency as do the torna-
does of the upper Mississippi Valley, and therefore it is suggested that pro-
tection from them should be sought in insurance rather than in building levees
of sufficient height to prevent overfiow from these limited areas of extremely
high tide.

In connection with the problem of protection from tidal overflow, the plan
of providing a general protection levee for the whole of the coast line, rather
than of constructing individual levees for each district, has been considered by
local engineers. The feasibility and cost of such a plan could be determined
only after a complete survey of the district had been made, and a comprehensive
plan had been carefully worked out. However, there are some general features
that can be stated, thus giving an idea of the nature of the problem. The larger
the levee district, other things being equal, the less the cost per acre for levee,
for the length of levee per unit of area varies as 1 divided by the square

22 BULLETIN "1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

root of the area. Thus, if the cost for levees on a given district is $10 per acre,
the charge on an area four times larger and of the same shape would be $5
per acre. Moreover, the doing of work along broad lines and the handling of
earth work in large quantities would reduce somewhat the unit costs of con-
struction. A levee location along the coast would have the advantage of a more
or less continuous chain of islands, some of which are never overtopped by
high tides, and many of which are nearly high enough at present to prevent
overflow. That such a levee would not need to be as high, in order to keep out
all tides, as one farther inland is proven by the high-water records of the storm
of 1909, and those of earlier storms; this fact is also shown by the action of
the natural levee along the coast of Vermillion and Calcasieu Parishes. By ©
inclosing large natural depressions, such as bays and salt-water lakes, a consid-
erable reservoir capacity could be secured by regulating the stage of water in
them through the use of gates and locks in the levee. This would form basins
into which the main drainage channels of the interior could discharge. A levee
in such an exposed location must necessarily be capable of resisting the direct
action of the waves, and: steps would have to be taken to check the present cut-
ting away by the Gulf currents of these natural levees. The oyster and fish in-
dustry of this portion of the coast would be greatly affected, as practically all of
the oyster beds would be inclosed by such levees. However, if the proportion of
salt water could be so regulated as to insure safety to the oyster beds the
plan would be of benefit to the industry, as it would protect them from the
damaging action of storms. The inclosing of such bodies of open water as
Timbalier or Terrebonne Bays would not entirely eliminate storm tides in them;
Lakes Ponchartrain and Maurepas, although well inclosed by the natural land
surface, showed strong tidal action during the storm of 1909.

DESCRIPTION OF RECLAMATION DISTRICTS.

Previous to about 1907 there had been no active movement in the drainage of
the wet prairie lands of Louisiana. The older plantations had extended their
clearings back to the belt of cypress swamp that usually lies between the ridge
along the Mississippi River and the grass-covered prairie; there, owing to the
expense of clearing such land, further progress was usually checked. At some
points, however, where this belt of timber was narrow, the plantations have
been extended to include relatively small areas of prairie land. Such areas
were inclosed with levees, ditches were cut, and pumping plants installed. The
Jand thus reclaimed on such a small scale has proved to be very fertile and has
been farmed with entire success. About 5 years ago the present movement for
reclaiming large areas of wet prairie land began, and districts consisting
entirely of wet prairie land were inclosed by levees and drainage systems
installed. The degree of success attending these early reclamations interested
people from many points outside as well as within the State, and at present the
work is being prosecuted with an ever-increasing vigor. From the drainage
engineer’s standpoint the work has passed the experimental stage, and by fol-
lowing the best methods used on existing districts the successful drainage of
the average type of wet prairie land seems assured. However, owing to the
comparative newness of the work, many problems have yet to be satisfactorily
worked out.

The degree of success attained in the various methods used in the reclamation
of these lands has been quite closely investigated by this office. This investiga-
tion has included studies of the natural features of a number of drainage dis-
tricts and of the levees, reservoir canals, field laterals, pumping plants, and
methods of cultivation, as well as the records of rainfall and run-off. A large
number of districts have been examined closely, and practically every district
within the State has been inspected.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. . yy)

In order better to explain the nature of the drainage problems encountered
and the reclamation methods employed, a detailed discussion of a number of
reclaimed areas will be given, and a summary of the results of all investigations
presented. The areas discussed are arbitrarily designated by numbers. ‘These
examinations were made or completed during the spring of 1912, and the de-
scriptions refer to conditions at that time.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

Before proceeding with the discussion of the reclamation districts a brief
explanation of some of the technical terms hereinafter used will be given.

By run-off is meant the water that flows over or through the ground to
drainage outlets. All run-off originates in precipitation; therefore the latter is
the most important of all the factors that influence the rate of run-off, some
other controlling features being size, shape, topography, and geological structure
of the watershed, climatic conditions, and the character of the vegetation.

In so-called gravity drainage districts the run-off is removed by gravity
through the main outlets. In pumping districts the run-off is collected at some
central point within the district and pumped over or through the levee. The
rate of run-off is expressed as a quantity of water removed in a unit of time.
This quantity of water can be conceived -as a certain depth distributed uni-
formly over the entire drainage area. Similarly, the capacity of a pumping
plant is the quantity of water, expressed in a depth uniformly distributed
over the drainage area, that the pump can dispose of in a given time. As used
in the following discussion, the rate of run-off is expressed by the depth of
water, in inches, distributed uniformly over the drainage area, that passes
from the area in a period of 24 hours. Likewise, pumping plant capacity is
expressed in terms of a depth of water, uniformly distributed over the drainage
area, that can be removed by the plant in 24 hours of continuous operation.
Reservoir capacity also is represented by a uniform depth distributed over the
drainage area. The object of expressing the rate of run-off and the pump and
reservoir capacities in depths rather than in volumes per unit of time is to
arrive at a basis of comparison that is independent of the drainage areas. On
any particular tract, the area being known, these rates can of course easily be
reduced to cubic feet per second or to any other convenient unit.

In a long period the total amount pumped would approximately equal the
run-off for that period, but for short intervals, as, say, 24 hours, the run-off
from an area might be much greater than the quantity pumped, the excess
being stored in the reservoir for subsequent pumping.

AREA NO. 1, WAGGAMAN, JEFFERSON PARISH, LA.

As shown in figure 4, this plantation, containing 2,600 acres, fronts on the
Mississippi River and extends back into the prairie swamp lands in the rear.
It is a typical example of one of the old river-front plantations which have
been extended to include a comparatively large area of wet prairie land. The
tract of swamp land, which makes up one-third of the present area of the
plantation, was included by the extension of the levees about 12 years ago. A
pumping plant was installed, and cultivation has been continuous since that
date. The area of prairie included was quite typical of those in this part of
the State, and was covered with a scattering growth of small willows and the
usual rank growth of prairie grass. Originally the muck was about 3 feet
deep, although at present, after 12 years of cultivation and decay, it is well
compacted and has subsided or shrunk until it now averages 24 feet lower than
it originally was. ‘The total fall in the surface of the ground from the front

24 — BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to the rear of the plantation is about 10 feet. Part of the land could doubtless
be drained by gravity, but at present all of the water goes to the pumping plant.
In February, 1911, 200 acres of land lying along the river front were added to
this plantation.

LEVEES.

As part of this tract is above all possible high water due to direct precipita-
tion or tidal overflow, it is only partially inclosed by levees. Starting where
the ground is only about 5 feet above mean tide, a levee was built around the
lower part to a height of nearly 7 feet above mean tide. The levees were built

LEGEND

Headland and foads.——
Reservoir Canals.........<—$§n
Collecting Ditches... emma

(Bie = See
SCALE IN FEET
o i 2000,
\
\
\

‘X

eee.

See 8 ree PORT TT OTTTTCUT TTA TOCT OTT G-F-P,,del

Fic. 4.—Sketch map of area No. 1, Waggaman, Jefferson Parish, La., showing ditch and
levee system.

with a dipper dredge with material taken from the inside of the district. The
canal resulting from the levee building was used for a reservoir. The ground was
very soft and the levees were built up in several layers, but owing to the soft-
ness of the ground the excavated material formed a good bond with the foun-
dation. The berm between the levee and the canal is now from 10 feet to 15
feet wide and is quite uniform. As they stand to-day, the levees seem to be
almost impervious to seepage water. Nothing could be learned as to seepage
during the first few years after construction, and they show no evidence of any
sliding of material due to seepage. The levees have a top width of about 5 feet

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 25

and side slopes of 13 to1. The unusual height is accounted for by the fact that
at the time of construction danger from high water, due to breaks in the Mis-
sissippi levees, was still great.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

As indicated in the description of the levees, the reservoir canals on this
district were cut with a dipper dredge. By using the canal so excavated as a
‘reservoir, it was necessary to construct only a comparatively short canal into
the interior of the district in order to give outlet to the collecting ditches.
These ditches are mostly about 5 feet deep, with 10-foot top widths and 3-foot
bottoms, and serve as outlets to the small lateral ditches,

Owing to an extensive silting up of the reservoir canals, their capacity is
very much less than it originally was. During the whole time since their con-
struction no attempt has been made to remove this deposit of silt. As a result
the canals are not deep enough to afford outlet facilities to the ditches in the
back lands. The pumping operations are also interfered with, in that the water
is not brought to the pump rapidly enough to insure continuous operation at
full capacity of plant during the removal of the run-off of a rain. This lack
of reservoir capacity also makes the operation of the plant very unsatisfactory,
as the water level must be kept nearly at the bottom of the canals to afford
sufficient depth of drainage to the land. During the coming year it may be that
the reservoirs will be cleared of silt with a dredge. This will allow opportunity
to see what effect increased reservoir capacity will have on the pumping opera-
tions. Doubtless the greatest effect will be to decrease the number of days on
which it will be necessary to operate the plant, although it is not likely that the
total hours of operation or the amount pumped will be greatly affected.

DITCHES.

The ditches on this plantation are of about the usual cross section, having
depths of 3 feet, top widths of 3 feet, and bottom widths of 14 feet. The aver-
age spacing varies with the character of the land. Thus, on the front lands
which are rather impervious the spacing is about 100 feet, while on the back por-
tion the ditches are from 300 to 500 feet apart. On the front lands the lengths
of the laterals, between collecting ditches, are quite small considering the large
slope of the surface of the land. Conditions on similar plantations where the
ditches are twice as long indicate that the laterals of this district could safely
have been made nearly twice as long as they are.

On the back lands, however, the ditches are already about as long as it would
be advisable to have them, since the land is almost level and the reservoir canal
quite shallow. At present these ditches are too shallow to give adequate drainage.
Some measurements of the depth of water table were made during the early part
of the summer of 1910. The results of these measurements are shown graph-
ically in figure 5. It is apparent that as yet this soil is not very impervious,
when compared to the lands of the vicinity of Bayou La Fourche and as
shown by other similar measurements on area No. 2. (Figs. 8 and 8a, pp. 31
and 32.) Even after heavy rains the profile of ground water is not excessively
steep. The ditches are spaced too far apart for the best results, although if
they were of full depth they would very nearly drain the ground. It is the
intention of the owners of this tract to deepen the present ditches to the usual
depth of 3 feet and to construct new ditches midway between the present ones.
The situation appears to be favorable to the placing of lines of tile instead of
the new set of ditches. As the surface water is already handled by the present

25102°—Bull. 71—_14_4

26 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ditches the tile lines would need to remove
only the ground water, and from the
measurements of the ground water profile
it would appear that they would easily
fulfill this purpose. When the reservoir
canal is deepened these lines of tile could
be given sufficient fall to insure satisfac-
tory operation. The cost of maintenance
alone on these extra ditches would nearly
pay the interest on the cost of the tile |
work above the cost of ditches; in addi-
tion, the saving in land would be consid-
erable. Furthermore, if tile were prop-
erly laid they would give sufficient drain- |

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS

age all of the time, while ditches give
their best results only for the first few
weeks after they are cleared of grass and
weeds.

PUMPING PLANT.

The location of this plant is quite
favorable, as it is on the lowest ground
_in the tract and at the junction of three .
-large canals, making the distance that
the water must travel to reach the plant
about as small as practicable.

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

Steam for the three following pumping
units is furnished by two water-tube
boilers and one return tubular boiler,
crude oil for fuel and a feed-water heater
being used. |
First, a 40,000 gallon per minute
maximum capacity rotary chamber-wheel
pump, rope driven from a 16 by 24 inch
automatic noncondensing engine; second, |
one 42 by 16 inch Menge pump, connected :
by a rope drive and a bevel gear to a 16
by 24 inch automatic noncondensing en-
gine; third, one centrifugal pump with
36-inch diameter discharge pipe, direct-
connected to a double vertical engine.
Pumps 1 and 2 discharge into open flumes
at an average head on pump of about
10 feet, which is about 5 feet greater than
necessary. Pump 3 has a siphon on the
discharge pipe, but the end is not always
submerged.*

Fig. 5.—Profiles of ground, water, area No. 1.

———

The capacity of this plant has usually
been large enough to remove the water
before any damage has resulted from
flooding. Due to the rope drives, the
plant hag been stopped several times for
repairs when the loss of a pump was a

é
ed mock on hart ialced witttesciha 0

W. of Pumping Plant on line runain

NOTES: Profiles token 1000
Soil is a well deca

U.S. OE PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

lo 1U. S. Dept. Agr., An. Rpt. Office Expt. Stas,
woitonayg i Ps 1909, p. 420,

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 27

serious matter. The heaviest rainfall that this plant has been called upon to
handle since the records were begun occurred in the latter part of April, 1911,
when 6.25 inches of rain fell in two days. The plant did not run at full
capacity all of the time, so some flooding occurred for about 48 hours in the rear
portion of the plantation; no large damage resulted from it, however. In view
of the fact that this plant can not be depended upon always to run at full
capacity, its present capacity is just about sufficient. There are a number of
factors which make the run-off from this plantation greater in amount and in-
tensity than it is from the average district of newly reclaimed wet prairie land.
Among these are, first, a fall in the surface from front to rear of the tract of
about 10 feet; second, a heavy and impervious soil on all the front lands, which
comprise about half the entire area; third, a very complete system of ditches;
fourth, complete and intensive cultivation; and fifth, a well-decayed ‘and -com-
paratively impervious prairie land in the rear portion of the tract. However,
after the average district has been as long reclaimed as this district has been
about the only one of the above factors that will differ, when it comes to mak-
ing comparisons, will be the surface slope. It seems reasonable to suppose that
the percentage of run-off on newly reclaimed districts will gradually increase
until it is almost as large as it is on the tract under discussion.

The cost of operation of this plant in labor and fuel has been carefully kept,
but due to inefficient machinery and large run-off from the front lands, it is con-
siderably higher than where conditions are more nearly typical. Following is
a summary of the cost of operation of the pumping plant on area No. 1 from
June, 1909, to December, 1911, inclusive.

Cost of operating pumping plant on area No. 1, June, 1909, to December, 1911,

inclusive.
Cost.
. Per inch
Date. Rainfall. | Run-off. Grater Per
Labor. | Fuel. Total. | Per acre. | removed ee
over
track. 1 foot.1
Inches. Inches.

TROD ee eee eee ee 42.32 16. 33 $600 $936 $¥, 536 $0. 64 $94. 00 $0. 09
TOIGL este e noeeee 43. 08 11.58 500 616 1,196 -50 103. 00 .10
TESTE SS ok OS eae 52. 32 23. 42 753 1, 267 2,020 Stith 101. 00 .08

1 Calculated on basis of 5 feet effective lift. Actual lift 10 feet.
2 June to December only.

CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION.

For two years after this tract of land was reclaimed it was cultivated with
only such drainage as was afforded by the reservoir canals. At the end of this
time lateral ditches were cut at a spacing of about 400 feet, and good drainage
thus secured for a number of years. Not much detailed information was avail-
able concerning conditions during this early period. It is known, however, that
during this time excellent crops were grown on this prairie land, and that they
were uniformly better than those grown on the front lands. Up until the last
two or three years the-prairie lands were so much better drained than the front
lands that plowing could be done on them when the water stood on the surface
of the latter. As is shown by figure 5, the depth of drainage is now very small
on these lands, hardly more than a foot. However, crops were reported as being

28 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

good, even with such shallow drainage. The manager said in this connection
that although the crops were good the cane, especially, did not seem to stand
drought very well. This probably was due to the very shallow depth of root
growth that such a small depth of drainage would permit. As this tract is a
part of the typical wet prairie found in this section, the results attained would
seem to show that the successful reclamation of these lands already is a certainty.

AREA NO. 2, LOCKPORT, LA FOURCHE PARISH, LA.

This tract (fig. 6) adjoins the village of Lockport and contains 647 acres.
The land from which this district was reclaimed is typical of the open grass-_

7 S ZA aon
0 IMLS AOL A ey Care
“a 7 PL Ps a g on A pe
He please er eT

Cee oir 3 COP. pl PINE

LO ee 7 UX “ay 7

OO Ot PUN 4 a
aplherals 0 INS OY
Ret, top wiitth 3, R 7 Ve ZA We Zia,
eae LOGE Aigo ate

s Z

LEGEND

LO VOG enna es

Field tateraisie ee ee
Collecting and Equalizing Cand1,.. .__—-
ReS6rV0Ir CANAL... on0--2----——- —-—

SCALE IN FEET
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Sr CEP, del.
Fic. 6.—Sketch map of area No. 2, Lockport, La Fourche Parish, La., showing arrange-
ment of ditches and levees.

covered prairies that lie to the west of Bayou La Fourche. ‘The front levee line
is located about 1 mile back from the bayou, and is nearly parallel to it. From
here the tract extends back into Lake Fields, which at one time covered to a
depth of from 1 to 3 feet about one-half of the area inclosed with levees. The
muck on this tract varies in depth from 18 inches on the higher portions to
perhaps 8 inches on the bed of the lake. A detailed description of the character
of this muck has been given in connection with the special investigation of
muck soils (p. 18). Reclamation on this tract was started in 1907, and the
area was nearly all brought under cultivation by the growing season of 1911,

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 29

LEVEES.

The front or northeast levee on this tract is located on ground about 2 feet
above average tide. As the storm tide in this place is only about 2.5 feet above
mean tide, the front levee is very small, perhaps 2 feet high and having a bot-
tom width of 5 feet. Along the outside of this levee is a small diversion ditch
designed to carry the water draining from the higher land in front across to
the commercial canal on the side of the tract. Owing to the small size of the
levee and also to the fact that it was built by hand, considerable seepage water
finds it way into the front part of the district. The trouble from this source is
noticeable only when the tide stands about a foot above mean height for any
great length of time. Along the other three sides of the tract it was necessary
to construct a levee varying in height from 3 feet at the front to 6 feet at the
back along Lake Fields. Along this portion the present crown of the levee is
about 5 feet wide, with a bottom width of about 35 feet. This would give a side
slope of about 2% to 1.

The levee along the north and south sides not only is in good condition, but
it seems to allow about the minimum amount of seepage during ordinary stages
of outside water, although there is no berm between the levee and the outside
canal. There is no lateral ditch on the inside* of the levee nearer than about
180 feet, so that the actual difference of the water levels inside and outside
of the district is rarely greater than 4 feet, and usually about 3 feet. While
the percentage of muck in this levee is small, there seems to be a rather con-
tinuous layer of muck in the base. At ordinary stages of water there is no
great seepage through this layer of material, but during December, 1911, and
January, 1912, when the tide level of the outside water was for nearly one
month 14 feet above mean level, the seepage was very noticeable, and the pumps
were kept in operation a much longer time than when removing the run-off of
rainfall only. This levee was built with a dipper dredge, and no muck ditch
was cut in the base. It now appears that the falling earth did not penetrate
the layer of muck and form a bond with the underlying silt. The seepage was
so great on some parts of the levee during the above-mentioned period of high
water that a ditch was cut along the middle of the levee for some 300 or 400
feet, and refilled with 4 dipper dredge. This method of refilling gave better
results than that of hand filling and tamping, and rendered quite impervious
the part of tbe levee so treated. The levee needs similar treatment for its
entire length. The levee along the back or southwestern side of this district
was built under conditions somewhat different from those attending the con-
struction of the levees on the other three sides, this levee being located in the
open water in the lake. The material placed in this levee was very soft, so
that a number of layers were added before final completion. It was started in
1907, and the last addition was made in 1910. At first this levee was badly
situated, as on the outside there was a canal having a depth of 6 feet, and im-
mediately on the inside, with no berm between, was a reservoir canal with a
depth of about 10 feet. The width of the levee at the level of the outside water
was 35 feet, and more or less seepage occurred when the lake stood above its
usual level for any length of time. At such times the head of water on the
levee frequently was 7 or 8 feet. This seepage seemed to take place through
defective spots in the body of the levee rather than through the base, for it
was only when the water was above mean height for a considerable time that

1 The side of a levee on which the protected land lies is termed the “ inside.’

|
t

30 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

seepage occurred. At ordinary stages of water the levee is hard and dry, al-
though the base always is submerged. However, the condition of the levee was
so unsatisfactory that during the latter months of 1911 a new reservoir canal
was cut parallel to and about 40 feet distant from the old one, and the old
eanal was filled and considerable material deposited along the inside slope of
the levee. This improvement should greatly reduce the seepage.

Experience on this tract seems to show that it is not good practice to place
the reseryoir canal immediately inside of the levee, especially if the base of the
latter be below ordinary water level. Figure 7 shows cross sections of these
levees, the stages of water in the canals, and the curve of the ground water
through the levees at various times. It is apparent that there is considerable
advantage in allowing a liberal cross section for such levees.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

As this tract has a slope from front to rear of nearly 4 feet, the location of
the reservoir at the lowest end of it was perhaps the best that could have been
made to act as an outlet to the laterals. Originally it was about 35 feet wide
and 5 feet deep. The storage capacity at this time was about 0.35 inch of water
over an area of 647 acres. During the growing season of 1909 and the winter
of 1910 it became partially filled with silt. In the spring of 1910 a 6-inch
hydraulic dredge was employed to pump out this silt. The dredge did not work .
satisfactorily, but finally succeeded in taking out sufficient material to give the
reservoir its former capacity. However, with a pumping capacity of about 1.1
inches in depth over the whole area.in 24 hours the cross section of the canal
was not large enough. After the water was lowered at the pump to the bottom
of the canal it was still about 2 feet deep at the farthest part of the canal, a
distance of 1.3 miles. It was then necessary to shut down the pump for per-
haps 5 hours, after which an additional run of about 2 hours would take the
water that had collected during the interval.

As above mentioned, this canal was reexcavated in 1911, and now has a depth
of 8 feet and a width of 40 feet. The capacity is 0.45 inch in depth of water
over the entire area. Even before the reservoir was reexcavated the combined
capacity of the pumping plant and reservoir was sufficient to keep the land
from flooding except for a few hours at times of extreme storm. With the larger
canal the pumping plant is operated continuously until practically all of the
water is removed.

DITCHES.

Due to the fall of about 4 feet to the mile in the surface of this tract it was
considered feasible to extend the lateral ditches the full length, 1 mile. The
ditches are of about the usual cross section—i. e., top width 4 feet, bottom width

_ 1.5 feet, and depth 3 feet. They are spaced uniformly 160 feet apart. This

seems to be a satisfactory arrangement, as the ditches have always given good
drainage and have never been flooded for any great length of time. A length
of 1 mile does not appear to be too great for ditches of this cross section and
fall. In this case each of these ditches is draining about 25 acres of land, or
carrying off 1.5 cubic feet per second on a basis of 1.5 inches run-off per 24
hours.

The cost of maintenance on these ditches is no small item. It is necessary
to cut the weeds out of them at least twice each year and it is sometimes done
three times. Once in two years it is necessary to take out about 1 cubic foot
of material per linear foot. On this basis the annual cost of maintenance is

¥e.2, showing water stages

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS
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419. 7 ~ Cress sections of /evees on Araa No.2, showing water stages ond profiles of ground water (For /ocations of sections, see Fig 6 )

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA.

about $0.75 per “acre”* of ditch. With the present spacing of 160 feet the
annual cost of ditch maintenance per acre of area drained is about $1.

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS :

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During the summer of 1910 some measurements of the depth of the water
table below the surface were made. The results of these measurements are
shown graphically in figures 8 and 8a. It is evident that after long and heavy

+The term “ acre” is in common use in the section under discussion as a unit of length
in rough land measurements. Its value is the length of one side of a square whose area
is 1 acre, or about 209 feet.

oo:
bo:

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

1919

41). 12) 15.| 16.| 17) 18) 19.) 20 | 21 | 22

BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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Fic, 8a.—Profiles of ground water on interior of area No. 2.

rains the ground water
profile is quite steep, but
that it rapidly flattens out.
Although the silt on this
tract is very fine grained
and impervious, there is
evidence of considerable
lateral movement of the
water through it. It was
considered by the land--
owner that the depth of
drainage was sufficient for
the growth of crops. Corn
was the crop on the ground
at the time these measure-
ments were taken.

PUMPING PLANT.

The plant is located at
one end of the reservoir
eanal (see fig. 6, p. 28)
and discharges by a short
wooden flume directly into
the commercial canal out-
side. There are two ver-
tical centrifugal pumps of
the square wooden - case
type, with impellers 32 by
12 inches and 24 by 8
inches, respectively. Each
pump is rope driven by a
slide-valve noncondensing
engine, steam being sup-
plied by a 100-horsepower
return-tubular boiler. A
feed-water heater has been
installed within the last
two years.

As far as mere capacity
is concerned, when run-
ning continuously,’ this
plant is satisfactory. How-
ever, aS regards reliability
and efficiency, as well as
cost of upkeep and opera-
tion, it is far from being
an ideal plant. The chief
trouble lies in the type of
pump. The wooden-case
pump with its rope drive
is constantly giving more
or less trouble; the ex-
pense for extra labor to
repair the rope drive

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 33

added to the cost of new rope is a considerable item. The loss of power
in the rope drive is unavoidable and the loss of the use of the pump at a
critical time due to the breaking of a rope is a serious matter.’ This pump
while adapted to a low lift is not suitable for a varying one. The total lift, to
be on the safe side, must be about 1 foot above ordinary high tide, and when
the variation of the tide is 2.5 feet with the effective lift only 4.5 feet, as it is
in this case, it is apparent that the actual lift of the pump is often nearly twice
the effective lift. Again, being made almost entirely of wood, repairs to this
style of pump are frequently necessary, and as the parts to be repaired are
usually under water the pump must be detached from the foundation and raised
before the work can be done. These pumps while low in first cost are very
short lived when compared to the cast-iron centrifugal type. Thus, consider-
ing the greater rate for depreciation and repairs on this style of pump as com-
pared to the cast-iron centrifugal form, it appears that the latter might be
preferable on this score alone.

A reliable pump if placed in this plant could be of considerable less capacity
than the present ones and still be of ample size. The heaviest rainfall since
the records of pumping have been kept occurred in July, 1910, when 5.58 inches
fell in 2 days. A reliable pump with a capacity of 0.75 inch per 24 hours
would have taken this water out rapidly enough to have prevented a longer
flooding than 12 hours.

CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION.

During the growing season of 1909 the front one-third of this tract was prac-
tically the only part that was sufficiently well drained to admit of cultivation.
These front lands naturally were a little firmer than the portion that originally
was a part of Lake Fields. The back portion was fairly well drained for two
years previous to the season of 1909, but the land had not become firm encugh
to allow its cultivation with animal-drawn machinery. The drying out of these
muck lands is accompanied by the formation of large cracks that extend to
the soft mud below, and it is only after these cracks have been closed that cul-
tivation can be done in the ordinary manner. The lateral ditches were all well

cleaned and the silt was removed from the reservoir during the early spring of

1910. Although the spring of 1910 was unusually dry, all of the lake bed was
not solid enough to be cultivated. Harly in the spring of 1911 all this land was
plowed with a gang of six turning plows drawn by a gasoline traction engine
mounted on the apron traction instead of wheels. Corn was planted in this
land and it was cultivated in the usual manner, since the one thorough plow-
ing had completely filled the holes and cracks. The period necessary to bring
the land under complete cultivation was about four years. This period could
have been shortened if the drainage had been complete and continuous from
the first and the land plowed a year sooner with a traction engine. Corn seems
to be the easiest and best crop to grow on these new lands, followed by sugar-
eane the second and third years. Wxcellent yields of all kinds of truck have
been grown on this plantation. Cane produces especially well and the tonnage
per acre is very much greater than on the older lands along the bayou, exceed-
ing their average nearly 50 per cent. No special treatment was given this soil
when bringing it under cultivation and it does not appear that any was neces-
sary.

AREA NO. 3, LA FOURCHE PARISH, LA.
This district (fig. 9) lies about 5 miles south of the village of Raceland and

borders on the upper end of Lake Fields, this being the same lake from which
a part of area No. 2 was taken. The district contains 940 acres. The surface

25102°—Bull. 71—14——_5

» U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

-
‘

BULLETIN

ee ee es
ae a ee

a a a ee

ee ee

ng ee

JOM £4 @ HIL/O

ee ee ee ee we ee

of Rain Gauge.

LEGEND

ReservoirCanols.....

Collecting Ditches...

quejd Guidung™

1209

SCALE IN FEET

onl

Loteral Ditches...

Ge ,

Fic. 9.—Sketch map of area No. 3, near Raceland, La Fourche Parish, La., showing ditch

and levee system.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 35

slopes gradually from a height of about 3 feet above mean tide at the north end
to lake level at the south. Reclamation on this tract was started in 1907, and
the first extensive cultivation was done in 1909. The condition and general
character of the muck has previously been described in the discussion of muck
soils. (See p. 12.)

LEVEES.

For the most part the levee was built of material taken from the outside of
the district. The work was done with a dipper dredge with a short boom, and
the berm on the outside is very small and in some places entirely lacking,
The levee was gone over two or three times before it was brought to its present
height of 4 feet above mean tide. The present crown is about 4 feet wide and
the side slopes are nearly as steep as 2 to 1. When this levee was built no
muck ditch was made in the base nor was any of the surface cleared of vegeta-
tion. The levee was cut by a trench some months after it had been built.
This showed that the material, when placed, did not force its way through the
muck and form a bond with the underlying silt. At this point the muck was
quite turfy in character, but not more so than the average muck of this part of
the prairie. The layer of muck under the levee was considerably compressed,
but it certainly was still quite pervious when compared to silt. The fact that
the base of this levee is above ordinary outside water level probably accounts
for the fact that no great amount of seepage appears. In the lower and softer
part of the district some of the material in the levee was taken from the reser-
voir canal. Here a berm of from 10 to 15 feet was left between the levee and
the canal, the muck being so soft that the mud, when dropped from the dipper,
undoubtedly cut through the muck to the silt below. The same condition
existed here as gave trouble on area No. 2, except that there was a berm on
the inside of this levee and the difference in the level of the water inside and
outside was never as great as on area No. 2. If the reservoir had been of suffi-
cient depth to drain thoroughly the lowest land in this district, the head of the
water against the levee might have been -great enough to cause a noticeable
amount of seepage. During the fall of 1911 the reservoir was deepened about
3 feet and the material placed on the levee. As the levee has had a chance to
harden for several years since it was first built, it is not expected that this
increased depth of drainage will cause a greater amount of seepage through it.
In this case no damage seems to have resulted from placing the reservoir canal
close to the levee and from using the material excavated from it for levee
building.

During the unusually high stage of water in this lake in December, 1911, and
January, 1912, the levees on the higher part of the district leaked very badly,
as might have been expected from a previous examination of the unbroken
layer of muck in the base. In the softer portions of the district no great
trouble was experienced from seepage. During the early months of 1912 a
continuous muck ditch was cut along the toe of the inside slope of these levees
and this refilled with material taken by an orange-peel bucket dredge from
the bottom of the outside canal. The levees should now be in much better
condition to resist seepage.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

When this reservoir was first excavated the ground was very soft; as a
result a deep layer of mud was soon deposited in the bottom. Owing to the
fact that it was located in the lowest part of the tract it served as an outlet
to the lateral ditches, but never was of sufficient capacity to aid in reducing the

36 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

required capacity of the pumping plant. The surface of the ground for a con-
siderable distance around the pumping plant is much lower than that of the
remainder of the district, so that the water was allowed to overflow the reser-
voir and to fill this low area. As no attempt was being made to cultivate this
low area it was used in this manner for.additional reservoir capacity. If an
attempt had been made to reclaim the entire district the reservoir must have
been found too small for any practical use, but by allowing this low part of the
tract to be flooded the remainder was given fairly good drainage until the
summer of 1911. The need of a better reservoir then became apparent and
during the month of October the reservoir was excavated to a depth of 7 feet
and a width of 35 feet. In addition to cleaning out the old canal a new por-
tion was cut into the central part of the district. The capacity of the new
reservoir above a 4-foot level is 0.25 inch; the reservoir should maintain this
capacity, as the surrounding ground is quite firm. In excavating along the old
reservoir the material was found to be solid enough for each dipperful par-
tially to hold its shape after being dropped on the spoil bank. Considerable
difficulty was encountered, however, in removing the soft mud that had col-
lected in the bottom of the reservoir. A hydraulic dredge would have been
much more satisfactory for taking out this mud.

DITCHES.

During the first two years of cultivation on this tract lateral ditches of a
depth of 3 feet, spaced as far apart as 600 feet, gave ample drainage. Due to
the short length of reservoir canal it was necessary to construct some large
collecting ditches to keep the lengths of laterals from being too great. These
collecting ditches were about 8 feet wide and 4 feet deep, but as they were
frequently nearly dry a strong growth of vegetation soon reduced their effective
size very greatly. They did not afford the small lateral ditches sufficient out-
let and consequently the tract was not well drained; at the same time the
ground was becoming more impervious, due to the decay of the muck. Lateral
ditches were then placed about 200 feet apart and the ditches were cleaned
out. During the summer of 1911, one of unusual precipitation, it was found
that about halfway between adjacent lateral ditches the ground was saturated
with water to the surface. Some of the landowners now propose to place
lateral ditches as close together as 100 feet. It would seem that this is as
yet unnecessary. In the first place, the laterals were not at that time of the
usual depth of 3 feet; they were not kept in good condition, and some of them
were nearly three-fourths of a mile long, and furthermore the reservoir canal
was not of sufficient depth to keep the water out of these ditches. If the above
defects were remedied, it certainly would improve conditions greatly and might
make the cutting of additional ditches unnecessary. The use of a collecting
ditch instead of frequent reservoir canals, while it reduces the first cost of
the drainage channels is rather unsatisfactory. The collecting ditch soon
becomes grown full of weeds and grass, while a small reservoir canal will
always have water in it and will not so easily become obstructed. Plate I,
figure 1, shows an apron-traction ditcher cutting laterals on this district.

PUMPING PLANT.

The plant is located in the lowest part of the district. The pumps discharge
through a short wooden flume into the lake. There are two 32 by 12 inch verti-
cal centrifugal pumps of the square wooden-case type. One of them is belt
driven and the other rope driven, each by a 12 by 16 inch slide-valve noncon-

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. B37

densing engine. Steam is furnished by two 60-horsepower locomotive type
boilers. The machinery is on a timber foundation, supported on piling, and
the building is a frame Structure covered with heavy corrugated galvanized
iron. In type the plant is very similar to the one on area No. 2 and is subject
to the same general criticisms. In capacity it has always been sufficient, but
due to the small reservoir it could only be operated at full capacity for rather
short periods. However, the new and large reservoir remedied this difficulty,
although on account of its length the collecting ditch will always bring in the
water rather slowly.

The present conditions are favorable to a small percentage and a low in-
tensity of run-off. As the district is more completely brought under cultivation,
however, and the water is more promptly pumped out, both the amount and the
intensity of the run-off should increase, although it is not likely that this will
be large enough to require an increase of the present large pumping capacity. -
In August, 1911, this plant burned; it was reconstructed, the present plant
being a duplicate of the former one. In a plant of this character, where most
of the structure is of wood, the danger of fire is much greater than in the more
recent type of pumping plant. These latter are equipped with cast-iron cen-
trifugal pumps mounted on concrete foundations and are built with some iden
of making them fireproof.

CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION.

In bringing this land under cultivation the first crop was planted on the
higher portions after a year of drainage. Before the muck became decayed
it drained very readily, and, as stated on page 36, few laterals were necessary.
Good crops of corn were grown on this land with the water table only 1 foot
below the surface. Sugar cane has also successfully been grown on this land,
as have all kinds of truck. No special treatment has been given the land
before cultivation. Not all of this district has been cultivated, though it is
now all solid enough to be easily cultivated if the water were kept sufficiently
low. This tract could have been brought under cultivation much sooner if it
had been well drained the year around, instead of only during the growing
season. In draining new land it is important to keep it well drained all of the
time, so that the soft mud will have a chance to harden.

AREA NO. 4, RACELAND, LA FOURCHE PARISH, LA.

This district, containing 2,400 acres, is similar in natural conditions, such as
Soil and elevation, to area No. 8, and borders it along one side. While in size
it is more advantageous than any of the districts heretofore mentioned, its
shape, due to natural boundaries, is not as good. However, the various details
of reclamation have been somewhat better carried out in this district than ju
those previously discussed. The map of area No. 4 is shown in figure 10.

LEVEES.

Most of the levee was built by a dipper dredge with material taken from the
channels which the map shows outside the protected area. No ditch was cut
in the base of the levee nor was any other preliminary work done. Along Bayou
False the levee was built from material taken from both inside and outside the
district. This bayou had been opened for navigation several years before the
levee along this district was built. The spoil bank had settled until it was
quite firm, so that the material taken from the reservoir canal, when deposited
on this firm base, formed a levee of sufficient cross section the first time over

38 BULLETIN 71, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with the dredge. Along most of the boundary of the tract the ground was so
Solid that once over with the dredge, cutting a 35-foot by 6-foot canal, gave
more than enough material to build a levee. The average height of the levee is
4 feet above mean tide, and the top width, while variable, averages about 5
feet. All of the levee has not been brought to an even grade as yet, and much

Ganals...........--
Collecting Ditches... F
FIOM LGTORAG Eines ecc orn ein oe
SCALE IN FEET
2000 3000 4000 5000

.P, del.

° 1000

Fic. 10.—Sketch map of area No. 4, Raceland, La Fourche Parish, La., outlining arrange-
ment of ditches and levees.

of it has been allowed to grow up in weeds. As far as can be noticed, this levee
is practically free from any great amount of seepage at ordinary water level.
For the most part the base is above mean tide, and no doubt this fact partly
accounts for the good condition of the levee. Where the reservoir canal par-
alleis Bayou False a 10 to 15 foot berm was left along both sides of the levee,
making the total distance between canals nearly 60 feet. On the other portions

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 39

of the tract the berm along the outside of the levee is smaller and averages
about 5 feet in width. As ditches do not parallel this levee except on one side,
and then not closely, the small width of berm should not prove a serious defect
as far as seepage is concerned.

As stated on page 37, no muck ditch was cut in the base of the levee, and at
ordinary stages of water no large seepage was apparent. However, during the
high water that affected area No. 3 the levee leaked badly, and, as was the case
in area No. 3, the water seemed to come through the base where the layer of
muck occurred, rather than through the body of the levee itself. This defect
was remedied by cutting a ditch along the slope of the levee and filling it with
material dredged from the bottom of the canal. This not only cut off seepage
through the base of the levee, but added somewhat to the cross-sectional area.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

Owing to the size of this tract it was necessary to cut reservoir canals into
the interior to give outlet to the system of laterals. ‘This rather extensive length
of canals gives a larger reservoir capacity than is had in any of the other
districts of this vicinity. Between the surface and a distance of 4 feet below
these canals have a capacity of 0.40 inch of water over the entire area. It is
possible for the pumping plant to lower the water below this level, but under
ordinary circumstances this is approximately the level to which the water is
reduced. The added depth of reservoir (the canals are nearly all over 6 feet
deep) will be of service in reducing the velocity of flow in the canals during the
time of pumping and also in keeping their bottoms covered with water. This
last feature will in a measure prevent the growth of weeds and grass and the
consequent choking of the canals. In December, 1911, these canals were quite
badly filled with a deposit of soft mud, 2 and even 3 feet having been deposited
in places since the cutting of the canals some two years previous. This deposit
is quite rapid during the first year of drainage. It is due partly to the wash
from the laterals, but also to the crumbling and the sliding of the sides of the
canals. The sliding is especially great when water is lowered too rapidly when
the district is first pumped out. By taking the water out very gradually it has
been found: that, even when the canals have been cut in very soft material, any
great amount of sliding of canal banks can be avoided. In the softest portions
of the prairie it has been found that there is a tendency for the surrounding
mud to flow toward the canals when the water is lowered for the first time; the
walls of the canals may continue to be even and unbroken, but the canals do
not remain as wide nor as deep as they were before the water was lowered and
this flow began. The material on this tract was too solid for any considerable
amount of flow to be apparent. During the early part of the month of Decem-
ber, 1911, an 8-inch hydraulic dredge was started in these canals to remove this
deposit of mud. It was found desirable on the larger canals to replace the
hydraulic dredge with an orange-peel-bucket dredge. By cutting into the harder
underlying material it was possible to remove most of the soft mud from the
bottom of the canal. This redredging of interior canals seems to become neces-
sary from two to four years after they are first cut.

The reservoir has thus far given satisfaction in the reclamation of this tract.
The increase of lift during the operation of the pumps, due to the slope of the
water surface, is quite small. The greatest length of canal tributary to the
pumping plant is about 24 miles. The greatest length of drainage channel that
the water travels is nearly 3 miles,

40 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DITCHES.

In this district, as in area No. 3, the collecting ditches have been used in con-
nection with the lateral ditches to drain the ground. The collecting ditches
have been placed along the roads and this has made it less difficult to keep them
in good condition and also to see when they were in need of cleaning. However,
these collecting ditches have not been easy to maintain, and it has been neces-
Sary to clean them out a number of times. It was the plan at first to place
the laterals every 210 feet, but later they were placed at twice that distance.
When the ground was first drained this greater distance was not found to be -
too great. In 1912, after two years of drainage and cultivation, a distance of
210 feet is considered by the landowners to be about as great as is safe. The
laterals were at first 3 feet deep. This depth is not considered sufficient when
the spacing between the laterals is as much as 210 feet. At times of heavy
rains it has been found that the land between the ditches became too wet for
best growth of crops. j

Most of the laterals on this tract carry drainage water for at least 2,000
feet. This length seems to be allowable if the ditch is kept in fairly good condi-
tion. When ditches longer than a half. mile are used, they must be increased
in width and depth at the lower end, unless they are kept in perfect condition
all of the time. On the lower and softer portion of this tract, unless some
further collecting ditches are cut, the length of lateral will be nearly a mile; in
view of the fact that this ground is almost level it is likely that this length will
be too great. The percentage of land consumed in ditches and canals on this
tract is quite small; considering the large area in reservoir. When all of the
ditches are spaced 210 feet apart the area of land so consumed will be a little
more than 24 per cent.

PUMPING PLANT.

The pumping plant is quite well located to draw water from all parts of the
district. The discharge is into Bayou False, which is about 60 feet wide at
this point and so affords an excellent outlet. As this plant is of much better
construction than any of the others of this group, a somewhat detailed descrip-
tion of it will be given (see fig. 11). The block of concrete which forms the
foundation for the pumps and engines is about 17 feet wide and 50 feet long,
and was placed approximately on the center of the levee with its greatest length
parallel to the levee. This block is 8 feet thick and so extends below the plane
of permanent water level, thus protecting from decay the piling that supports
it. Around this foundation was driven a double row of sheet piling, and at
each end a double row was extended some 15 feet into the levee. The sides of
the intake basin also were protected by a double row of sheet piling, supported
by a timber frame bolted to a number of round piles. The short length of dis-
charge canal necessary to reach to the bayou was protected in a similar manner.
Across the front of the intake basin a wooden screen prevents any floating
matter of size from entering the pumps. The base of the pumps is set at about
extreme low water in the bayou, and to protect the foundation from being
flooded the concrete is raised in a wall about a foot thick along the outside to a
height of 3 feet above mean tide. The whole of the foundation is well rein-
forced with steel, and the round piling under the concrete extends into it about
2 feet, thus insuring a perfect bond.

One 30-inch cast-iron centrifugal pump was installed in March, 1910, and a
duplicate unit was added July, 1912. The arrangement and size of piping of
the first unit is shown in figure 11. The important features are the enlarging
and tapering of the pipes at the intake and discharge ends, the freedom from
bends or elbows, and the horizontal cutting of the intake end of the pipe, the

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. Al

latter feature permitting the water to be lowered to the end of the pipe without
allowing the entrance of air. The saving in velocity head losses secured by
enlarging the pipes amounts to nearly 2 feet, which is about one-half the usual
lift. The pipes are supported by steel hangers secured to pairs of round piling.
The pump is driven by a 14 by 16 inch vertical slide-valve engine, direct con-
nected to,.the pump shaft with flexible coupling. This style of engine occupies
less floor space and also ‘requires shorter lengths of pipes on the pumps than
does the horizontal type. In addition, it is less likely to cause vibration
or motion of the foundation when operated at high speed. Steam is fur-
nished by a return tubular boiler burning crude oil. The building for this
machinery has a timber frame covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron.
The theoretical capacity of the completed plant, when both pumps are working

Engine Base]
————

GFP, del:
Fic. 11.—Sketch plan and elevation of one unit in pumping plant of area No. 4,
Raceland, La.

most economically, will be 1 inch per day with a maximum of 1.4 inches per day.
One pump, with a capacity of 0.7 inch per day, successfully drained this tract
for nearly two years until the time of high water in December, 1911, and
January, 1912, when, owing to the seepage through the levee in addition to
the rainfall, the ground was flooded for two or three days. At this time the
reliability of this plant was shown, as the pump was operated continuously
for six days and nights. With the second unit installed, no trouble should
be experienced in removing any rainfall encountered, especially since the levees
are now much better able to keep out seepage. It is quite certain that when
all of the tract is under cultivation and all lateral ditches are in operation
the intensity and amount of the run-off will be largely increased, but, due to
the large reservoir capacity of the plant, no trouble should be encountered.

25102°—Bull. 71—14—6

42 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION.

The pump was first started on this tract about March, 1910. The canals had
been cut.some months before and the lateral ditches had also been in operation
on the higher portions for about the same length of time. Some 300 acres of
land were brought under cultivation during the spring of 1910, a large part of
it by the use of horses and ordinary farm machinery. The remainder of
this 300-acre tract was broken with a pulverizer attached to an apron-traction-
ditcher frame. During the season of 1911 about as much more area was
brought under cultivation. Nearly all of the tract that had been ditched could
have been cultivated from the first. Much of the land in the lower portion of
the tract is not yet completely ditched; in this part the ground is still far too
soft to allow the use of horses or mules and ordinary farm machinery.

The general crop grown was corn, with a small acreage of cane planted in

1911. Both crops were uniformly good, the cane being especially heavy.

; AREA NO. 5, DES ALLEMANDS, LAFOURCHE PARISH, LA.

This tract of land (fig. 12) is one of the newest of the reclamation districts,
and has only been under drainage since September, 1911. It lies on the western
side of Bayou des Allemands, which at this point is several hundred feet wide
and frem 10 to 15 feet deep. The district contains 1,880 acres and includes
a portion of the village of Des Allemands, lying on the western side of the
bayou and south of the Southern Pacific Railroad. The land is 1 or 2 feet
above ordinary tidewater. in the bayou, and a large percentage of it is made
up of firm silt ridges, with a very thin layer of muck on the surface. At inter-
vals there occur old muck-filled bayous, haying widths of from 100 to 200 feet
and depths of from 10 to 15 feet; however, the land is mostly quite firm, the
proportion of such soft ground being about 10 per cent. Some of it was solid
enough to plow in the ordinary manner as soon as the water was removed by
the pumps. Except for a few scattering trees on the high ridges, most of the
tract is covered With a heavy growth of the natural prairie grass. The muck
averages from 8 to 12 inches in depth and is quite turfy in character.

LEVEES.

On two sides of this tract the problem of levee building was a simple one.
The embankment of the Southern Pacific Railroad makes an excellent levee
on one entire side and on the side that borders the bayou the solid ridge of silt
was almost continuous and averaged about 2 feet above mean tide. Twice over
with the dredge along the bayou made a levee about 5 feet high and having a
top width of from 8 to 12 feet. The side slopes on this part of the levee are
about 14 to 1. It is expected to use this part of the levee for a road, and as
the material is almost pure silt it should make an excellent roadway. After
the first layer of material was placed in this levee a thuck ditch was cut along
its inside slope. When the second layer was placed this ditch was filled with
pure silt taken from the bottom of the levee canal. This should give a levee
that will be free from any great amount of seepage through the base. On the
other two sides of the district canals had been cut some years before and the
material thrown on both sides. This left a low solid base for the levee, and in
most places once over with the dredge gave a levee 3 or 4 feet high with a top
width of from 4 to 6 feet. The side slopes on this portion of the levee are from
2 to 3 horizontal to 1 vertical. The berm’ varies from 5 to 10 feet. Except
where some old muck-filled bayous are crossed, the levee is high enough to pre-

sa ae ha 7
H)
,

;

Bul. 71, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

FIG. 1.—APRON-TRACTION DITCHER CUTTING LATERAL DITCH ON AREA NO. 3,
RACELAND, LA.

Fic. 2.—PUMPING PLANT (UNDER CONSTRUCTION) ON AREA No. 5, DES ALLEMANDS, LA.

Bul. 71, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

e .

Fic. 2.—APRON TRACTOR PULLING GANG OF BREAKING PLOWS AFTER RECLAMATION, AREA
No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA.

Bul. 71, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fig. 1.—DipPER DREDGE CUTTING 50 BY 10 Foot RESERVOIR CANAL AND BUILDING
LEVEE.

FIG. 2.—APRON-TRACTION DITCHER CUTTING LATERAL DITCH, AREA No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA.

Bul. 71, U..S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

INTERIOR VIEWS OF PUMPING PLANT ON AREA No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA., SHOWING ARRANGEMENT
OF ENGINES AND Pumps.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 43

vent flooding. In these soft spots the levee is only about a foot above mean tide
and considerable work will have to be done to bring it to grade. Additions are
being made to these portions with hand labor, and at present subsidence has
practically ceased.

On a portion of the levee where the old bank was used for a foundation some
peculiar ‘seepage conditions have become apparent. Water appeared in the
interior of the district some 20 to 40 feet from the levee, and an examination
showed that the subsoil of the impervious Sharkey clay was filled with holes
that varied in size from that of the usual crawfish hole, about 1 inch in diam-
eter, up to several inches, the latter probably being muskrat holes. This was in
a place where the underlying subsoil was very solid. It will be necessary to cut
a deep muck ditch along this levee and fill it with puddled earth.

L 30 CANAL

Scale in Feet
1900 7000 3000
GFP, del

Fie. 12.—Sketch map of area No. 5, Des Allemands, La Fourche Parish, La., showing
arrangement of levee and ditches.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

As shown in figure 12, the reservoir canals were all cut in the interior of the
district. By extending the canals to all parts of the tract the necessity of
small collecting ditches was eliminated. A small canal gives much better out-
let to the laterals than a collecting ditch and is easier to maintain in good
condition. These canals were cut with a dipper dredge and the material was
deposited rather close to the sides of the canal. This resulted in a small
amount of shrinkage in the size of the canals, there having been, in February,
1912, about 4 feet of soft mud in the bottom of each of them; part of this was
perhaps left by the dipper dredge when cutting the canal. It was expected
that an attempt would soon be made to remove this mud with. a small hydraulic
dredge; this should be a very favorable situation for its use. At the time of
the examination the cross section of the main canal was so far reduced that
the pumping plant could not be operated at full capacity after the water was

+4 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reduced to about 3 feet below the surface. The water was lowered very
slowly in the canals, beginning about the 1st of September, 1911. No large
slides occurred until about the end of December. At that time the water was
lowered to the bottom of the canal and the banks became very soft; due to
heavy and continued rains. In the immediate vicinity of the pumping plant,
where the water was the lowest, and where an old muck-filled bayou was.
crossed, both sides of the main canal caved in for a length of about 200 feet.
The surrounding ground surface for a distance of 100 feet was lowered by this
’' action. The foregoing is a good illustration of the way this material will flow
when conditions are favorable. The capacity of the reservoir system when
it is brought back to its original size will be about 0.5 inch between the sur-
face and a 4-foot level. This should bring the water to the pumps in sufficient
quantities to keep both of them in operation until the water in the canal is
lowered to at least a 4-foot level.

DITCHES.

The spacing of ditches on this tract probably will be about 200 feet. It is
likely that on the higher and more solid portions the ditches will not require
such close spacing as this, at. least for the present. The ditches were being
cut with a ditcher similar to those usually employed on land of this character
and will be of the usual size. They will discharge into the small canals and
none of them will connect directly with the main reservoir canal. ‘The idea is
to cause the silt to deposit mm the small canals and thus leave the large canal
free from mud. Owing. to the regular shape of the district and the regular
arrangement of the canals the ditches will all be of about the same length and
the whole tract should receive about the same degree of drainage. The length
of ditch will be nearly 2,000 feet. With the good outlet that the canals will
afford, when compared with collecting ditches, this length should not prove to
be too long to afford good drainage. If the ditches are placed at the usual
spacing of about 200 feet the proportion of land in ditches and canals will
be 3.6 per cent.

PuMPING PLANT.

The pumping plant is located about 300 feet back from the bayou front, on a
leveed outfall canal. The plant was thus located in order that advantage might
be taken of a firm ridge of silt as a foundation for the machinery. The arrange-
ment and character of the foundation are shown in figure 13 and are very similar
to those of the foundation under the plant on area No. 4. In this plant there are
two units, which are duplicates. The pumps are cast-iron centrifugal with a 24-
inch diameter of discharge. Plate I, figure 2, shows this plant under construction
and gives an idea of the arrangement of boilers and machinery. The discharge
and intake pipes are both enlarged and tapered the full length. The area of
the intake pipe is about four and one-half times and the area of the end of the
discharge pipe is nearly three times that of the discharge opening on the pump.
This enlargement saves a loss of veiocity head of nearly 4 feet, which is about
equal to the ordinary actual lift of the pumps. The intake pipes have but the:
one elbow where they enter the pump and the discharge pipes are both straight.
These pumps should operate very efficiently, as everything possible has been
done to cut out unnecessary losses. To each pump a 12 by 12 inch simple
vertical engine is direct connected with a flexible connection. Steam is fur-
nished by two return-tube boilers burning coal. Oil burners are now being
installed. This plant has been in operation since September, 1912, and is run-
ning very smoothly. Both of the units have been run continuously for a period

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 45

of 4 or 5 days and were in good condition at the end of the run. This type
of plant seems to give the reliability that is necessary in a drainage plant. Its
theoretical capacity when operating at full load is 0.95 inch of depth in 24 hours.

AREA NO. 6, NEAR POYDRAS, ST. BERNARD PARISH, LA.

This district is part of a tract of 85,000 acres of land that lies to the south
_ of the little town of Poydras, in St. Bernard Parish, being about 15 miles from
New Orleans. The front boundary of the tract is for the most part the back
line of the river-front plantations and the land extends back several miles.
Most of the area is open grass-covered prairie, with only a narrow belt of
timber near the front line. As a whole it is almost at mean tide level, the
average elevation being not far from 0.5 foot. The muck is close to 4 feet
deep and is not quite so turfy in character as is that in the vicinity of Race-

Engine Base

Fie. 13.—Sketch plan and elevation of one unit in pumping plant on area No. 5, Des Alle-
mands, La.

land and Lockport. It seems to be the result of the decay of the usual growth
of prairie grass, but has considerable silt mixed in with the decayed vegetable
matter and lies on a subsoil of typical Mississippi River silt, of chocolate-
brown color. Owing to the slight elevation of the land it is quite soft, since it
has never had a chance to drain and become solid. The front part is not cut
up to any extent by bayous, although the tract includes a lake with an area
of nearly 5 square miles. P

The greatest problem to be solved in the reclamation of this tract is the pro-
tection against storm tides. The maximum rise in tide at this point is between
5 and 6 feet. This is higher than any on record for a period of about 100 years
previous to the storm of September, 1909, which gave this maximum height.

Area No. 6 contains 2,000 acres of open grass-covered prairie taken from the
above-described tract of land and in addition contains 500 acres of a river-
front plantation. It is so located that an addition to it can be made on the
west side if the pumping plant proves larger than necessary.

46 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LEVEES.

The levee on this tract has been raised to a height of about 7 feet above mean
tide level. The work was done with an orange-peel-bucket dredge, with a 70-
foot boom. This allowed a berm of about 20 feet between the levee and the

_22'CANAL

{|
a
Te re
__22'canal yi i tt VW
Hy tit tM
ead i Oe
i 22 CANAL A It
ii! ry a \
| 11, 1g
eal ae Mie
! = 122"CAWAL | Nii NS
ryt ist 4
ate
oh Jo el 8) go CANAL Fe ROS Seen
! I! I .
rt Neen
rw iden] i
_)) bow gals lo gpegaangnt 4p = RE ORES
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high
md tat
Levee! | |

~ CANAL- PPP

1000 ) 1000 5000 10000 FEET
Fic. 14.—Sketch map of area No. 6, Poydras, La., showing ditch and levee systems.
canal. As shown in figure 14, all levee canals are on the outside, as the mate-

rial was considered to be too soft to permit placing of the canal inside the dis-
trict, and thus use it as a reservoir canal. By locating these canals on the

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 47

outside they will be made useful for navigation. For the most part there was
no preparation of the base of the levee, for when the first few dippers of ma-
terial were placed in the levee it cut very deeply into the muck and formed a
good bond with the underlying silt. In placing the first layer no attempt was
made to get much above 3 feet in height, but a wide base of 60 feet was secured
for the remainder of the levee. In crossing some old drainage canals that had
been cut for about 40 years, a decided difference was noted in the solidity of
the material. Due to the small elevation of the surface along these canals they
could furnish but very little drainage, yet in building levees across them it was
noticed that they had affected the ground for a distance of several hundred feet,
and that the levee could be raised in one layer to a height of about 6 feet above
mean tide. This shows the advantage of allowing the first layer of material to
drain for some time before placing the upper one. Most of the levee was
brought to its present grade line with three layers of material, while in the
soft portions it was necessary te place about five layers to bring it to grade.
The levee at present seems to be holding to grade, and any further subsidence
will be due to the decay of the vegetable material in the levee rather than to
the spreading or subsidence of the base. Approximately twice as much mate-
rial was excavated as will show in effective volume in the levee. The top width
is at present about 4 feet, and the side slopes are 3 to 1. Thus far no seepage
through this levee is apparent.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

This tract has a very complete set of reservoir and collecting canals. The
sizes of the various canals were more or less proportioned to the amount of
water that they would be expected to carry when draining the adjacent land
and taking the water from the connecting canals. Thus practically the same
degree of drainage should be secured in all parts of the entire district, and the
loss of head when the pumps are in operation should be about as small as is
practicable. The greatest length necessary for any ditch is about one-eighth of
almile. These canals alone should give the ground fairly good drainage, at least
until the muck begins to decay and becomes more impervious than at present.
The storage capacity of these canals when the water is lowered to a distance
of 4 feet below the surface is about 0.75 inch; at a distance of 3 feet it would
be 0.52 inch. It is intended to hold the water at the 3-foot level, and even at
this level the reservoir capacity of this district will be as large as that in the
average district where the capacity is all excavated. A depth of about 7 feet
has been given the collecting canals, and as the larger canals are reached, near
the pumping plant, a depth of about 10 feet is attained. Due to the great depth
of muck these collecting canals finally will have to be deepened, for when
4 feet of muck has decayed the surface of the ground will be lowered perhaps
23 feet. This subsidence will, however, take a long term of years, and by that
time the canals will have required cleaning several times, so that the increased
depth of canal need not be made all at once. i

These canals were all cut with a dredge of the hydraulic type. They are
much more satisfactory than those cut with an ordinary dipper or orange-peel-
bucket dredge, as they are left free from any soft mud and no great spoil bank
is present on each side of the canal. In digging lateral ditches into these canals
the expense of cutting through the spoil banks will be avoided and a consid-
erable area of land usually wasted by being covered with excavated earth will
be saved. The canals themselves should be more permanent, as the absence
of a great weight on each bank will greatly decrease the tendency of the

48 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

material to flow into the canal. The surface is raised between 1 and 2 feet
for a distance of 100 or 200 feet back from the canal banks by the deposit
made by the hydraulic dredge. The cost of cutting the canals by this method
is not as great as with the other type of dredge and the results are much more
satisfactory. It is expected that in the future this type of dredge will be used
almost exclusively where the ground is free from trees and stumps.

DITCHES.

The spacing of the ditches on this tract is 165 feet. With the canals at
one-half the usual distance, and with a deep, porous muck soil, this spacing
should give a sufficient amount of drainage for a number of years until the
soil becomes more impervious, due to the decay of the vegetation it contains.
Owing to the soft nature of the soil in this district a long time would have
been required for it to become solid enough to use the ordinary type of apron
traction ditcher. A capstan ditcher, or ditching plow, was therefore used to cut the
ditches. The plow was pulled with cables running between two adjacent collecting
eanals. In each of the canals an engine with winding drum was mounted on a
barge. After cutting a ditch the barges. were floated along the canals to the
location of the next one. In some of the softer portions this plow was found
to be too heavy and plowed too deeply, so a lighter structure of wood was sub-
stituted which cut a very satisfactory surface ditch. This tract is free from
logs and stumps, thus allowing the use of such machinery. When the surface
has become fairly solid, due to.the drainage afforded by these superficial ditches,
the larger ani heavier ditching plow ¢an be used, and all of these ditches will
be put down to a depth of 3 feet. By this method of ditching the time con-
sumed in placing the tract under complete drainage will be considerably
lessened, for a wait of several months would have been necessary before a
traction ditcher could have been used.

PUMPING PLANT.

In location this plant is rather far to one corner of the tract, but due to the
large size of the main reservoir canal no great loss of head should result in
the canals when the pumps are in operation. The greatest distance that the
water will travel in the canals to reach the pump is about 3 miles. The pumps
discharge into the navigation cana] that surrounds the district and connects
with the bays and bayous to the rear.

The machinery consists of one 36-inch and one 24-inch cast-iron centrifugal
pump direct connected to slide-valve engines. The boilers are of the return-
tube type and oil is used as fuel. The discharge and intake pipes on both
pumps are enlarged to save the usual loss of velocity head. The two units are
mounted on separate concrete foundations, supported on piling, the foundation
forming part of the dam across the outfall canal. The greater part of the dam
is of mud held in place by the rows of sheet piling that form the cofferdam.
This saves considerable expense for concrete and still insures a water-tight
dam. It is planned to use the small unit in times of ordinary rainfall and to
use both when necessary. The combined capacity of the pumps when operating
at full load will be about 1.1 inches in depth in 24 hours. On account of the
high tide to be expected in this vicinity, the pumps are capable of working
against a 10-foot head. The capacity will of course be greatly reduced at this
head.

The building over this machinery is of fireproof construction, being a frame-
work of structural steel covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 49

AREA NO 7, GUEYDAN, VERMILION PARISH, LA.

This district, containing 5,600 acres, is the first one being developed in a
tract of some 90,000 acres lying in the southern portion of Vermilion Parish
and bordering on the northern shore of White Lake. The general nature of the
soil and other natural conditions have already been described. The elevation
of the surface above mean tide level is between 2 and 4 feet and the slope of
the surface is from north to south. This tract is a typical example of the
higher and firmer prairies of this section as contrasted with those of the softer
type immediately along the rivers of this part of the State. (See Pl. II, fig. 1.)

DRAINAGE DITCH

evee ff

= ae agora jam alae a
i}

AMAA ARR AAR Oe BR

2 Miles, 20°CANAL
__2Miles, 20 CANAL
_2Miles, 20'CANAL
2 Miles, 20'CANAL

30’ CANAL
Levee”

Levees,

Ash AKAARAABAAAAA BARBARA AAA ARAAAAADADDARAAD DD

—0'CANALY

/ Mile, 30° CANAL
| Mile, 30'CANAL

1 Mile, 30'CANAL

Levee to White Lake
etd ;
000 FEET

Fic. 15.—Sketch map of area No. 7, Gueydan, La., showing ditches and levees.

Work was begun on this district in June, 1911, and the pumping plant was
started about March, 1912. Figure 15 shows the general arrangement of
canals, levees, and ditches. a

LEVEES.

Along the north side of this district a drainage canal had been cut some
years previous to the beginning of the present work. A spoil bank of a cross-
sectional area nearly sufficient to serve as a levee still exists on the south side
of this canal. Along the other three sides the levee canals are on the inside of
the district. In cutting a 25-foot canal 5 feet deep more than enough material

50 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was secured to build a levee with a height of 5 feet and a top width of about
the same. Owing to the solid nature of the subsoil, the levee as a whole sub-
sides very little except for the usual shrinkage of the material itself. The
slight depth of muck also contributes to this favorable condition. In a few
places, however, some old muck-filled bayous have been encountered and the levee
remaining after one trip over with the dredge is only about 2 feet high. It
will be necessary to go over these spots several times to get the required
height. The berms left by the dredges doing the work are not much over 8
feet. No muck ditch is being used under this levee. Taking into considera-
tion the facts that the base of this levee is from 3 to 4 feet above mean tide,
that the storm tide in this vicinity is not more than 2 feet, that the subsoil is
very solid, and that the muck is only about 1 foot deep, it would seem in this
case to be the best practice to place the levee canals on the inside of the district
and thus to have use of them for drainage canals.

The levee should be certain protection from storm tides that occur in this
section and should also cut off practically all seepage into the district. On the
other hand, as all the canals are on the inside of the district their usefulness
as havigation canals will be impaired. In the development of a district of this
Size the advantage of having navigable canals all around it is considerable. On .
newly reclaimed lands the question of water transportation is one of impor-
tance, as roads are very hard to construct when the land is first drained. It
is the intention to use the levee as a road for most of its length.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

In addition to the canals that border this district a collecting canal has
been cut every half mile throughout. These collecting canals are about 7 feet
deep and the reservoir is of about the same depth at the upper end and 10 feet
deep at the lower end. In this soil these canals should maintain their original
depth and there should be no trouble from the flow of the earth when the canals
are first pumped out: The canals are-of ample cross section to insure a small
loss of head when the punips are in operation. When the water is lowered to a
level 4 feet below the surface the storage capacity will be 0.75 inch.

A lock has been built at the end of the main reservoir so that barges can be
floated into the district. The depth of 10 feet in the main reservoir will
allow navigation even when the water is low enough to give drainage to the
entire tract. This district has one of the largest excavated reservoir capacities
of any of the districts so far attempted. The frequent and regular lateral
canals make it an easy matter to install an efficient ditch system. Plate III,
figure 1, shows a dipper dredge cutting reservoir canal and building levee on
this district.

DITCHES.

Lateral ditches were cut on this district with an apron traction ditcher at a
uniform spacing of 330 feet. (See Pl. III, fig. 2.) These machines worked on
this district in from 1 to 3 feet of water. Owing to the solid nature of the soil
the apron wheel did not sink into the ground to any great extent. Unlike the
districts that are being reclaimed in the vicinity of New Orleans, the soil will
not need to be drained for about two years before it becomes solid enough to
cultivate in the ordinary manner, and this district should come under cultiva-
tion quite soon after the system is installed. However, the old muck-filled
bayous will be soft for perhaps two years after the rest of the land is under
cultivation, In these bayous the muck is about 5 feet deep. The area of this
district that is in canals and ditches is about 8.2 per cent of the whole.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 51

PUMPING PLANT.

This plant was located far in the corner of the district so as to place it
directly on the main outlet canal to White Lake, If the plant had been placed
in the middle of the south side the greatest distance that the water would
travel to the pump could have been reduced from 6 miles to 4% miles. The
length of outlet to White Lake would have been increased, however, so that
the actual gain in decreased lift would have been very small.

There are two caSt-iron centrifugal pumps, having diameters of discharge
opening of 54 inches (fig. 16). The pumps have double intake pipes and both
the intake and discharge pipes are tapered and enlarged to four times the area
of the opening on the pump, and they discharge under water. These features
cut the velocity head losses to about the smallest amount that would be eco-
nomical. There are two engines of the Corliss type, having 16 by 36 inch
cylinders; these are direct connected to the pumps. (See Pl. IV.) Return-

High Water ~
Ground Level

Hal section of-
‘pipe at ends ,

|] rome 6

Fic. 16.—EHlevation of pumping plant on area No. 7, Gueydan, La.

tube boilers are used, with oil as fuel. The machinery is mounted on a con-
crete foundation supported on piling. In driving these piling the subsoil was
found to be very hard and the foundation should therefore be solid. When
the plant is run at its full capacity the pumps will be able to remove about
1.50 inches of water from the 5,600 acres in 24 hours. By running the plant
at an overload this rate can be increased a small amount. In case this proves
to be a larger capacity than necessary an additional area of land will be
brought into this district on the west side. ;

The building inclosing this machinery is a frame of structural steel, covered
with heavy corrugated iron, and the plant is of fireproof construction
throughout.

BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .

AREA NO. 8, NEW ORLEANS, LA.

This tract of land (fig. 17) lies within the city limits of New Orleans. It
contains 1,085 acres. The district originally was a part of the swamp, and had

LEGEND
Leyes _—_—--—— ~wvVvVV
RT TOT eases corse mee
Railroads....,...—---—-————s

MAIN OUTFALL CANAL CITY DRAINAGE SYSTEM

| =
z
Ry
g
ls :
= x 40 F? CANAL
ask Pa =e
Diz Q
saia (oS
® x
=A ila
| K
S
a
r

This corner drains direct
into city drains and not
over Weir.

GF P,del.
Fic. 17.—Sketch map of area No. 8, New Or-
leans, La., showing arrangement of ditches
and levees.

City Pumping Sta.No7\. 491

a heavy growth of several varieties
of trees, although the predominating
variety was cypress. There is a deep
layer of muck on this tract, quite
similar to the usual wet prairie
muck, except that it contains a large
percentage of leaves and _ twigs.
Underneath this layer of muck is a
subsoil of very sandy material that
is quite porous. The growth of trees

has been almost entirely cut, but as

a whole the land is not cultivated
and is allowed to grow up in weeds
and brush. About 10 per cent of the
area is now taken up by improved
city lots.

The tract was inclosed by levees
about five years ago. The levee
along the canals was built a number
of years earlier and the work was
done by dredge. This levee has a
width of from 20 to 40 feet on top.
that part along the west side being
used aS a grade by the West End
Railway, and that along the east
side as a highway. The levee along
Lake Pontchartrain was built with
wheelbarrows, of a soil that is very
porous and contains a high percent-
age of vegetable material, and as
there is a canal quite close to the
inside slope it is reasonably certain
that the seepage is considerable.
The fact that underlying this thick
layer of muck there is a subsoil of
porous sand would make seepage
probable, not only under the small
levee along the lake, but also under
both wide levees along the canais.
The interior drainage canals have
been cut to the sizes shown in figure
17, and have been maintained nearly
to their original size. Their average
depths are from 6 to 8 feet.- About
2 feet of water is kept in the canals
to check the growth of vegetation.
No extensive system of lateral

ditches has yet been constructed on this tract, only a few in the immediate
vicinity of the improved section having been dug; these, however, drain but

a small percentage of the total area.

When the entire tract is well drained

pest oi (ei ae cael Awe

ee i i mei

ay
age uns sais ty

se I VAR OE Die Upafats
yin ed a

ey
nee)

f ma?
"hh a BOY W's. 5

Area

OMI D

12
13

Summary of natural conditions and dravnage features on 12 reclamation districts in southern Louisiana.

Engines.

Slide valve horizontal...

Horizontal Corliss. ......
Cross compound con-

Slide valve horizontal...
2 gasoline, 40-horsepower

Slide valve vertical......

Date of

Size of laterals.
hie Height Heient| SP2c: 2S Length| Depth Reser. | Pumping
’ Town Ks Depth of ae a 0) a ing of |— of of Land in | Land in oi capacity Rumps
Parish. WARS mea. | muck. | 229. | storm | jeyses.| lat- Bot- lat- | water | ditches. | canals. | ,. VOU, im 24 PS.
in | tide. "| erals. | Top. | 45 Depth.| erals. | table. pacity-| hours.
gulf. m.
Acres. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Inches. | Inches.
P lrotary........-.......
Jefferson.....- Waggaman....| 2,600] 0 -3 | —2-9| None. a ip os rs 3| 2,400 rb 3.80 2.00 0.37] 11.45 \\1 Menge, 42 by 16 inch...
1 centrifugal, 36-inch...
La Fourche. ..| Lockport...... 647 | 0.5-2 —22 2 4 160 4 13 3 | 5,280 2 3.30 94 45 11.11 | Menge, aH by 12 inch;
24 by 8 inch.
ecacktleosssscs Raceland...... 940] 1 -2 0-3 2 4 200 13 3 | 2,000 2 2.90 47 ~25 11.23 | 2 Menge, 32 by 12 inch. .
Heel Ria Meee do... 2,400] 1 -2 0-3 2 4} 210 re 3K d:o00 | 2] 2-50 83 40] 1.20 | 2 centrifugal, 30-inch ....
y
beeed do.......-.| Allemands....| 1,880] 0 -1 0-2 2 4 210 4 1} B31 2M) nooo 2.60 1.00 50 :95 | 2 centrifugal, 24-inch ....
St. Bernard...| Poydras....... 2,500 4 0-4 6 7 165 4 abe 3 (2) |roccocod 3.30 1.50 75 1.17 fo eT 24-inch, 36-
Vermilion. .... Gueydan...... 5,600 | 0.5-1 14 2 5 330 4 1} 3} 1,320 )........ 1.70 1.50 75 1.51 | 2 centrifugal, 54-inch ....
St. Mary....-- Morgan City--} 15,600 | 0 -1.5 1-6 4 6 330 4 i 3} 1,320 1.80 3.80 1. 82 -87 | 2 centrifugal, 30-inch, |
3 48-inch. densing.
St. Charles....| Paradis..-...-- 2,840 | 0 -2 0-3 2 4 330 1} 3 | 1,320 |.-.-.--. 1.50 94 -45 1.40 | 2 centrifugal, 36-inch -...
La Fourche. ..| La Rose 640} 0 -3 0-3 3 4 210 1} 3) || 25640) |22-2- =. 2.90 56 27 1.30} 1 pentiiueal, 15-inch,
1 18-inch.
a G@encsoocrpcolorecced) PEED|| Oo 0-3 3 4] 210 4] it 1l\ (teary |yeeeeres mn2200) etecO) .43| 1.50 | 2 centrifugal, 36-inch ....
aed dosencnec {ee Mead- } 1,780 0 -2 0-2 5 6] 200 4 iy 20130) | eee | ENO 1.25 .60| 21.00 | Centrifugal
1 Maximum.

25102°—Bull. 71—14.

(To face page 53.)

2 As designed.

Work | vars” | Parse, | Culti-
. . or s' Ts
Boilers. Buel. | 4, egun. | pump- cultic ates Remarks.
ing. vation. i
Per cent.
2 water tube. .|\,- About | About | About
1 return tube.. \ou. - { 1898 1899 1900 i 100
.| Return tube. .} Oil... 1907 1908 1908 90
Locomotive...} Coal...| 1907 1908 1909 65
Return tube. -.} Oil....| 1908 1910 1910 30
Ue dor eee -|OWl_--|) i910 {eb | Hora 10
parse isnesrac Otbocd| HHO If SP fle nccence! None.
bee etdOreasscs-2 Oil. 1911 1912 1912 2
Water tube...| Oil... 1911 1912 1912 4 | Plant partially installed.
Return tube. | Oil.... { jan Au: \ idaseccce None.
peasaaogoaaonded|bscobcnd 1910 1911 1911 80
Return tube..| Oil iio {{ S6Pr> |} None
7 aes LOL caer aes
Weoadess|esesescead None. | Under construction.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 53

the run-off probably will be more rapid than at present. The drainage water
discharges by gravity through the main outlet canal into the city drainage canal.
The run-off from this tract is more natural than would be the case if a pump-
ing plant were operated. To measure this discharge a 6-foot weir was installed
in the outlet canal, and a continuous record of depth of flow secured by use of
a special recording device.

RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION OF RECLAIMED TRACTS.

In the table facing this page is given a summary of all the details of reclama-
tion and the prominent natural conditions on areas herein described, with cor-
responding data on a number of other districts. No detailed descriptions of
these latter districts will be given, as conditions occurring on them are in
general similar to those on the districts already described.

In explanation of this table the following notes are given:

In calculating the percentage of land that is in lateral ditches it was con-
sidered that for each ditch a strip 6 feet wide is lost to cultivation.

The reservoir capacity, in inches of depth over the whole area, includes the
capacity of all canals between the general surface of land and the water level
4 feet below the surface.

The pumping plant capacity was based on a velocity of 12 feet per second
through the discharge opening of the pump.

- AREA.

The districts examined range in size from 640 acres up to 15,600 acres. The
newer districts are nearly all among the larger-sized ones, the present tend-
ency being toward larger districts. On some of the districts the shape and
area were fixed according to the surrounding natural water channels, but most
of them were fixed arbitrarily, as the surrounding marsh was level and un-
broken by open water. With the increased size, the shape and boundaries of the
districts will be more and more influenced by the topographic features of the
marsh. So far, the districts have been rather small, as, owing to the limited
capital available, it was necessary to get them under cultivation soon after

the work was started.
SOIL.

The general nature of the soil in these tracts has already been discussed. In
reclaiming the land no particular attention was paid to the character of the
soil, except to the depth of muck overlying the silt. The figures given in the
foregoing table show the range in depth of muck on the several tracts, the mean
depth on these districts usually being an average of the two figures given. A
considerable subsidence of the surface of the muck land takes place after drain-
age, this often amounting to aS much as 75 per cent of the original depth of
the muck. As pointed out in the description of area No. 1, the subsidence
amounted to about 23 feet in 12 years of drainage. None of the other districts
has as yet shown much subsidence, as they have not been drained or culti-
vated a sufficient length of time.

LEVEES.

The levees vary in height according to the storm tides that are encountered,
although it is generally admitted that a height of about 4 feet is necessary to
prevent seepage. Almost without exception the heights of the levees are suffi-
cient to keep out the recorded high tides, although in the interior sections the
fluctuation of water in the natural channels, due to rainfall, is greater than
that caused by storm tides from the Gulf. The top width is usually from 5 to
10 feet. In many places levees are used as the main roads of the district; in

54 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

these cases the crown is somewhat over 10 feet. The maintaining of a road on
a levee seems to aid in keeping out muskrats and other burrowing animals,
but gradually decreases the height. The side slopes are usually quite flat,
being about 8 to 1. In very few of the levees had any preparation been made
for the base, either by clearing away vegetation or by cutting muck ditches.
Where both the muck and subsoil were very soft, seepage through the base
was not noticeable, but where the muck was turfy in character nearly
all the levees developed seepage when the berm on the outside of the levee
was submerged to any considerable depth. Seepage appears to increase in vol-
ume as the muck in the levee decays and shrinks; thus in some cases the older
levees were not keeping out the water as well as they did at first. It has been
necessary to cut muck ditches along many of these old levees to intercept the
flow of water through their bases.

The majority of these levees were constructed watt some form of dredge.

The unit price for material, measured in excavation, was in the neighborhood of —

7 or 8 cents per cubic yard, depending on the amount of timber and stumps
encountered. It is always necessary to place more material in a levee than
the final cross section indicates, owing to subsidence of the base and shrinkage
of the material. This shrinkage will require from one and one-half to three
times as much excayation as the final volume of the levee. The unit cost of
levees will therefore vary from 12 to 25 cents per cubic yard; measured in
settled embankment. If the levee is brought to a regular cross section by
hand or machine work a small additional charge should be made; generally,
however, the embankments are not surfaced after the dredge work is finished.

The natural growth of prairie grass soon covers the majority of the levees,
and some of them have been sown to Bermuda grass. The levees are often
pastured, and when this is done with care it affords an efficient and a profit-
able method of maintenance.

DITCHES.

The spacing of the ditches has been varied on the different districts accord-
ing to the nature of the soil. Some of these are spaced too far apart to give
adequate drainage, but, on the other hand, on none of the districts are the
ditches too close together for economy; that is, the land is in no case over-
drained. A spacing of 330 feet on newly reclaimed lands seems to be popular,
with the idea of making the spacing 165 feet when the land becomes more
impervious, due to the decay of the vegetable matter. The size of the ditches
is quite uniform and is usually ample, except where the ditches are too long.
The efficiency of these small ditches as water channels is very low, for they
are usually partly filled with weeds and grasses. As most of the land is flat,
flow is caused only by the piling up of drainage water in the ditch. A length
of about a quarter of a mile has been found to give satisfaction in flat land,
and when there is any considerable slope to the ground much longer ditches
have been used with entire success. The use of the 6 to 8 foot collecting ditch
to take the water from the laterals has not proved a success on the marsh-
land districts, the maintenance charges being too great. The percentage of
land taken up by these lateral systems is usually between 2 and 8 per cent.
The cost of their excavation has been between 5 and 6 cents per cubic yard,
and with a spacing of 3880 feet the cost of the ditches per acre has been
between $2 and $2.25

GROUND WATER.

The ground water is controlled largely by the depth of the lateral ditches.
Even though the subsoil be very fine grained and impervious, there is a consid-
erable lateral movement of the water, as was shown by measurement of the

;
3
q
i
-
:

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 55

profiles of the ground water made on areas Nos.1land2. (See figs. 5 and 8, pp. 26
and 31.) The slope of the ground-water profile is steep after a heavy precipita-
tion and gradually flattens out after a few days of dry weather. Evaporation at
the surface hastens this lowering of the water table, and measurements show
that the profile of the ground water is usually much flatter in the summer
months than in winter. In removing the ground water the effect of a ditch
decreases toward the middle of the strip of land between the ditches, while
the effect of evaporation is more or less uniform over all this strip of land,
although it depends somewhat on the depth of water below the surface. The
actual evaporation is greatest midway between the ditches, where the water is
nearest to the surface. The variation between the summer and winter slopes
of the ground-water profile is therefore due to the difference between the com-
bined effect of the ditch and evaporation in summer and the effect of the
ditch alone in winter, as evaporation is then comparatively very slight.

After long periods of small precipitation and high temperature the water is
often lowered by evaporation below the bottom of the ditch, but at these times
the ground water is nearly level, as the effect of the ditch is then almost
entirely eliminated. It was also noted that the ground water was reduced to
lower levels by evaporation in the fine-grained Silt soils than in the coarser

muck soils.
RESERVOIR CANALS.

The reservoir capacity is aS variable as the size of the district. No attempt
seems to have been made in the earlier districts to provide reservoir capacity,
all ditches being constructed as drainage channels. Even this feature was not
sufficiently provided for in the earlier districts, as the canals were not of
sufficient cross section to bring the water to the pumping plant rapidly enough
to secure continuous operation. The resulting large slope of the water surface
in the canal and the consequent loss of head acted directly on the pumping
plant to increase the lift. The present tendency is toward increased storage
capacity, with deeper and wider canals. The loss of head during the operation
of the pumps is thus partly overcome, and in addition the plant is not required
to operate so intermittently. Some of the smaller canals on the older and
smaller tracts are so shallow as to allow vegetation to grow on the bottom,
and, moreover, the small deposit of mud from lateral ditches fills the bottoms
of the canals above low-water line and thus checks the flow. With a greater
depth a small deposit of silt would not have such great influence on the effi-
ciency of the canals and vegetation would not grow so readily on the bottom.
In many of the new districts the slope of the water surface in the main reser-
voir is calculated to be as low as two-tenths of a foot per mile when the pumps
are operating at full capacity. However, this slope increases as the water low-
ers and the cross-sectional area of flow decreases. It has been observed that
the larger reservoir capacity takes care of the smaller rains and that the
pumps therefore do not need to be started for them; it also appears that at
times of heavy precipitation the reservoir takes a part of the run-off and
decreases the amount of water that must be removed at once by the pumps. It
is a notable fact that the largest district has the largest reservoir capacity.
This is due to the fact that a number of large and deep natural water channels
were included in the district. It is the only one of the enumerated districts
where such a feature had been included in the drainage plans.

The maintenance of reservoir canals in these soils for the first few years has
proved to be quite an item. When the water is first lowered it must be done
very slowly and with great care to prevent caving of the banks and general
shrinking of the cross section of the canals. A deposit of silt will occur, and

56 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in Many cases it has been found necessary to redredge the canal about three
years after construction. The surrounding land is then solid enough approxi-
mately to hold its place and to make the canal permanent. Canals constructed
with a hydraulic dredge are better cleared of soft mud at the time of con-
struction, and, due to absence of heavy spoil banks close to the edge of the
canal, appear to hold their original size more satisfactorily than those con-
structed by other forms of dredge.

On the newer districts the area in canals is about 1 per cent of the area
included.within the levees. The average cost per cubic yard for cutting internal
canals is between 6 and 8 cents, the higher figure being applicable to cases
where the ground is covered with a growth of timber, when the work is done
with a dipper dredge. If the land be free from stumps and sunken timber the
work can be done either by dipper dredge or hydraulic dredge for about 6 cents
per cubic yard.

PUMPING PLANTS.

The theoretical normal capacity of the plants examined averages 1.22 inches
in depth of water over the whole area removed in 24 hours of continuous
operation. On most of the districts the normal capacity can be increased
somewhat by speeding up the machinery. The reservoir capacity and pump-
ing-plant capacity are not proportioned to each other at all uniformly. There
is such a wide variation in this regard that either some pumping plants are
too large to be economical, or a number of the others are far too small to give
drainage. As little flooding of any of these districts has occurred, it would ap-
pear that the former is true. There is as much variation in capacity in the
newer plants as in the older ones. No settled policy as to required capacity
has been established. Some plants have been built of ample size, so that if it
became apparent that more water could safely be handled an addition could be
made to the area drained. In the summary (facing p. 53) it will be noted that
the smallest pumping-plant capacity appears on the largest district, which district
has the largest reservoir capacity. Even the smaller plants have their pump-
ing capacity divided between at least two units. This allows the use of part
of the plant during low-water flow, with as small capacity as is desired. In
some of the plants which consist of two duplicate units each unit is nearly
large enough to take care of all the water; this provides a reserve capacity in
case of breakage of one of the units.

The static lift in these pumping plants varies from 3 to 10 feet. The bulk
of the water usually is lifted only about 3 feet, the lift increasing as the water
in the canal is lowered, so that it is only during the last few hours of pumping
that the lift approaches the larger figure given.

The cast-iron centrifugal pumps are largely used and have been found very
much more satisfactory than the older types of vertical wooden-case centrifugal
pumps. While the first cost of the latter type is less than that of the cast-iron
pump the efficiency also is less, and the maintenance much greater. As pumps
of the vertical wooden-case type can not be direct connected to engines they
are not so reliable in operation, and as they do not discharge into a closed pipe
no siphon effect can be arranged, and their actual lift usually is from 2 to 3
feet greater than the effective lift. Also they do not lend themselves well to
installation on a concrete foundation.

Only one rotary-pump installation was examined, and while the pump oper-
ates very satisfactorily it was lifting the water fully twice the necessary
height. Rotary pumps of the desired capacity are adapted to a minimum lift
of about 10 feet, and as the usual lift is about half this amount the loss of
energy is far too large. All the modern plants are equipped with horizontal

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. il

cast-iron centrifugal pumps, this type having proved tu be very reliable. Con-
tinuous runs of 140 hours have been made without trouble.

On most of the pumps the suction and discharge piping has been so arranged
that the friction losses are small, and the areas of intake and discharge open-

ings of the pipes have been enlarged to decrease velocity head losses. On some

plants this velocity head loss often amounts to 4 feet, and aS a result the plant
does nearly twice the amount of work necessary. The piping of the centrifugal
pump on area No. 1 and on two pumps on area No. 11 is not enlarged or
tapered, and there are large losses due to this defect. All of the more modern
pumps have large intake and discharge openings, and the pipes often are
tapered the full length. When the suction ends of the intake pipes are cut
vertically whirlpools will develop over the pipes and air will be admitted, even
when the water is 2 feet deep over the pipes. If these pipes be cut horizontally
the water can be lowered to within an inch of the ends of the pipes before air
enters.

On the smaller and older districts simple and reliable engines have been used,
but most of them have a very large steam consumption. Reliability and low
first cost have been sought, but, due to low-class labor, many of these plants
have had frequent breakdowns and large repair charges. A few of the large
districts are installing high-class machinery, and one, as shown in the sum-
mary, has installed cross-compound condensing engines and water-tube boilers.
Gasoline engines have been used on one small plant only, and although fairly
satisfactory no general use of them is expected.

Owing to the mild nature of the climate very few of the plants have been in-
closed in permanent structures. Timber frame structures covered with heavy
corrugated galvanized iron are very common among the plants, and while these
are quite durable the danger from fire is very great. Two plants of this type
have recently burned.

The cost of such plants as those described ranges from $4 to $7 per acre of
the district drained, according to the type and the capacity of the machinery.

VEGETATION AND DEPTH OF DRAINAGE.

As noted in the general description of this section, most of this land, whether
salt or fresh-water marsh, is covered with a heavy growth of grass (see Pl.
II, fig. 1). This seems to thrive even if the land is continuously submerged
with a small depth of water. However, when the land is drained sufficiently
to remove the water from the surface this grass grows much more luxuriantly,
and has been cut for hay two to four times in a single season. It appears to
grow better with deeper drainage. When cut for hay it makes excellent feed for
stock, and is much in favor with all the local planters who have given it a feed-
ing test. Deeper drainage is required for cane and corn, although fair crops
of corn have been grown with only about one foot of drainage. It would appear
that good crops can be grown if the water is held down to 2 feet below the sur-
face, but all planters are of the opinion that the deeper the drainage the better,
down to a depth of 3% feet. The truck crops all require complete and early
drainage, but not necessarily as deep as that required for cane and corn. AS
droughts are of rare occurrence, not much trouble has been experienced in
getting the ground water too low in the soil. By proper management of the
pumping plant the stage of water in the canals and ditches can be so arranged
that the water will not be reduced too great a distance below the surface. This
artificial control of the water content of the soil is of decided advantage, and
it should make these lands as independent of natural conditions as are the
irrigated lands of the West. Crops on the muck lands seem to withstand

—

58 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

drought better than those on the older sandy-land plantations, as the muck is
more retentive of moisture.

TREATMENT OF LAND AND CROPS.

In general the water was lowered as rapidly as possible on these marsh-
lands when they were first reclaimed. The lateral ditches were then con-
structed and complete drainage of the soil obtained. No trouble has been
experienced from too rapid drainage. Although the muck often is covered with
a very tough sod, and is itself often turfy in character, it is full of muskrat
holes, and as it dries.and shrinks during drainage a great number of cracks
open that reach to the underlying soft mud. This has made it impossible in a
great many cases to do the first work of plowing with ordinary farm animals
and machinery. The land usually is plowed the first time with a set of gang

plows drawn by some form of mechanical tractor. (See Pl. II, fig. 2.) It is.

necessary that the tractor be mounted on very wide wheels, and the substitu-
tion of apron traction for wheels has been made very successfully. Plowing
has been done with these tractors on land that is too soft to bear farm ani-
mals. The heavy growth of prairie grass must first be removed. Usually the
first plowing is done in the winter months when the grass can be burned off
closely. A set of gang plows fastened to a frame hinged directly to the tractor
frame has worked most successfully. After one thorough plowing of the
ground with a gang plow the holes and cracks are so completely filled that
ordinarily no trouble is thereafter experienced in using farm animals if the
tract has been well drained during this period. It is very essential during
the first few years of drainage that the water table be held at a good depth
to allow the soft subsoil to solidify. This involves deep winter drainage, as
well as during the growing season.

Usually the first crop planted is corn, and it is frequently drilled in by a
separate drill attachment at the time of the first plowing. Sometimes this first
crop makes a yield of 30 bushels to the acre without further cultivation. One
plowing, however, does not kill the original growth of prairie grass. In fact.
if the ground is once plowed the growth of prairie grass the next year will be
more uniform and luxuriant than it was before. Intensive cultivation for the
first few years is necessary, although in growing cane and corn no trouble
is experienced after the crop has reached a height of 3 or 4 feet. As truck
crops usually are cultivated very intensively, no great trouble is experienced
in keeping down the growth of grass. After the growth of the first crop of corn
the land is replanted to corn, cane, or truck crops. The soil seems to be suit-
able for almost any kind of truck, and excellent yields are harvested. Some
40 to 60 bushels of corn to the acre have been successfully grown, and the yield
of cane varies from 25 to 40 tons to the acre.

Where the original surface of the soil was covered with a growth of cypress
timber a large additional expense must be incurred in bringing the land into
cultivation. The expense of clearing cypress land ranges from $30 to as high
as $100 an acre, depending on the character of the growth. In certain sections
of the prairie lands a very heavy growth of submerged stumps is found, and
after the land has been drained for a year or two the shrinkage of the muck
soil will bring these stumps to the surface. They will then interfere with
cultivation very greatly and necessitate a large expenditure for removal.

FINANCIAL.

In its original state much of the prairie land is worthless, its only usefulness
being in that it serves as a trapping and hunting ground. Its present market

EEE elle eee

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 59

value is due to possibilities of reclamation rather than to any present useful-
ness and is more or less speculative. The value of the land varies according to
the completeness and permanence of the drainage improvements, as well as
according to its original character. A wide variation in the quality of the
improvements exists, especially in the pumping-plant equipment. The cost per
acre of reclaiming the various districts depends on natural conditions, the
completeness of reclamation, and the character of the drainage improvements.
The usual variation in the cost of such reclamation is from $25 to $35 per acre.

SUCCESS OF DRAINAGE.

The drainage of these lands has been uniformly successful, and from the
drainage engineer’s standpoint the work is past the experimental stage. Where
successful drainage has not been attained it has been due to insufficient and
poorly constructed improvement rather than to inherent and insurmountable
difficulties. Some districts have been drained without the advice and services
of an engineer, and while in some such cases successful~drainage has been
secured, it was not secured with the greatest economy, the proposition that if
enough money be spent the land can be drained being a self-evident one.

The usual faults in the drainage systems are—

(1) Poorly constructed and leaky levees.

(2) Poorly constructed and inefficient pumping plants.

(3) The lack of sufficient canal capacity to drain successfully the interior of
the tract.

INVESTIGATIONS TO BE MADE BEFORE RECLAMATION.

Before attempting to reclaim any district of marshland, the following points
should be thoroughly investigated :

(1) The depth and character of the muck.

(2) The charaeter of the underlying silt.

(3) The elevation of the land above ordinary stages of water in the sur-
rounding lakes and bayous.

(4) The ordinary and extreme yariations of water level in these lakes and
bayous.,

(5) The elevation of the ordinary and maximum storm tides.

(6) The existence of sunken timber and stumps.

(7) Transportation facilities.

‘In addition to the above, the topographic features of each district should be
investigated in detail by a careful field survey and a complete and definite
plan worked out by a competent engineer. The work should then be constructed
under competent supervision and should be of a permanent nature, since the
need for the improvements will be permanent.

FACTORS AFFECTING DRAINAGE BY PUMPING IN SOUTHERN
LOUISIANA.

While the feasibility of reclaiming these wet lands has been demonstrated
beyond question, there are a number of details of practice that have not yet been
satisfactorily worked out, and it is not possible at this time definitely to recom-
mend a line of procedure that will result in the most efficient-and economical
drainage of any tract of wet prairie land. In the following pages are discussed
briefly each of the important items that enter into this form of reclamation.
The conclusions presented are necessarily based upon a study of a rather limited
practice, and further experimentation and investigation may alter somewhat
certain of the recommendations herein made.

60 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AREA OF THE DISTRICT.

Although in many localities topography has a large influence in fixing the
area of a reclamation district, there are many large bodies of land of such a
character that the size of the unit would be determined almost entirely inde-
pendently of topographic conditions. In order to make clear the conditions
governing the determination of the most desirable size of unit, the respective
advantages of the small and large districts will be enumerated. The principal
advantages of the small unit are:

(1) Short internal drainage canals with small losses of head and the conse-
quent low lift.

(2) Short haul to outside water transportation.

(3) Small area affected in case of failure of protection levee.

(4) Small capital involved.

(5) Short time required to place land under cultivation and early realization
on investment.

The advantages of the large district over the small one are:

(1) Low cost of levees per acre of protected land.

(2) Possibility of using natural ridges in part for levees.

(8) Possibility of using natural bayous and lakes as part of the interior
drainage system. 5

(4) Use of efficient machinery due to more continuous operation of the pump-
ing plant.

(5) Low first cost, per unit of area, of pumping plant due to centralization
of equipment and smaller relative capacity.

(6) Low unit operating charges on pumping plant.

The benefit of low lifts on the smaller districts is offset by the advantages in
using more efficient machinery for the high lifts on larger districts and the
less cost per acre of machinery. Unit labor charges for plant operation also
would be much less on the larger districts. Although the haul to water trans-
portation on large districts would necessarily be greater, with larger interests
involved good roads could be economically built and maintained. Since the
cost of the levee per acre of reclaimed land would be much less on a larger
district, a better class of levee could be constructed and breaks prevented.
While at times the small district could perhaps take advantage of natural ridges.
this would usually result in too much irregularity in shape and only in rare
cases could the small district include natural bayous or lakes as reservoirs.
The advantages, in the case of the small district, of the small capital involved
and the earlier return on investment might easily be offset by the increased
cost per acre of construction of levees, canals, and pumping plant. Just what -
is the most economical size of district has not yet been determined; it is a
matter that would be greatly affected by local conditions. However, it is the
consensus of opinion among engineers engaged in this work that districts con-
taining less than 2,000 acres are not at all desirable. Most of the districts
now being planned are several times larger than this. One of the newest dis-
tricts, and the largest yet planned, lies just across the Mississippi River from
the city of New Orleans and contains 37,750 acres.

LEVEES.

The location of a levee influences its design, construction, maintenance, and
usefulness to the district. Unlike levees along our rivers, those along the
average reclamation district in this section have not been located according to
the topographic conditions, but rather according to property or land lines.
This has usually resulted in regularly shaped districts and minimum length of

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 61

levee for area inclosed, but the cost of construction and maintenance per unit
of length has often been much greater than it would have been if some atten-
tion had been paid to topography. Throughout most of the wet prairie there
are winding bayous that have along them solid ridges of silt that average
from 14 to 2 feet above general ground surface. In other places the bayous
are entirely filled in and there have been left ridges of silt having widths of
from 200 to perhaps 1,200 feet, with the usual elevation of 2 feet. On small
districts it is usually impracticable to take advantage of these ridges to any
great extent, as to do so would make the shape of the district too irregular,
but on larger districts the straighter ridges can be chosen, as irregularity of
outline is not so large an item. If the levee is located on a solid ridge the
material will be more stable and impervious and: the levee can be made of less
eross-sectional area than would be necessary if it were located in the soft
prairie. Construction will also be easier and cheaper and the expense of
maintenance will be much less.

The design of the levee will depend largely on the local conditions. Its top
‘should be above storm tides and the highest stages of water in surrounding
lakes and bayous from 1 to 3 feet, depending on the size of the district and the
probability of previous high-water marks being exceeded. A minimum height
of about 4 feet should be used through the soft prairie section, as anything
less is not likely to prevent seepage satisfactorily, for when located on a ridge
the water will stand against a levee only for short periods, while if located
in a soft prairie the water will be in continuous contact with the lower foot or
two of the levee. In places exposed to strong wave action the height should be
sufficient to provide for the break of the waves; in addition, some provision
should be made for protecting the levees from the erosive action of the waves.
This protection might well be secured by planting willows some distance in
front of the levee.

Where the levee is located on a ridge the top width may safely be made 4
feet, with side slopes 2 to 1. A levee of this type is often built with wheel-
barrows, and although the unit cost for this method is quite high, being about
18 cents per cubic yard, the total cost is considerably less than it would be if
the work were done with the usual floating dredge. Yard for yard the dredge
would, of course, handle the material much the cheaper, but the excavation
would be more than would be necessary for the levee. This objection would
be overcome if the dredge were building a levee along the bank of a bayou of
sufficient depth to float the machine, or if a reservoir canal were being exca-
vated within the district, the waste bank to be used as a levee.

Where the levee is located in the soft prairie the top width should average
about 6 feet. The side slopes should be about 3 to 1; in fact, if the
material is very soft it will not take a much steeper slope than this during
construction. - As the material always becomes more stable after being placed
in the levee, no trouble should be expected from slides after it begins to dry in
place. The berm along the base of the levee should be at least 10 feet. Where
the soil is exceptionally soft this should be made as much larger as practicable,
at least 15 feet, and it will be better if conditions permit its being made 20.
The width of berm will, of course, depend somewhat upon the nature of the
machinery used in construction. Where the levee canal iS on the inside of a dis-
trict, special effort should be made to leave a wide berm.

Some type of floating dredge should be used in the construction of most
levees. In heavily timbered sections, or where old submerged stumps are
numerous, the dipper dredge will work to the best advantage, but in the open,
grass-covered prairie the orange-peel-bucket dredge has many advantages.
Owing to the longer boom and narrower hull, the latter type of dredge is able

62 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

io leave a wider berm along the toe of the levee. It is also better able to
sort the material placed in the base of the levee, for the top layer of muck can
first be taken out of the canal, and then the silt underneath, while the dipper
dredge usually will cut up through both the silt and the muck and thus mix
them. The levee should usually be constructed in several layers, for both the
base and the material are likely to be so soft that subsidence will be too great
if a height of more than a few feet is attempted. This yielding of the base
often will cause the side of the canal to cave, especially if the berm be small.
The total subsidence and shrinkage of levees in this section often amounts
to 50 per cent, and in special cases is as great as 80 per cent. Practically all
of the subsidence and a part of the shrinkage takes place during construction,
so that the remaining change in height can be taken care of by maintenance.
When a large percentage of muck is placed in the levee the shrinkage will be

great for a number of years, due to the decay of the vegetable material in the

muck. - ~

For placing several layers in a levee the orange-peel bucket is especially
suitable. After a canal is once cut in the soft prairie there will be a consider-
able depth of soft mud in the bottom that makes very poor levee material.

The dipper dredge, when working in such a canal, will place a large per-
centage of such soft mud in the levee, while an orange-peel bucket, when dropped
forcibly, will penetrate the undisturbed silt below and fill with it, the soft
mud running off when the bucket is raised.

If the site of the levee is along a solid ridge above ordinary water level, no
special precautions need be taken to prevent seepage, although all stumps and
logs should be removed from the site, and a shallow ditch should be cut to
insure a perfect bond between the ridge and the levee. On the other hand, if
the levee is through very soft prairie, the material dropped from the dredge
will penetrate the muck and form a good bond with the underlying silt. It is
on the portions where the muck is thick and turfy in character that particular
pains must be taken. A ditch cut along the center line of the levee before the
dredge starts working is of no special benefit, as the material placed back in
the ditch by the dredge.will be largely muck; however, this treatment will
break the continuity of the muck and help to cut off a portion of the seepage.
A better plan is to wait until the first layer of material has been placed by the
dredge and then to cut a ditch along the toe of the slope of the levee opposite
to the dredge and to refill it with impervious silt dredged from the bottom of
the canal. This will insure a good bonding of the material and is a necessary
part of the construction. At times old muck-filled bayous will be encountered
which must be closed with levees. In such cases the quickest, and-quite often
the cheapest, way to insure that the levee will hold its grade line is to drive
two rows of sheet piling across the bayou at the proper spacing. These rows
should be tied together with rods and the fill made between them.

After the soft material in the levee has dried sufficiently it should be
smoothed off and brought to grade. Usually the natural growth of prairie grass
will soon cover the levee, but Bermuda grass makes better sod for maintenance
purposes. Careful grazing of the levee saves cutting the grass and gives par-
tial protection from burrowing animals. After the levees are once constructed,
very little maintenance is required to afford permanent protection from all over-
flows that do not actually overtop them.

INTERIOR DITCH SYSTEM.

Rainfall and seepage cause an accumulation of water within the levee district
that must be collected by a system of ditches and canals, led to a central point,

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 63
!
and discharged over the levee by means of pumps. These internal water
courses usually consist of lateral ditches which collect the water from the
fields, and reservoir canals which receive the water from the laterals and carry
it to the pumping plant.

LATERAL DITCHES.

On the typical wet prairie reclamation district the land is so nearly level
that a regular layout of ditches is desirable rather than a location designed
with a yiew to taking advantage of such slight surface slopes as may exist.
The ditches should be cut in parallel lines and at such a spacing as will corre-
spond to the character of the land. In the newly reclaimed land that has a
deep layer of muck, ditches spaced 330 feet apart should give sufficient outlet
both for surface and underdrainage, and after some years of cultivation, when
the soil has become more impervious, intermediate ditches can be cut, making
the spacing 165 feet. This divides the land into 5 and 10 acre tracts when the
ditches are constructed in the usual lengths of one-fourth and one-half mile, re-
spectively. Ditches with 4-foot tops, 13-foot bottoms, and depths of 4 feet
should give sufficient capacity unless they are too long or become badly choked
with weeds and grass. In practice on drainage districts in this section it has
been found that in flat land such ditches can be made one-fourth mile long with
good results, and they have in a few cases worked fairly well at a length of one-
half mile. However, this greater length is not recommended, as the ditch must
be maintained in almost perfect condition in order to give satisfactory drainage.
Such ditches can be cut by hand labor for about 5 or 7 cents per cubic yard.

Traction ditchers which will operate on soft prairies have been in use for
some time and will compete with hand-labor prices and cut about the same class
of ditch ; however, where there is much sunken timber or stumps the work must
be done by hand. On the softer prairies these traction ditchers can not be used
until some months after the tract has been drained and the land has become
somewhat solid. Ditches can be cut with a heavy wooden-framed plow, espe-
cially built for the purpose, drawn across the strips of land between the reser-
voir canals by cables and pulling engines mounted on barges. Ditches can be
cut in this manner as soon as the water is off the surface, and thus the bringing
of the land under cultivation will be hastened by several months. Field ditches
on this class of land require a great deal of attention for the first few years
after cutting to keep them serviceable. A soft semifluid mud gradually fills
the ditches and water-loving grasses grow very rapidly. Where ditches have
been cut with a plow they can readily be cleaned by drawing the plow through
them. This method, however, will deposit most of the mud in the reservoir
canal and will eventually reduce the area of the latter very materially.

Practice in this section has shown that to keep such ditches in a serviceable
condition the grass and weeds should be cut out of them two or three times a
year, and that every two years about 1 cubic foot of material per linear foot of
ditch must be excavated. ‘The total yearly cost, including interest on first cost,
maintenance, and rental of land consumed in ditch, is about 55 cents per 100
feet of ditch, or $1.40 per acre for a spacing of 165 feet. In the firmer and more
open soils tile might well be used to replace a considerable number of tke
ditches. The interest on the cost of such tile drains would amount to 30 cents
per year for each 100-feet of drain; no maintenance or rental of land consumed
should be charged. For a spacing of 165 feet this would make a charge of 80
cents per acre per year, or would be an annual saving of 60 cents per acre
over open-ditch drainage. The action of efficient tile drains would also be
more uniform. In the case of the ditch, during the time immediately before

64 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it is cleaned out, the drainage secured is comparatively poor. The land would
not be so badly cut up if tile were used, and the necessity for a great number
of small bridges would thus be removed.

RESERVOIR CANALS.

The primary requisite of reservoir canals is that they give sufficient outlet
to the lateral ditches. To do this they must be spaced not more than one-half -
mile apart and usually they should be located in parallel lines. In building
the levee around a district the resulting canal can sometimes safely be made
on the inside of the levee and consequently used as a reservoir canal. On
small districts this canal may be extensive enough to make up the entire reser-
yoir-canal system. The practice of placing the levee canal inside the district
has proved either a success or a failure, according to local conditions. If the
berm between the levee and canal is wide, if the base is above ordinary stages
of outside water, if there is no canal immediately outside the levee, and if the
storm tide is low, such construction should not result in any great amount of
seepage or subject the district to any danger from storm tide. On the other
hand, if the canal is placed outside the district the seepage will be less, the
levee will be safer in time of storm tide, and the canal can be used for navi-
gation purposes. In all but the most favorable locations present practice tends
toward placing the levee canal outside the district and cutting an interior sys-
tem of reservoir canals.

The reservoir canal should be of such depth and cross section that the water
will ordinarily be held at least 4 feet below the surface, although immediately
after heavy precipitation the water may safely stand at the level of the lowest
land for several hours. The reservoir canal serves a twofold purpose: (1) To
take the water from the lateral ditches and carry it to the pumping plant, and
(2) to store up the dry-weather flow of the ditches, so that the pumping
plant will not need to be operated so frequently. Canals designed with only the
first consideration in mind are smaller than when any considerable reservoir
capacity is desired. If, however, the canals are correctly designed for storage
capacity the question of flow will be taken care of. When heavy rains occur
the storage capacity in the canals will take part of the run-off and temporarily
relieve the pumping plant. Thus by an increase of reservoir capacity a less
capacity of pumping plant will be required, and the plant can be operated more
economically. The relative capacities of reservoir canal and pumping plant
should be such that the interest and depreciation on the two investments, plus
the cost of operation, would be a minimum. A complete set of records main-
tained on a number of typical reclamation districts for Several years will be
necessary before a relation can be established that would be capable of general
application.

In some of the districts already constructed the reservoir capacity is about
0.6 inch in depth of water over the whole area. In these the average slope of
the water surface in the canals is theoretically less than 0.2 foot per mile, with
an average depth of flow of 6 feet and a run-off of 1 inch per day. If the reser-
voir capacity is so proportioned that the velocity of flow is nearly uniform in
ail parts of the system, the slopes can be held very close to the above figure.
These slopes will of course increase when the water is lowered to near the bot-
tom of the canals, but as the bulk of the water will be pumped at the time when
the canals are full this increase of slope is not especially objectionable.

The local conditions will decide to some extent the question of using broad,
shallow canals or deep, Darrow ones. A broad, shallow canal has more of its

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 65

cross section available for storage, but after the water is reduced to 4 feet be-
low the surface the slopes will greatly increase and trouble may be encountered
_ in taking the water from the distant portion of the district. A minimum depth
of about 7 feet seems to prove desirable in practice. This prevents vegetation
from growing in the bottom of the canals and considerable silt deposits can be
stored, so that the canals will not so frequently need to be cleaned. The canal
should be gradually deepened as it nears the pumping plant to provide for the
slope and consequent lowering of the water surface.

If the material taken from the reservoir canals is not to be used for levee
construction and the land is free from timber and stumps, a hydraulic dredge
is the most satisfactory means of cutting them. The unit price will then be
lower on canals of a section exceeding 7 by 25 feet than if the work be done
with another type of dredge and the canal will be better cleaned out and more
permanent. Side slopes can be cut as desired with the hydraulic dredge and the
material is deposited in a thin layer rather than in a high spoil bank. If the
work is done in heavy timber a dipper dredge must be used, but if the growth
is light either a dipper or an orange-peel-bucket dredge can be employed with
the advantage in favor of the latter.

During the first few years after construction the maintenance charges on
reservoir canals are quite high. A certain amount of bank caving occurs and
a large amount of semifluid mud enters through the lateral ditches. The veloci-
ties of flow in the canals are not sufficient to transport any great amount of this
material to the pumping plant. After the district is once thoroughly drained
and cultivated the soil becomes more firm and very little material is then car-
ried by the lateral ditches, as the average velocities of flow in them are very
small. The canals can then be cleaned very satisfactorily with a small hydrau-
lic dredge, as the material to be removed will usually be too soft for the dipper
type of dredge.

PUMPING PLANT.

The drainage of low-lying wet lands by means of pumps has been described
in a former publication of this office.” This publication discusses the general
character of land drainage by means of pumps and deals especially with con-
ditions in the upper Mississippi Valley. It is recommended that the reader
obtain the above-mentioned bulletin. The general nature of this method of
draining in southern Louisiana is much the same as described in this bulletin,
but there are many differences in detail that deserve mention. These differ-
ences chiefly affect the capacity and operation of the pumping plant.

NECESSARY CAPACITY OF PLANT.

The general method of operation of plant in this part of the country is far
different from that in the northern latitude, so, before discussing in detail such
rainfall and run-off records as are available, it might be well to describe the
usual method of operation.

In this latitude farming operations are conducted every month in the year.
While genera! field crops are growing only about 9 or 10 months, the field
must be kept sufficiently well drained to admit of cultivation at any time. The
bulk of the heavy plowing is done during what are ordinarily called the winter
months. The need of the pumps is therefore more or less continuous; that is,

1U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 243.

66 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the run-off at any time of the year must be taken out promptly. The influence
of evaporation at different seasons of the year causes a great variation in the
manner of operating the pumps. A heayy rainfall in summer necessitates con-
tinuous operation of the pumps for a period sufficient to empty the canals and:
ditches. The water that will continue to run out of the lateral ditches will
often be more than balanced by the evaporation, so that it will not again be
necessary to start the plant until another period of heavy precipitation occurs.

Small local rains in summer will in all likelihood pass unnoticed. During the

winter months a heavy precipitation necessitates a relatively longer period of
pumping than in summer. Two or three days after the canals have been
emptied the ground-water drainage entering through the lateral ditches will,
owing to lack of evaporation, make it necessary to operate the plant for a few
hours, and after an interval of about 10 days it will again be necessary to do
some pumping, although no precipitation may have occurred during the inter-
vening periods. If the reservoir capacity of the canals be small the operation
of the pumping plant will be still more intermittent. If the plant is divided
into two or more units, one unit only may be operated for the dry-weather
run-off. The total time of pump operation during the year rarely exceeds 45
days of 24 hours each and often drops to as low as 15 days. The total number
of days on which the pumps are operated average about 70.

In southern Louisiana most of the pumping plants so far installed have a
theoretical capacity of at least 1 inch and many of them 1% inches in depth of
water over the inclosed area in 24 hours. The 1-inch run-off is equivalent to
approximately 27 second-feet per square mile of area, or 0.042 second-foot per
acre.

The necessary capacity of a pumping plant depends on the size and slope of

the district to be drained, the depth and nature of the muck, the available -

storage capacity of canals and ditches, the system ‘of lateral drains used, the
method of operation ‘of the plant, the character of the crops raised, and the
amount and distribution of the rainfall. The proper allowance to be made for
each of these factors can only be determined as the result of careful and com-
plete observations in the field. Not only should the results for each district
examined be carefully worked out, but the investigations should include a suffi-
ciently large number of typical districts and should continue for such a length
of time as to make the results of general application. Some of the above factors
have been quite closely investigated over a few districts and all of them have
been covered in a general way. While the results obtained are not final, the
investigations still being carried on, these details will be discussed in the light
of such investigations as have been made.

In planning gravity drainage districts it is customary gradually to decrease
the run-off coefficient as the size of the district increases. With one exception
the variation in size of the district in this section is as yet not great; therefore
not much attention need be given this feature. In the summer, when rains are
almost purely local, the larger district is not so likely to receive rains over its
whole surface as is the smaller district. However, the rains that most heavily
tax the pumping plant occur in the spring of the year and are general in
character.

The variation in surface elevation on the average district is usually slight,
but where the district fronts on a ridge having an elevation above the prairie
land of from 8 to 12 feet it has been noticed that the lower lands become
flooded and that the required capacity of pumping plant is nearly 50 per cent
greater than on the flat lands. This flooding of the lower lands can be partly

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 67

overcome by a corresponding design of the various parts of the collecting sys-
tem. By careful location of gravity outlet ditches this drainage water from
the higher lands can in some cases be entirely diverted.

The character and depth of the layer of muck overlying the subsoil on these
lands have a large influence on the run-off. The muck absorbs water very
readily and if well drained to a depth of 3 feet its storage capacity is about
8 inches. When the land is first drained this muck will absorb water nearly
as fast as the heaviest rate of precipitation, but as it decays and compacts both
the storage capacity and the rate of absorption decrease very rapidly. A grad-
ual increase in the rate of run-off must then be expected.

The effect of reservoir capacity has already been discussed. However, it
might be well to point out that increase of reservoir capacity does not decrease
the amount of pumping to be done, but simply acts to decrease the time of flood-
ing in case the run-off overtaxes the capacity of the plant. The effect is rela-
tively less on short violent periods of precipitation than on longer but equally
heavy ones. This will be illustrated in the discussion of rainfall and run-off.

Deep lateral drainage acts to decrease the intensity of run-off. If such
laterals are lines of tile, the rate of run-off will still further be decreased, for
practically all water must then pass downward through the soil and out through
the tile before it can reach the canal, while in the case of open field ditches
most of the water can flow over the surface to the ditch and thus directly into
the canal. Especially will this effect be noticed as the muck gradually loses its
power of rapid absorption.

If the pumping plant be designed to operate continuously its capacity may
be much less than that of a plant intended for day use only. As previously
mentioned, there is need of the plant at all times of the year. The fact that the
water is always promptly pumped out and that all reservoir capacity is quickly
available makes a smaller plant capacity practicable.

Nearly all crops grown in this section are cultivated crops, so the rate of run-
off will vary but little according to crop. However, the need for rapid removal
of all rainfall is greater with truck crops than with general field crops such as
cane or corn. With the former very little if any flooding of the surface is
allowable, while with the latter the surface may be flooded for perhaps 24
hours several times a year without great damage. The character of crops to
be grown should be known and considered in the design of the pumping plant.

The amount and distribution of the rainfall are the most important of all the
factors in determining the required capacity of the pumping plant for a given
area. While a knowledge of the total yearly and monthly amounts of rainfall,
either maximum or average, is important in determining the probable total
amount of water to be pumped each year or month, the distribution of the rain-
fall is the factor that fixes the necessary capacity ; that is, the amount of water
falling in a period of three or four days must be considered, rather than the
amount falling in a year or a month.

On page 5 are ‘tabulated the heaviest storms that have occurred at New
Orleans during the past 22 years. It would not be profitable to provide suffi-
cient pumping-plant capacity to care for the run-off of the maximum storm, but
only for those that occur so frequently that the resulting damage would be
larger than the interest on the additional investment needed to provide for
them. By observing the rates of run-off on various typical districts it will be
possible finally to determine the ratio that the run-off to be pumped bears to the
amount of precipitation in the maximum storm. A determination can then be
made of necessary plant capacity, after taking into consideration the factors
previously mentioned.

68 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In order to obtain the relation between rainfall and run-off for lands of this
section, rain gauges were installed on a number of districts in June, 1909, and a
eareful log of pumping-plant operation has since been kept. The capacities
of the various pumps were obtained by careful ratings. The three areas (Nos.
1, 2, and 8) on which these records were kept have already been described in
detail. An examination of the descriptions will show that these districts vary
widely in natural characteristics and in the nature of the improvements. In
applying the results obtained to any other sections these local conditions should
be considered. The daily records for the entire period will not be included
here; only the records of heavy storms will be given, these latter being all that
are required to determine the proper run-off coefficient. The run-off results vary
so widely on the different tracts that they will be discussed separately, and the
proper rate of run-off to be provided for will be determined in a preliminary
way. It is to be understood, however, that these conclusions are not final and
that records of rainfall and run-off extending over longer periods may lead to
different ones.

The following table for area No. 2 gives the rainfall and run-off for the eight
heaviest storms that occurred during the period, June, 1909, to May, 1912.
The stages of water in the reservoirs above orebelow the general ground surface
are given as of § a. m. and 8 p. m., these being the usual hours at which
the plant was started and stopped when operating in daytime; of course during
the heaviest storms considerable pumpinggwas done at night. The condition of
the soil at the time of the storm is also noted.

Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms occurring on
area No. 2, June, 1909, to May, 1912.

[Reservoir capacity, 0.45 inch. Pumping capacity, 1.11 inches.]

SS L394

: : No. of
Stage of water in
= Water . hours
Daie. Hein ws Co or ees far Condition of soil before storm.
general surface. ed
8 a.m. 8p.m.
1909. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet.
June 1 0.65 0.00
2 4.20 -71
s . 0 ilp 10 Not recorded, ...-----| Well drained, and one-third in cultivation.
5 -00 22
Aug. 9 1.14 00 —0.1 +0.1
10 1. 68 80 +0.2 —1.0
il 2.80 90 —2.0 0.0 18 Do.
12 02 80 —0.3 —2.0
13 13 - 40 0.0 —2.5
Sept. 19 - 65 - 00 —0.3 —0.2
20 3.30 33 —0.1 +0.3
21 -00 47 +0.6 +0.3
22 - 00 72 +0.6 +0.1 54 Do.
23 -00 45 —0.4 —0.6
24 - 00 23 +0.3 —0.2
Dec. 11 2.80 -00 —1.0 0.0
12 15 - 63 +0. 4 +0.2
tH Ms ne rm 40 | Saturated, and one-third in cultivation.
15 - 00 37 0.0 —2.6
1910.
July 1 -50 15 —1.6 —2.7
2 1. 82 23 —2.0 —1.6
3 8.40 .54 —0.6 —0.9
4 Ae : Hh ay 1 a : 36 | Well drained, and two-thirds in cultivation.
a »05 -06 f i
6 - 00 .70 —0.1 —0.7
if - 00 41 —1.3 —2.0

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 69

Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms, etc.—Con.

« No. of
Stage of water in :

a W ater : hours
Date. eee pump- aye Cele ey land Condition of soil before storm.

flood-
general surface. cll

1911. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet.
1.02 é 2.0

Apr. 25 z 00 - —1.8
ae ci ea ae ie ee 0 | Well drained, and three-fourths in cultivation.
28 ~22 23 —1.8 —3.5
Nov. 27 3.00 47 —0.3 —0.2
28 00 - 88 —0.6 —3.0 0 Do.
29 00 234 —0.3 —2.0
1912.
ny ail 30 - 00 —3.3 —3.0
2 00 - 00 —2.8 —2.7
3 41 - 00 —2.6 —2.5
4 00 -00 —2.4 —2.3
5 1.05 00 —2.1 —1.6 0 | Well drained, and seven-eighths in cultivation.
6 1.21 -55 —1.4 —0.6 , q
7 00 - 68 —0.5 —0.6
8 00 - 56 —1.6 —2.6
9 00 -1l —2.6 —1.5

From an examination of the above table it will be seen that it was only
during four of these storms that flooding occurred. It is also apparent that if
the plant had been operated at full capacity flooding would not have occurred
during any of the storms. The flooding was due to unreliable machinery
rather than to insufficient theoretical capacity; during the storms of Septem-
ber and December, 1909, the plant was operated at less than half its maximum
capacity. In determining the proper capacity of plant to remove these heavy
storms it will be necessary to consider only those of August, 1909, and July,
1910. The flooding that occurred on this tract due to these two storms was on
only a relatively small portion in the immediate vicinity of the reservoir, and
in neither case did it damage crops, aS the water was only about 4 inches deep
on the ground. In the storm of August, 1909, a pumping capacity of 0.85 inch
would have been sufficient to prevent damaging overflow. The total water
removed was 2.90 inches. By starting the pumps on August 9, or one day
earlier than was done, a capacity of about 0.75 inch would have served to take
away all drainage water in time to prevent flooding, aS the water would all
have been removed more than 24 hours sooner than actually occurred. In the
storm of July, 1910, by starting a plant of a capacity of 0.75 inch on July 2
the run-off of the 2d and 3d could have been taken out on the 2d, thus
making a gain of 24 hours. It is not possible to estimate exactly the effect of
such a gain, but it would appear that the time of flooding would have been
reduced to about 12 hours. By applying a pumping capacity of 0.75 inch per
day to the other storm periods it will be seen that the run-off could all have
been removed without,.flooding, although the reservoir probably would have
stood nearly full for some days. This condition would be allowable two or
three times a year without damage to crops. After a period of cultivation of
several years the soil on this tract will become more: impervious and the
intensity of run-off will be greater.

70 BULLETIN 71, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms occurring
on area No. 1, June, 1909, to May, 1912.

(Reservoir capacity 0.34 inch. Pumping capacity 1.45 inches.]

* No. of
Stage of water in
. | Water | BOOS hours
ain- bov =ee ¢
Date. oe pump- enya Belew) dou Condition of soil before storm.
: general surface. 25 a
'
8a.m 8 p.m
1909. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet.
June 1 0.15 0. 00 Not recorded.
2 4.10 . 84 —0.7 —0.1
illite (ces iitis oie 24 | Welldrained. All cultivated.
. 00 - 23 —2.0 —4.3
Sept. 20 4.14 - 62 —1.5 —1.4
.30 1.00 —2.2 —3.0 0 | Well drained.
22 . 00 - 50 —2.0 —4.0
Dec. 11 3.12 00 sie 0.0
12 Seyi 96 +. + .6
13| 00 Oo. iwi Bh avo 40 | Saturated.
14 - 00 26 —4.0 —1.5
1911.
pres 355 | aT | eno 10
9 00 1. 26 — .8 —2.1
10 00 BY —4.0 2.0 0 | Well drained.
11 38 59 —1.1 —3.0
12 - 00 -20 —2.0 —3.5
Apr. 25 4.05 65 —2.1 +1.0 |)
26 2.21 1.16 |. +1.0 +1.0
27 - 00 1.16 + .5> 0.0 48 Do.
28 . 00 98 —1.0 —3.5
29 . 00 21 —1.5 —3.0
1912,
Jan. 8 5 22 -00 —1 é gt
.18 -00 —_-- L
8 “601 1:16 hy pees 24 | Saturated. .
9 - 00 111) —150 —3.5
Mar. 22 ‘ Ny i ae —2.0 — 7.
, 0 0.0 ma ifs .
24| —.00 TaN Oh eR ea ig 0 | Well drained.
25 - 00 . 4 —1.5 —3.5
Apr. 13) 1.42) ae eo ea
ae 3. a r 48 —2.0 a
5 % 31 +1.0 +1.
16) 01.72 | 132 |e Ses 0.0 48 bey
17 . 00 1.05 —1.0 —1.6
18 .00 37 —2.0 —2.0
May? Uieui-2ed\o.. onl] av=niG7, (uae
2 . 62 -35 —1.2 —3.5
3 1. 20 - 60 —1.2 —1.0
4 - 00 - 50 —2.1 —3.8
5 2.00 .00 —2.0 —1.5
6 - 00 . 64 —1.2 —1.1
7 - 00 - 69 —2.5 —3.2 36 Do.
8 - 00 =PB! —2.0 —3.5
9 . 00 . 00 —2.3 —2.2
10 4.50 45 —2.0 + .9
11 . 00 1.42 +1.2 + .6
12 . 00 1. 43 0.0 —2.0
13 - 00 26 —4.2 —3.5

It will be noted that during six of the nine storms enumerated above flood-
ing occurred. However, only the land immediately along the reservoir canal
was flooded and no great damage resulted, i. e., crops Were not killed.

In the detailed description of this district a number of conditions were men-
tioned that were responsible for these large rates of run-off. The small reser-
voir capacity places the pumping plant at a disadvantage during both heavy
and ordinary storms. It allows no reserve in the first case and in the second
the plant can not be operated at full capacity for lack of water; only one unit
can well be operated continuously until the water is removed. The pumping
plant on this tract has not yet failed to remove the water soon enough to pre-
vent any considerable damage to crops. By increasing the storage capacity to

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 7a

about 0.8 inch the present plant should work to much better advantage. The
canal that brings the water from the “‘front” lands should not be enlarged, as
the rapid run-off from these higher lands is at present largely responsible for
the flooding. It is doubtful if even a large increase in pumping capacity would
be effective if the present reservoir were not improved. With the reservoir
enlarged to the usual size of those on other districts, the present pumping
plant probably would be of sufficient capacity to give satisfactory drainage.

The drainage from area No. 8 is disposed of by gravity instead of by pump-
ing. The internal canals are large and the outlet canal is of such size that,
except in the case of extreme storms, the fluctuation of the water surface in
the canals is small; that is, the water is discharged very soon after it reaches
the canals. Twelve storm periods are included: in the following table:

Rainfall and run-off due to heaviest storms occurring on area No. 8, December,
1909, to April, 1912.

[Gravity drainage system. ]

Rain- | Run- | Condition of soil before Rain- | Run- | Condition of soil before
Date. fall. off. storm. Date fall. off. storm,
1909. { Inches. | Inches. 1911. | Inches.| Inches.
Dee. 11 0. 00 0. 06 Apr. 24 1.05 12
12 2. 74 12 25 - 00 ell
13 - 00 234 26 2. 72 209
14 - 80 .33 2 00 81
15 - 00 ~32 28 -00 -13
16 - 00 .32 |+Well drained. 29 245 - 44 ||Saturated
17 .33 ol 30 - 00 -40
18 5%} - 26 May 1 99 Bt }5)
19 00 21 2 48 -50
20 00 21 3 18 230 ¢
21 - 00 . 20 4 18 -28
5 00 19
1910. ; Dec. 18 - 00 07
Mar. 9 . 00 - 05 19 2. 66 . 08
10 3. 11 - 10 20 - 00 44
li . 00 us Dry. 21 : 26 : 38
12 -00 . 22 Ci ° G
13 - 00 12 23 125 .38 |pW ell drained.
May 17 .00 . 00 24 .00 235
18 21 02 25 232 327
19 2. 83 . 08 26 -13 224
20 - 00 . 06 27 -29 23
21 27 -07 |\Very dry.
22 1.57 - 08 1912
23 1, 25 ll Jan. 6 13 .18
24 -30 14 7 1.61 17
25 - 00 12 8 - 80 49
July 17 13 212 9 - 00 -58 | \Saturated.
18 .55 12 10 - 00 ~38
19 . 65 234 11 - 02 28
20 92 -39 | Saturated. 12 - 00 -23
21 17 -29 Mar. 10 - 00 - 04
22 37 23 11 2.30 : re
28 a 12) OO | 239 |} Well drained.
1911. 14 ~45 23
Mar. 21 . 00 - 02 15 00 - 20
22 3. 80 .36 Mar. 21 - 05 - 08
23 - 00 - 62 22 3. 60 . 24
24 - 00 a7 Dry. 23 2.40 A: He
2 e ae ‘ me a i 48 “94 |}Well drained.
27 - 00 -38 26 - 00 42
28 - 00 .24 27 00 -o2
Apr. 3 - 00 - 08 28 00 25)
4 -10 ll Apr. 11 26 07
5 1.10 16 12 1.39 07
6 - 00 12 13 21 17
7 - 00 . a8 14 2.10 e a
8 4. 03 . 15 - 00 5
9 - 00 “ge |//)) Giluetase 161 160 |) 1208 l\wWell'drained.
10 - 00 -48 17 -00 . 69
il 1.15 ~42 18 -00 44
12 - 00 49 19 -10 .3L
13 - 00 33 20 237 ~20
14 - 00 20 21 - 00 . 20

72 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A wide variation in the rates and amounts of run-off is apparent from the
above table, according to the distribution of the rainfall, the time of the year,
and especially to the condition of the soil before the storm occurred. The soil
is spongelike in its action, and the fact that there are few lateral ditches makes
a condition favorable for a large absorption. During the heaviest storms the
soil became saturated and the water flowed over the surface to the canals.

In case the run-off from this tract were handled by a pumping plant, the
daily run-offs given in the above table would be the amounts available for pump-:
ing each day, and if cared for, either by pumping or by storing in a reservoir,
flooding would not occur. ‘Therefore by assuming a certain pumping-plant
capacity the required capacity of reservoir can easily be determined for these
storms and for this particular district. In the following tables different pump-
ing-plant capacities have been assumed and the corresponding necessary reser-
voir capacities have been calculated. These calculations are based upon the
storms of March and April, 1912, these having caused the heaviest run-off. This
determination is not made with the idea that the results will be capable of gen-
eral application, but rather for the purpose of showing a method of finding the
proper pumping-plant and reserveir capacities for a given run-off.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA.

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74 BULLETIN "1, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It will be noted from the foregoing table that the smallest reservoir capacity
that is indicated is 0.4 inch in depth of water on the whole area. The size of
eanal necessary to bring the water to the plant rapidly enough to secure con-
tinuous operation and to keep the slope of water surface reasonably small will
give a storage capacity of 0.4 inch. In the following summaries the estimated
costs of pumping plants and reservoirs are given. The head on pump has been
assumed at 6 feet, with 60 per cent efficiency of pump and 90 per cent me-
chanical efficiency of engine. The figures for cost of plant are for simple slide-
yalve noncondensing engines and have been taken from the curve in figure 18,
which shows the average cost of pumping plants in this State under condi-
tions similar to those on the tract in question. The cost of the reservoir has
been calculated at 7 cents per cubic yard and includes only that part of the
canal prism between the surface and a depth of 4 feet. It is assumed that the
reservoir canal would not be widened below the 4-foot level.

Costs for necessary capacities.

STORM OF MAR. 21-28, 1912.

Capacity | Costof | Capacity | Costof | motal cost.

ofreservoir.| reservoir. | of plant. plant.
Inches Inches
0.4 $4, 100 4 $7, 000 $11, 100
-6 6,100 1.2 6, 100 12, 200
8 8, 200 1.0 5, 400 13, 600
1.0 10, 220 ~9 4,900 15, 120
1.3 13, 600 8 4,700 18,300

STORM OF APR, 11-21, 1912.

0.4 4 $7,000 | $11,100

é 14 4100 1.2 6, 100 10, 200
15 5) 100 1.0 5, 400 10,500

7 7; 150 9 4,900 12) 050

9 9, 200 8 4,700 13,900

It appears from the above estimate that the cheapest improvements to take
care of the storm of March 21-28, 1912, would be a combination of a plant
capacity of 1.4 inches and a reservoir capacity of 0.4 inch, and that for the
storm of April 11-21, 1912, there should be a plant capacity of 1.2 inches and
a reservoir capacity of 0.4 inch. Excepting in the first case, the cost of provid-
ing for the second storm is less in each capacity of plant than for the first
storm. While the run-offs from these two storms were nearly the same, the
time over which the second was distributed was greater, thus allowing smaller
capacity of reservoir.

Although as regards first cost alone it appears that the larger plant and
smal] reservoir should be used, there are other factors that enter into the
problem. The larger canals would decrease the lift of the plant, as the slope in
water surface during operation would not be so great as in the small canals.
The operation of the plant, in pumping from a large canal, would not be so
intermittent as from a small canal; this would make for better fuel economies.
The rate of interest on plant and on reservoir would be the same, but the per-
centage to be allowed for depreciation and repairs probably would differ some-
what. In removing the run-off from a given storm the smaller plant would
have to operate longer, thus increasing the labor charges over those of the
larger plant. To determine the proper weight to be given these various factors,
continued and detailed records on a number of typical districts are needed, but
they are here mentioned to make clear the fact that there are other features

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 75

besides the first cost of the improvements to be considered in fixing the proper
relative capacities.

LOCATION, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT.

Theoretically the plant should be so located that the water in coming to it
will travel the minimum length of reservoir canal. This condition usually
would be met if the plant were placed in the center of the district and dis-
charged through a leveed outfall canal to some bordering lake or bayou. In
practice, however, the plants ordinarily are located on one side of the tract
and on some navigable lake or bayou. This greatly facilitates the transporta-
tion of heavy machinery during the erection of the plant, as the ground usually
is much too soft to allow the hauling of heavy loads. Fuel also can then be
transported cheaply. If the tract has any considerable slope in its surface the
logical location of the plant is in the lowest part. However, this part is often
very soft, and to secure foundation it may be advisable to locate in some higher
and more stable portion. As pointed out in the discussion of levees, there are
frequent ridges of silt winding through these swamps, and a plant can often
be located on one of these solid ridges. While it would be necessary to use a
great many piles under the foundation in either case, the number can be
reduced if the plant is located on a ridge.

The foundation under both the machinery and the building of these plants
should be of concrete, well supported by piling. A plan of the foundation under
the plant at Gueydan has already been shown (fig. 16, p. 51) and is a good illus-
tration of a foundation in this character of soil. The foundation under the plant
on area No. 5, already illustrated (fig. 13, p. 45), is also a good one. It will be
noted on both these plans that the foundation is surrounded by sheet piling
and that under the center of the Des Allemands plant a line of sheet piling
has been driven and extended into the concrete. In these soft soils such pre-
cautions are necessary. The engine and pump usually are mounted on the
same block of concrete, so that any subsequent settlement will not throw them
out of line. While buildings to inclose the machinery should be of durable and
fireproof construction, they are not called upon to protect the machinery and
attendants from low winter temperatures. A frame of structural steel cov-
ered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron answers the purpose very well,
although in one case a brick building has been erected. These buildings should
be capable of resisting the action of the tropical hurricanes, for it is at such
times that the need for the plant is greatest.

The selection and arrangement of machinery in centrifugal pumping plants
have already been discussed in detail in publications of this office.t While the
local conditions considered in these publications are somewhat different from
those in southern Louisiana, the same principles are involved, and the same
general features are to be considered.

As stated previously, the average lift of drainage pumping plants is from
8 to 10 feet. The bulk of the water is lifted little more than 3 feet. Special at-
tention should therefore be given to the reduction of all friction and velocity
head losses to a minimum, as a poor arrangement of piping on the pumps may
easily double the total head against which they must work. The design of the
pump must be especially suited to such low and variable lifts in order to give
efficient service, the ordinary centrifugal pump for higher lifts being very in-
efficient under these local conditions. These pumps should also be so designed
that they are able to work under an overload. Increased capacity can then be

1U. S. Dept. Agr., OMice of Expt. Stas. Bul. 243, Land Drainage by Means of Pumps, by
S. M. Woodward; Cire. 101, The Selection and Installation of Machinery for Small
Pumping Plants, by W. B. Gregory.

76 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

secured by speeding up the pump. ‘The efficiency will be less when working
under an overload, but this increased capacity at times of heavy precipitation
is very desirable, even if secured at a sacrifice of efficiency. The rated capacity
of ordinary centrifugal pumps is based on a velocity of flow, through the dis-
charge opening on the pump, of from 10 to 12 feet per second. Pumps are now
being designed to increase this velocity to 14 or 15 feet per second when run
at high speeds, i. e., overloads. This will make possible the installation of
smaller pumps. ;

Another point that must be considered in the design of both engine and pump
is the gradual increase in static lift that may be expected, due to the subsidence
of the muck soils. Of course the amount of this subsidence will depend upon
the nature and depth of the original muck, but it will often amount to 2 or
even 8 feet in the course of 10 or 15 years. Both the average and the maximum
lift will thus be increased by this amount. After a period of perhaps 15 years
further subsidence will amount to little.

The total amount of water pumped in a year will affect the character of ma-
chinery to be used. The rainfall in this section is greater than in the northern
latitudes, and the run-off, consequently, is also greater. The following table
gives the yearly rainfall and run-off on three of the districts previously de-
scribed, and the number of days on which rainfall and pumping occurred for
the period from June, 1909, to May, 1912, inclusive.

Yearly and average yearly rainfall, run-off, number of days on which pumps
were operated, and number of days on which rain fell on areas Nos. 1, 2,
and 8, June, 1909, to December, 1912.

Area No. 1. Area No. 2. Area No. 8.

nae ue days. | days Bain Bun days | days Higin se days

* | pumps} rain ; * | pumps] rain E % rain

ran. | fell. ran. | fell. fell.

Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins.

OS oe eee 42.32 16.33 45 66 37.21 15. 83 41 57 | 27.74 9.98 62
LH (i js See a oe ee 43.08 | 11.58 45 83 41.48 | 10.83 55 84 | 242.54 | 215.77 268
AOU R ey 2 Sees. 8 52.32 | 23.41 69 75 | 54.56] 25.84 102 96 | 62.22] 32.69 108
x AY 7B ae ee es, Seas .-| 3 48.22 | 334. 42 3 81 348 | 58.86 | 450.34 131 91} 65.72] 40.59 120
Motalezses- sae. 185.94 | 85.74 240 | 272 | 192.11 | 102.34 329 | 328 | 198.22} 99.03 358
Average, year.-..| 57.21] 26.38 74 84 53.36 | 28.57 91 91} 59.53] 29.80 108

1June to December, inclusive.

2February, September, and October omitted.

3 June to September, inclusive, omitted.

4 Large run-off due to excessive seepage through levees.

The above table would indicate that an average run-off of about 28 inches
per year might be expected and that it would be necessary to operate the
pumps on from 70 to 90 days a year. During the 38 years and 7 months that the
records were kept the boilers of the plant on area No. 2 were fired up 278
times, and those on area No. 1 189 times in 3 years and 3 months. The average
number of times that these boilers were fired per year was 68. This yearly
average is higher than should be expected on districts with larger reservoir
capacities.

Cost or PUMPING PLANTS.

The cost of drainage pumping plants per indicated horsepower varies widely
according to type of machinery, expense of transportation of machinery to site
of plant, character of foundation, and difficulty of erection. The last three

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NOTE-This diagram shows CIE Approximate H IL Cl
Costs of SINGLE UNIT CENTRIFUGAL PUMPING. iI PEE
PLANTS erected complete, inclusive of founda- mini |

| Based on estimates for work in Louisiana & Texas.

Compiled by H.L. HUTSON, Louisiana Eng Society. B J.
1 | IL |

26000

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tions but exclusive of Buildings, Intake, Discharge I}
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rac mal mma | ! [ Ge ia |
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CIGIAMish Water edd fopop 5 20000 30000 40000 50000 mae

I
100000 (10000 120000 130000

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. id

items will vary greatly according to local conditions. An accompanying dia-
gram (fig. 18) shows comparative approximate costs of single-unit centrifugal
pumping plants erected complete, inclusive of foundations, but exclusive of
buildings, intake, discharge canals, or flume. These costs are based on esti-
mates for work in Louisiana and Texas, and the diagram is published by
courtesy of Mr. H. L. Hutson, of A. M. Lockett & Co. (Ltd.), New Orleans, La.
These figures are approximate, but are on the safe side, i. e., they take into
consideration construction under unusual difficulties. In making up these
costs it was assumed that the effects of the three items which are mentioned
as varying according to local conditions would be a constant percentage of the
cost of the plant. It is obvious that this diagram should not be used for |
accurately obtaining the cost of a drainage plant, but that its chief usefulness
is in showing the relative cost of the various types of machinery, for deciding
upon the most economical size of unit to be used in large plants, and for making
approximate estimates of the total cost of plants. ;

In making the diagram the cost of the plant has been divided into the cost
of the “ water. end,” being pump, pump foundation, and piping; and the cost of
the “steam end,” which includes the engines, boilers, and their foundations
and auxiliaries. The cost of the water end is given in terms of gallons per
minute of rated capacity, and that of the steam end in terms of indicated horse-
power. Owing to the variation in costs, it is necessary to use zones instead of
lines to indicate them.

The zone marked “ Steam end, compound condensing Corliss or 4-valve en-
gines,”’ includes the cost of this type of engine and water-tube boilers. The
zone marked ‘“‘ Compound condensing slide valve” includes the cost of this type
of engine and either water-tube or return tubular boilers, according to the size
of plant. The zone marked “Simple slide-valve noncondensing” includes the
cost of this type of engine and hormontal return tubular boilers. It will be
noted that for the higher class engines the cost is not indicated below about 100
horsepower, as engines of this class can not be purchased in smaller sizes than
75 or 100 horsepower.

In estimating the cost of a plant the following steps are necessary. With a
given capacity of plant in gallons per minute, estimate the cost of the water end
by use of the water-end zone. In order to get the cost of the steam end the
indicated horsepower must first be calculated. The water horsepower is first
determined, knowing the capacity and lift of the plant; this is then divided by
the combined efficiency of the engine, transmission, pump, and piping, which
will give the indicated horsepower. By using the various zones of cost of
different types of engines, the cost of the steam end can be determined, Then
by combining the cost of water end and steam end the total cost of plant will
be determined.

Cost oF OPERATION.

Full and complete records of pumping operations have not been kept on any
district in this section until the present investigation was started in June,
1909. The records of cost of operation are therefore incomplete, and those that
have been given are useful in illustrating the need for more efficient machinery
rather than as serving as a guide for estimating the cost of operation of drain-
age plants in this section. On page 78 is a statement showing the comparative
fuel costs of several types of pumping plants when removing 12 inches of water
from a tract of 1,000 acres at the rate of approximately 1 inch per 24 hours
against a total head on pump of 8 feet. This table and the one on page 80 have
been prepared by A. M. Lockett & Co. as being applicable to local conditions
and are published by their courtesy.

BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CO
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DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 79

As the headings in the table on page 78 are necessarily much abbreviated a
short explanation of those that may seem obscure will be given. The first
column gives the water horsepower of the plant of the assumed capacity. The
second column states the type of plant, and also whether the engine is belted or
direct connected to the pump. Under efficiencies, the third column gives the
mechanical efficiency of the engine, the fourth that of the belt, if any, and the
fifth the combined efficiency of engine and belt. The sixth column gives the indi-
cated Lorsepower of the steam engine and the brake horsepower of the gasoline
engine. The seventh column shows the pounds of water consumed by the
engine, in the form of steam, per indicated horsepower hour; then the total
steam used per hour would be the product of the two next preceding columns,
plus 20 per cent for use of the usual auxiliaries and oil burners; these figures
are shown in column 8. The ninth column gives the amount of fuel oil per
hour necessary, assuming that 1 pound of oil will evaporate 12 pounds of
water. In like manner column 10 indicates the number of gallons of gasoline
required per hour, on the basis of 1 pint of gasoline per brake horsepower hour.
The total cost of the fuel per hour (columns 11 and 12) is found by multiply-
ing the total amount used per hour by the-unit cost, which is here taken as
$1.25 per barrel of 320 pounds for the fuel oil and 12 cents per gallon for the
gasoline. The total cost per year is found by multiplying the cost per hour by
270, this being the number of hours the plant will be required to run to remove
a depth of 1 foot of water from the 1,000 acres. Under this heading the first
column gives the cost for a pump efficiency of 100 per cent. The figures in the
other columns are derived by dividing the first column by the various pump_
efficiencies.

It will be noted in the above table that efficiencies of pumps are given from
30 to 100 per cent. Of course, the higher limit will never be attained, but the
lower one doubtless will be reached when such pumps are worked under a heavy
overload. The usual efficiency for average-size plants probably will vary
between 55 and 65 per cent. In using this table it must be remembered that
the higher-class engines can not be purchased in smaller sizes than 75 horse-
power.

In the following table the above Summary has been applied to a special case
of a tract of 3,500 acres, showing the fuel costs per year for removing depths
of water from 2 to 6 feet at the rate of 1 inch in depth per 24 hours. The
greater depth of water might be encountered when the tract is first reclaimed,
but the usual rate would be about 24 inches in depth per year.

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DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 81

The last column in this table shows that for removing a 24-inch depth the
saving in fuel per year in using a compound condensing slide-valve engine
instead of a simple slide-valve engine with the same pump would be $1,295.
The labor charges for operating the two plants would be about equal, and an
examination of the diagram of cost (fig. 18, p. 77) will show that the first cost of
the plants would be very nearly the same and would be approximately $13,000.
The interest and depreciation charges at 13 per cent would be $1,690 per year,
which, added to the fuel cost of $1,057, would make for the compound-con-
densing type a total charge per year of $2,747, exclusive of labor. This is
equivalent to a charge of $0.78 per acre per year. Labor charges would bring
this up to about $1.06 per acre per year. On districts where the service is
very intermittent or that are much smaller than this one, the fuel and labor
eharges would be relatively larger.

As mentioned above, few pumping districts are keeping careful and complete
records of operation of plant. Without such records it is impossible to tell
whether or not the plant is being run economically or to ascertain sources of
waste. From the standpoint of the owners of the land such records are as
essential as are the accounts of any business concern to its proprietors. These
records are also essential to the future intelligent design of similar plants.
If any progress is to be made in the matter of design and construction, not
only of the pumping plant but also.of the reservoir system, careful and complete
records must be kept. This need of records is more essential for purposes of
design and construction than for securing careful operation, because a system
that is poorly designed to meet local conditions can never be satisfactory even
if operated ever so carefully. The individuals and districts that are interested
in drainage by pumping owe it to the future success of this form of reclamation
and to their own self-interest to keep such records, for it is possible that much
money can be saved in first cost of improvement, as well as in reduced operation
charges.

Thus far, in the absence of detailed and reliable data, the design of plant has
been based on a number of reasonable assumptions. However, when there is
such a variation in these assumptions that the resulting plants for similar dis-
tricts vary in capacity from 50 to 100 per cent, and in character from the lowest
to the highest grade machinery, it is evident that a larger percentage of actual
facts is needed as a basis of design in place of so much that is assumed. Owing
to a variation in local conditions from one district to another, the records should
be extended over a large number of typical districts, and it would be much better
if a complete record could be secured from every pumping plant of importance.
A few dollars spent in keeping such records will be worth many times the
amount to each individual district, and the benefit in general to the work of
drainage by pumping will be far-reaching and lasting.

The following form is recommended as one including the essential features of
daily operation of plant.

Form for daily pumping records.

82 BULLETIN 71, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It would be well to use.one page for each day. The gauges in reservoir and
outfall canal should be read before starting and again about one-half hour after
starting. If practicable they should be read once an hour during operation and
all other items should be so entered. It would also be well to read the oil
meter, when oil is burned, before firing the boiler and again after the pumps
are started. This will determine the losses due to intermittent operation, a
question that is at present a subject of. much discussion. If coal or wood is

burned, it will not be so convenient to determine the amount consumed, but it’

should be estimated at least once a month. Other expenses should be carefully
recorded and the total expenses of operating a plant should be classified under
the following headings: Fuel, labor, supplies, repairs, and superintendence. The
records should be kept in such form that the totals for month and year can
easily be obtained. The cost per acre per year can then be determined, but-to
determine the cost of removing a given depth of water over the tract the pumps
must be carefully rated. The above form provides for such data that the
amount of water pumped can be calculated. If these records are faithfully
kept on a large number of districts for a term of years, the resulting data will
enable the engineer to design a pumping plant intelligently and with the
knowledge that it will give satisfaction, not only in capacity, but in economy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

It is with pleasure that acknowledgment is here made of the helpful spirit
of cooperation displayed by railroads, companies installing drainage systems,
landowners, and practicing engineers. Almost without exception these have
cheerfully cooperated in the investigations and have done much to extend the
' scope and increase the accuracy of the work.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

15 CENTS PER COPY
V

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARINENT OFAARICULTURE *.

No. 72

=|)

Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester.

May 29, 1914.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP.

By Henry E. Surrace, Chemical Engineer in Forest Products, and RoBERT E. CoorPEr,
Chemist in Forest Products.

SOUTHERN PINES FOR KRAFT PULP.

The southern pines have not, until within the last few years, been
considered suitable for paper pulp. Their resinous nature is the
chief drawback in most processes of paper making. The recent
development in Europe, especially in Sweden and Norway, of the
sulphate process, however, and the superior quality of the product
made from resinous woods has turned attention to longleaf and
other southern pines as a possible source of pulp in this country.
These pines have long, thick-walled fibers, and also high specific
_ gravities, implying large yields per cord, and therefore seem particu-
larly adapted for the manufacture, at low cost, of strong wrapping
papers. The waste wood from the lumber industry in the South sug-
gests a source of cheap raw material.

While the sulphate process can be used in the manufacture of
bleaching pulps, its principal product is an undercooked, nonbleach-
ing, brown pulp known as “‘kraft” pulp, the term, a German one,
signifying strength. ‘True to its name, this pulp produces a remark-
ably strong paper, very resistant to wear.

Kraft papers, which may be made by the soda as well as by the
sulphate process, are especially adapted for wrapping purposes.
Wrapping papers stand third among the paper products of the United
States, being exceeded in amount and value only by news and book
papers. In 1909 the production of wrapping papers of all kinds
aggregated 764,000 short tons, with a value of $42,296,000. The
value of wrapping papers imported in 1912 was $846,500.2 Complete

; ape Board Report, Pulp and News Print Paper Industry, 1911, p. 21. Senate Doc. 31, 62d Cong.,
st sess.

2 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance for Decem-
ber, 1912, p. 744.

24542°—14—]

2 BULLETIN 72, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
statistics for recent importations of kraft paper are not available, but
in 1908, three years after its introduction into the United States, the
imports amounted to between 10,000 and 12,000 tons.1 In 1912
the imports of unbleached sulphate pulp from Sweden alone were
approximately 21,600 short tons, and from Norway 8,400 short tons.?

Manila wrapping papers, including the better imitation manilas,
have generally been considered the strongest and best wearing, but
the light-weight kraft papers give the same service as manilas almost
twice as heavy. Although strong, light-weight wrapping papers are
made in this country from sulphite pulps, the imported kraft papers
and papers made from imported kraft pulps have proved too formidable
competitors for even the best wholly-domestic product of this kind.
The immediate success and largely increasing use of kraft products
has brought: on the market imitations, colored to resemble the gen-
uine, made from strong sulphite pulp or from such pulp together with
ground, steamed-wood pulp. Although some of them are quite
strong in the light weights, they are not equal to the genuine in other
ways. The opportunity for developing an increased domestic output
of kraft products from native woods is apparent.

The above-mentioned conditions led the Forest Service to conduct
a series of tests at the Forest Products Laboratory, maintained in
cooperation with the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., in order
(1) to determine the suitability of the southern pines for paper pulps;
(2) to ascertain the effects of varying cooking conditions in the sul-
phate process of pulp making; (3) to compare the sulphate process
with the soda process. Only longleaf pine has so far been used in the
tests, of which this bulletin gives the results under such preliminary
analyses as have been made at this time.

LUMBER WASTE AVAILABLE FOR PULP MAKING.

The total stand of longleaf pine (privately owned) was estimated
by the Bureau of Corporations in 1910 at 232 billion feet board
measure, while for all southern pines the amount was placed at 384
billion feet. The lumber cut from these pines in 1910 amounted to
14 billion feet. The sawed lumber represents approximately one-
half the volume of the log as it comes to the mill. Bark and saw-
dust, which are valueless for paper making, constitute a large pro-
portion of the waste, but it is safe to say that 20 per cent of the
volume of the log, exclusive of the bark, is lost in slabs, edgings, and
trimmings. Tops and defective logs left in the woods and small logs
which at present are converted into lumber with little or no profit
would furnish a supply of raw material for pulp making even greater
than that derived from the mill waste.

1 Pulp and Paper Investigation Hearings, 1909, Vol. V, p. 3041. House Doc. 1502, 60th Cong., 2d sess.
2 From estimates made by the Swedish Wood Pulp Association in 1913 and furnished the Forest Service
by Mr, M, Gintzler, New York City, ;

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 3

The waste wood mentioned is not as a rule the clean, clear material
to which pulp mills have been accustomed. But when the soda and
sulphate processes are employed, the presence of knots, pitch pockets
and streaks, and remnants of decayed wood and bark are not very
objectionable. The expense of handling and preparing slabs and other
irregular sizes and shapes, however, is greater than for round pulp-
wood, so the initial cost of such material must be low enough to offset
the extra cost incident to its use.

PULP MAKING PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO LONGLEAF PINE.

Four or five mills are at present using southern pine mill waste
for the manufacture of wrapping paper and similar products, three of
which employ the sulphate process. Several other sulphate mills
are either projected or in course of construction. Because of the
resinous nature of the wood the preparation of paper pulp from long-
leaf pine is confined to the soda and sulphate processes, unless special
extraction treatments are employed preliminary to cooking.

The soda process consists in digesting suitably prepared wood with
caustic soda (NaOH) solution. The cooking results in dissolving
the lignin and resin constituents of the wood, and separating the
' individual fibers from one another. The action depends partly upon
the direct solvent and saponifying power of the caustic soda, and
partly upon the hydrolysis of the wood in the presence of water at
high temperatures, forming organic acid products which unite with ~
the alkalipresent. Cellulose, of which the fibers are chiefly composed,
withstands the cooking action, except under very severe treatment.

The spent cooking liquor, or ‘‘ black liquor,” is separated from the
pulp fibers and evaporated; the residue is calcined in a furnace, and
the soda compounds are recovered as “‘ black ash,’”’ an impure sodium
carbonate (Na,CO,). This ashis dissolved in water, and the solution
is causticized with freshly burned lime; the resulting caustic soda is
again used in cooking. The losses of soda occurring in the operations
are made up by adding fresh soda ash (commercial sodium carbonate)
previous to causticizing.

The sulphate process is similar to the soda process, except that
sodium sulphide (Na,S) is employed as a cooking chemical in addi-
tion to the caustic soda. The sodium sulphide is derived from sodium
sulphate (Na,SO,), which is added during the recovery operations to
make up for the losses, and it is from this chemical that the process
derives its name. The sodium sulphate is mixed with the black ash
and subjected to a high temperature in a “‘smelter’’; this treatment
reduces it to sodium sulphide, although the reaction is not complete.
The ‘‘smelt,” containing sodium carbonate, sodium sulphide, and
unreduced sodium sulphate, is dissolved in water and the solution is
causticized, as in the soda process, with lime, which has, however,

4 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

little action on the sulphide and the sulphate. During cooking the
organic acids produced react with the sodium sulphide! as well as
with the caustic soda, so that in calcining both chemicals are recovered
as sodium carbonate. If desired, soda ash may be added to the smelt
solution before causticizing in order to increase the proportion of
caustic soda in the cooking liquors. Some mills have also found it
advantageous to mix with the causticized cooking liquors some of
the black liquors diverted from the recovery operations.

The soda and sulphate processes can be applied to extracted or
steam-distilled chips from which rosin and turpentine have been
removed. Turpentine can also be obtained from resinous chips
during the cooking operations by condensing the ‘“‘relief’”’ from the
top of the digester. However, the turpentine is very impure, and
in the case of the sulphate process contains organic sulphur compounds
from which it is separated with great difficulty. |

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
KINDS OF TESTS.

The tests made by the Forest Service were of two classes: (1) Auto-
clave tests and (2) semicommercial tests. The autoclave tests com-
prised several series of cooks made to determine the effects of varying
the cooking conditions of the sulphate process. The semicommer-
cial tests include cooks made by the soda as well as by the sulphate
process. The semicommercial sulphate cooks employed such cook-
ing conditions as the autoclave tests indicated would give good
results, while the tests using the soda process were made with cooking
conditions that would give results comparable to those obtained from
the sulphate cooks. Because the semicommercial tests show in a
more direct manner the possibilities of preparing paper pulp from
longleaf pine, they will be discussed before the autoclave tests.

WOOD USED.

The test material consisted of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.)
from two localities, Perry County, Miss. (shipment L-3), and Tangi-
pahoa Parish, La. (shipment L-176). <A portion of the former, con-
sisting of edgings containing approximately equal amounts of sap-
wood and heartwood, was used for cooks 176-1, 2, and 3 of the semi-
commercial soda tests (Table 3), and another similar portion of the
same shipment was used for cooks 1 to 65, inclusive, of the autoclave
tests. The average bone-dry weight of the wood used in these auto-
clave tests was 30.4 pounds per cubic foot green volume; the maxi-
mum and minimum values were 36.4 and 26.6 pounds, respectively.
The wood was fairly free from resin. The remaining cooks employed

1 In this reaction volatile organic sulphur compounds having extremely disagreeable odors are produced.

Unless these odors are eliminated, or held in check by proper means, sulphate pulp mills are highly objec-
tionable except in sparsely populated regions.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 5

two butt logs (15 and 22 inches diameter) of the Louisiana wood,
including all of the sapwood and heartwood. ‘These logs were quite
resinous, but were free from knots. They had an average bone-dry
weight of 35.5 pounds per cubic foot green volume. The maximum
and minimum weights were 40.1 and 32.3 pounds, respectively, for
the various determinations.

The material was prepared for cooking by removing the bark
and sawing the pieces across the grain into sections five-eighths inch
thick, which were then split into chips about three-sixteenths to
one-fourth inch by 2 to 6 inches across the grain. The chips were
screened to remove sawdust, and each lot was thoroughly mixed so
as to be uniform throughout.

APPARATUS.

The semicommercial cooks were made in a vertical, stationary
digester ' consisting of a cast-steel cylindrical shell with top and bot-
tom cones, with a capacity of about 62 gallons. The digester was fitted
at the top with a “‘relief’’ or vent pipe, a pressure gauge, and a
thermometer; and at the side with a gauge glass for noting the
height of the liquor. The bottom was arranged for ‘‘blowing”’ the
contents after cooking. Heat was furnished partly by passing steam
directly into the digester at the bottom and partly by two steam
coils placed inside the bottom cone. The pressure and temperature
were regulated by admitting either more or less steam into the diges-
ter and by relieving any excess pressure by means of the top vent.

The autoclave cooks were made in a horizontal rotary autoclave
with a capacity of about 2 gallons. This vessel was made of a 6-inch
steel pipe with blank flange ends, fitted with trunnions, to one of
which was attached a pressure gauge. A screw-joint handhole
opening in the side provided for charging. Heat was furnished by
Bunsen-burner flames underneath the autoclave, and the pressures
were regulated by increasing or decreasing the heat. The autoclave
was not relieved during cooking, and no observations of tempera-
tures were made. The cooked pulps were not blown, as in the case
of the semicommercial tests, but the cooking vessel was quickly
cooled and the contents poured out.

PROCEDURE IN TESTING.

The liquor charges for the sulphate cooks were prepared by mixing
caustic soda and sodium sulphide solutions of known composition, as
determined by previous analyses, together with water and dry sodium
sulphate. The amounts of each constituent were taken in such
proportions that when the whole mixture was charged, with the chips,

1 The apparatus used in the semicommercial cooks is practically the same as that fully illustrated and
described in U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 80, ‘‘ Effects of Varying Certain Cooking Con-
ditions in the Productions of Soda Pulp from Aspen,” by Henry E. Surface, 1914.

6 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

into the digester or autoclave, the amounts of each chemical per
pound of chips (bone-dry basis) was in the desired proportion, and
the concentration of chemicals in the digester liquor (including the
water in the chips) was of the desired degree. For soda cooks the
procedure was similar, except that caustic soda was the only chemical
to be taken into consideration. The general procedure in conducting
the tests was as follows:

The chips to be used for a cook were sampled and weighed. Be
means of the sample the amount of moisture in the chips and the
equivalent bone-dry weight of the charge were determined. The chips,
together with the cooking liquors, were then charged into the auto-
clave or digester, and the vessel closed. After a cook was completed
the crude pulp obtained was washed thoroughly, pressed to remove
water, shredded, weighed, and sampled for determining its equivalent
bone-dry weight. The pulp was then mixed with water and treated
in a Hollander-style beating engine’ with the roll barely touching
the bedplate (ight brush) until the soft chips in the pulp had
become disintegrated into fibers and the wet fibers had a smooth,
slippery feel. The beater roll.was then pressed hard down on the
bedplate (stiff brush), and the beating operation continued until
the pulp was suitable for making wrapping paper, as determined by
its ‘‘feel.” The beaten pulp was then screened through the slots
(0.012 inch width) of a diaphragm pulp screen. In all cases the
screenings obtained were sd small in amount that they were dis-
regarded in the yield calculations. The semicommercial pulps were
run over a Pusey and Jones 15-inch Fourdrinier paper machine into
rolls of dry paper, while the autoclave pulps were made up into sheets
on a small hand mold. The papers thus produced contained the
experimental pulps alone, without the addition of any other materials.

DETERMINATION OF YIELDS AND PROPERTIES.

The yield of pulp (bone-dry basis) is usually expressed as a per-
centage of the bone-dry weight of the chip charge, both weights
being determined as ep above. When yields per cord are
given they are based on a “‘solid cord” containing 100 cubic feet of
clear wood (green volume) having a bone-dry weight of 35.5 pounds
per cubic foot;? or 3,550 pounds per cord.

The strengths of the papers from the semicommercial pulps were
determined by means of a Mullen paper tester, five ‘‘pop tests”’ being
made on double thicknesses of each paper. The value is expressed
as a ‘‘strength ratio,’ which is the average of the five test values in
pounds per square inch divided by the average sheet thicknesses

1 A 25-pound Emerson beater was used for the semicommercial tests and a 1-pound Noble and Wood
beater for the autoclave tests. Both makes were equipped with steel fly bars and steel bedplate hars.

2 This was the average bone-dry weight of the two butt logs of ‘long leaf pine from Louisiana, the
material used in the tests for which yields per cord are given.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. a

_ in ten-thousandths of an inch, and also as a “‘strength factor,”’ which
is the average of the five pop tests divided by the weight per ream
of 500 sheets of paper, each measuring 24 by 36 inches. The relative
resistance of the papers to wear was determined by crumpling the
sheets in the hand, and all other properties mentioned, except’
strength, were determined by feel or by observation without the aid
of instruments.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED.

While the significance of most of the terms used in recording the
test data (Tables 1 to 10, inclusive) is either self-evident or sufficiently
clear in view of the previous discussion, there are several which may
require explanation.

Water in chips——The amount of moisture is expressed in per-
centage of water, based on the calculated bone-dry weight of the
chips. )

All sodium compounds as Na,O.—This is the sum of the sodium
oxide (Na,O) equivalents of the amounts of the several constituents
entering into the chemical charge. ‘‘Total Na,O”’ has an analagous
significance in the soda process.

Sulphidity—The sulphidity of the liquor charge is the percentage
ratio of the Na,O equivalent of the amount of sodium sulphide
(Na,S) used to the amount of all sodium compounds present expressed
as Na,O.

Causticity——This has a similar significance with respect to the
amount of caustic soda (NaOH) used.

Initial volume of digester liquors.—The digester liquors include the
water in the liquor charge, together with the water in the chips and
the water condensed from the steam passed into the digester during
cooking. This condensation, of course, does not enter into the calcu-
lation of the initial volume.

Apparent condensation.—The apparent condensation is the differ-
ence between the calculated initial volume of the digester liquors and
the observed volume, as read from a water gauge, at the end of the
cook. It roughly represents the amount of steam condensing in the
digester during cooking, but does not take into account the volume
of the pulp and the differences in temperature of the initial and final
liquors, nor the steam and liquid lost during relief.

SEMICOMMERCIAL TESTS.
SULPHATE PROCESS.

The object of the semicommercial sulphate cooks was to secure the
best quality of pulp with the highest possible yield. The severity of
cooking employed depends largely upon the use for which the pulps
are intended. If bleaching or easy bleaching pulps, such as are used
in book and other white papers, are desired, more severe cooking

8 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

treatments are necessary than if the pulps are to be used in natural-
color wrapping papers. The present experiments apply more espe-
cially to the latter, for which the important properties are strength,
toughness, and resistance to wear. The terms mild, medium, and
severe cooking, and undercooked, well-cooked, and overcooked pulps
used in the following discussion are significant only with respect to
the object of the tests.

MILD COOKING TREATMENTS. ~—

The less severe the cooking of a wood the larger will be the yield
of crude pulp. However, there is a point at which the pulp will begin
to lose its valuable properties for making wrapping papers. For cook
71 the digesting conditions were outlined to give a much undercooked
pulp (see Table 1), but the treatment given the wood was even less
severe than is indicated by the recorded data, since a portion of the
digester liquor was lost through leakage soon after the cook had been
started. The crude unbeaten pulp from this cook was full of soft
chips, which, while hard enough to resist the action of a stream of
water under pressure, could easily be picked apart with the fingers.
The paper made from the beaten pulp had a strength factor of 0.50,
was moderately tough, and had fair wearing properties. As a wrap-
ping paper it would be considered of medium grade. The yield, 61.2
per cent, or 2,172 pounds per solid cord, was very high, considering
the quality of pulp obtained. Pulps produced under less severe
cooking conditions had higher yields (see autoclave tests, pp. 14-24),
but the quality was not so good, as evidenced by brittleness, lack of
strength, and poor wearing properties.

TABLE 1.—Record of semicommercial tests using the sulphate process.

Liquor charge. Tnitial
volume
of di-
Weight Initial concentrations. pester
ofchips iquors
Cook charged Yas aaa a aT = per
f one- : i
Spike dry chips. SO2 All Caus- ae eats a
basis.) com- sodium | ticity. | ? chips
NaOH. |NazCOz.| NaS. |pounds|Na2S04.| com- ¥- | (bone-
as pounds dry
NapS Oz. as Na,O. basis).
Grams | Grams | Grams | Grams | Grams | Grams
Pounds. | Per ct. \per liter.\per liter.\per liter.\per liter.| per liter | per liter. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Gallons.
171 38. 62 34. 6 26.5 1.4 13. 2 1.8 13. 2 A) 53.3 27.3 0.679
77 38. 61 34.7 44.6 aol 22.3 2.9 22.1 64.9 53. 2 27.3 538
81 23. 97 22.7 60. 4 3.2 30.0 4.0 30.0 87.6 53.4 27.2 300
85 23. 97 22.7 36. 0 1.9 18.0 2.4 18. 0 52.3 53.3 27.3 500
92 23, 97 22. 6 48. 0 2.4 30. 0 4.0 30. 0 1.5 48. 0 30.8 300
98 23. 97 22.6 28. 8 1.4 14. 4 1.9 14.4 41.8 53.3 27.4 500
113 25. 38 18, 2 34, 2 1.9 Weal 2.2 18.5 50. 4 52.6 27.0 7
138 25. 38 18. 2 59.9 3.0 30. 0 3.9 30. 0 87.0 53. 4 27.4 400
141 25. 38 18, 2 60. 0 3.3 15.0 pps 30. 0 74.4 62. 4 16.0 400
146 25. 38 18, 2 26.5 1.4 13.)2 1.8 13. 2 38.5 53.3 27.3 680
147 26. 67 12.5 26.5 1.2 13. 2 1.8 13. 2 38. 4 53. 4 27.4 680
148 26. 67 12.5 26.5 1.2 13. 2 1.8 13.2 38.4 53. 4 27.4 680

1 A portion of the digester liquor was lost, due to leaks during the early stages of cooking.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP, 9

Taste 1.—Record of semicommercial tests using the sulphate process—Continued.

Chemicals charged per ne pe of chips (bone-dry Duration of cooking.
Maximum
aoe SOz All At | Ab | cooking
° com- sodium Zero aaa temperature.
NaOH. |NazCOz.| NaoS. | pounds } NasSO.. com- Total. | gauge bt
as pounds pres: || Bonet
NaS Os. as Naz2O. sure. ee aa
Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Hours.| Hours.| Hours.| °F. SO
171 15.0 0.8 6 1.0 ted 21.8 3.0 0.1 2.8 331 166
77 20. 0 1.2 10.0 13 9.9 29.1 3.0 2 O83 331 166
81 15.1 .8 7.5 1.0 7.5 21.9 3.0 1 2.5 331 166
85 15.0. -8 7.5 1.0 7.5 21.8 3.0 a 255 331 166
92 12.0 -6 (08) 1.0 435 19.4 3.0 ~20 2.5 331 166
98 12.0 .6 6.0 .8 6.0 17.4 5.0 oil 4.3 331 166
113 20. 0 1.1 10.0 1.3 10.8 29.4 3.0 ~25 1.0 331 166
138 20. 0 1.0 10.0 1.3 10.0 29.0 3.0 alt 2.8 331 166
141 20. 0 11 5.0 att 10.0 24.8 3.0 sil 2.5 331 166
146 15.0 .8 Wo) 1.0 7.5 21.8 3.0 .2 9.83 338 170
147 15.0 sot bo 1.0 68) 21.8 3.5 23 2.8 338 170
148 15.0 7 7.5 1.0 7.5 21.8 3.5 2 3.0 338 170
Digester pres- Seman Appar- Duration of beater
sures per square eee ent con- treatment.
inch. e Fa densa- R
ee eation < cane
Cook} -———-- | _ Pt i Yield of crude Strength|Strength| weight
No square Pond pulp (bone-dry ratio | factor of
os , ine & chips basis). At At |ofpaper.| of paper.) papers
Maxi- | Biow- | at di- | “rons Total.| light | stiff tested.
mum | “j gester | (pre brush.| brush
gauge ing. etc ry TUS. TUS.
basis).
Lbs. per
solid
Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.|Gallons.|P er cord. |Hours.| Hours.| Hours. Pounds.
171 10 40 105 | 10.20] 61.2-} 2,172 3.5 116) 2.0 0. 60 0. 50 76
77 90 40 105 50} 45.3] 1,609 3.5 2.0 1.5 1.15 91 31
81 90 50 103 -58 | 47.9} 1,700 5.0 200 Pe 1.08 93 44
85 90 50 113) Weesseuas 52.0 | 1,846 7.0 3.0 4.0 91 87 38
92 90 40 110 49 | 48.8] 1,733 6.5 2.5 4.0 86 70 28
98 90 40 108 50] 51.8} 1,839 4.5 1.0 3.5 -60 256 28
113 90 40 | 100-95 32] 486] 1,725 6.0 2.0 4.0 .70 .59 37
138 90 40 LON eee 46.1 ESOS Perce | oto a aelee cee en ceeae cate ereeiee oe ne eae ee
141 90 40 OSs eee ee 44.2) 1,569 8.5 4.5 4.0 1.02 86 36
146 100 40 LOSE eee: 54.9 1,949 9.0 4.0 5.0 ~72 - 68 45
147 100 40 115 41 49.1 1,743 6.5 4.0 2.5 -92 71 37
148 100 40 115 63 48.4 1,718 8.5 4.0 4.5 1.02 elite 33

(PB. L.—138, S. L.—176.)
1 A portion of the digester liquor was lost, due to leaks during the early stages of cooking.

SEVERE COOKING TREATMENTS.

The effect of more severe cooking treatments, produced mainly
by greater initial concentrations and amounts of active cooking
chemicals, was evidenced by the thoroughly cooked or overcooked
pulps from cooks 77 and 141 (Table 1). The crude pulps were not
only free from chips and shives, but also seemed to be soft and
fluffy. The papers made from the beaten pulps, however, were of
very superior quality with regard to resistance to wear, toughness,
and strength, the strength factors being 0.91 and 0.86 for cooks 77
and 141, respectively. Both pulps became slightly hydrated during
the beater treatments, which produced a parchmentizing effect and
increased the strength and toughness. Either of the papers could be

aN ay ted rma

10 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rubbed or crumpled for a long time without becoming fuzzy, tearing,
or showing signs of wear at the place of friction. The papers had also
a soft, smooth, greasy, leather-like feel, and were light brown in color,
like the imported kraft papers. The yields were rather low for
sulphate kraft pulps. For cook 77 the yield was 45.3 per cent, or
1,609 pounds per solid cord, and for cook 141, 44.2 per cent, or 1,569
pounds per solid cord. Under still more severe cooking treatments -
longleaf pine pulps become very soft and gradually lose their strength
and wearing properties. (See autoclave tests, p. 14-24.)

MEDIUM COOKING TREATMENTS.

The above-mentioned cooks show approximately the higher and
lower limits of yield in the production of pulps and papers of good
quality. However, the better quality of wrapping papers resulted
from pulps having the lower yields, and in attempting to secure this.
better quality, but with higher yields than were obtained for cooks 77
and 141, cooks 85, 98, and 146 were made. For cook 85 the amounts
of chemicals and the initial concentrations were decreased from the
corresponding conditions for cook 77, while the duration of cooking
and the pressure remained practically the same; for cook 98 a further
decrease was made in the amounts of chemicals and in the concen-
trations, but the duration of cooking was increased; for cook 146 the
amounts of chemicals and the duration were practically the same as
for cook 85, but the concentrations were decreased while the pressure
was increased. The cooking conditions, given in full in Table 1, are
briefly summarized in Table 2. The resultant papers were in each
case of good quality, being tough and resistant to wear, but they were
in general not so strong as those from pulps produced under more
severe cooking treatments. The strength factors for cooks 85, 98,
and 146 were 0.87, 0.56, and 0.68, respectively. There is little doubt,
however, that these values could be increased considerably by
employing beating and other refining treatments better adapted for
these particular pulps than the treatments given them. The yields
obtained were quite high, cook 85 yielding 52 per cent, or 1,846
pounds per solid cord; poole 98, 51.8 per cent, or 1,839 ponds per
solid cord; and cook 146, 54.9 per cent, or 1,949 soil per solid cord.

TaBLE 2.—Condensed summary of cooking conditions for cooks 77, 85, 98, and 146.

Liquor charge, initial Che om un g al 4 Ay Duration of cooking. Nissin
concentrations. ie) S DS at eee 5
2 (bone-dry basis). gauge

Cook No. INA sae pressure

Total. |mum ee pers REN
NaOH. NaS. NaOH. Nays. pressure.
Grams De Grams per

liter liter Pounds. Poumds. Hours. Hours. Pounds
Te Sh ote dee eet 6 22.3 20.0 10.0 2.0 2:3. 90
IM 6 ob Fae e ose 36.0 18.0 15.0 7.5 3.0 2.5 90
OSE EEL! Bud 28.8 14.4 12.0 6.0 5.0 4.3 90
PAG Se aekie ns fsicane 26.5 13.2 15.0 7.5 3.0 2.3 100

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 11

All things considered, cooks 147 and 148, which may also be classed
with those of medium severity, gave the best results. These two
cooks were made under almost duplicate cooking conditions, approxi-
mately as follows: Caustic soda and sodium sulphide charged per 100
pounds of chips, 15 and 7.5 pounds, respectively; initial concen-
tration of caustic soda in digester liquor, 26.5 grams per Liter; initial
volume of digester liquor per pound of chips, 0.68 gallon; total
duration of cooking, 3.5 hours, of which 2.8 hours for cook 147 and
3.0 hours for cook 148 were at a maximum gauge pressure of 100
pounds per square inch.

The crude pulps were slightly raw and contained some soft chips,
which, however, broke up in the beater. The pulp from cook 148
was hydrated during the beating treatment to such an extent that the
paper made from it had a parchment-like appearance, the individual
fibers being scarcely distinguishable from each other. This paper
had good wearing properties and was very tough, with a strength
factor of 0.77. The pulp from cook 147 was not subjected to so
long a beating treatment, and the resulting paper was not parch-
mentized to the same extent as that from cook 148. It had astrength
factor of 0.71, however, was very tough, and showed good wearing
properties. The yield from cook 148 was 48.4 per cent, or 1,718
pounds per solid cord, and from cook 147, 49.1 per cent, or 1,743

pounds per solid cord.
EFFECTS OF BEATING.

The mechanical treatment given a kraft pulp has as important
an influence on the properties of the resulting paper as the cooking
treatment itself. A crude pulp which appears to be of little value
can be made into strong high-grade paper if the proper beater treat-
ment is employed, while the best pulps can easily be ruined by
improper beating. The use of kollergangs or edge runners prelimi-
nary to actual beating, or of stone rolls and bedplates in the beaters,
and the determination by successive tests of the refining and beating
treatments best adapted for a particular pulp undoubtedly would
have resulted in papers of much better quality than those obtained.
Nevertheless, many of the experimental papers were equal or superior
to commercial kraft papers.

The effect of different beater treatments was shown by a single
series of tests on some of the crude pulp from cook 71 (Table 1).
Separate portions of the pulp were treated in the 1-pound beater
for periods of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours with the roll at light brush.
The papers resulting from treatments of 2 hours or less were soft and
weak, and had poor wearing properties, but for the longer periods the
papers were firm and tough, with good wearing properties. Under
the 4-hour treatment the fibers became hydrated, and a parchment-
like paper resulted. The fibers of longleaf pine when reduced by the
sulphate process seem to take up water and to become hydrated very

12 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

quickly. For all of the semicommercial tests previously mentioned
(Table 1) this effect, indicated by the smooth, greasy feel of the wet
paper stock, was obtained with from 2 to 4 hours’ beater treatment.

WOOD REQUIRED FOR 1 TON OF PULP.

It has been shown that sulphate kraft pulps of fairly good strength
and toughness can be obtained from longleaf pine with yields (bone-
dry basis) as high as 61 per cent, or 2,170 pounds per solid cord + in
case of wood as heavy as that tested. For the production of the
best grades of wrapping papers, which equal or excel in quality the
imported sulphate kraft papers, the yield of pulp would be approxi-
mately 51 per cent, or 1,800 pounds (bone-dry) per solid cord. This
is equal to a ton (2,000 pounds) of nominally air-dry pulp.2, How-
ever, it should be remembered that for wood either lighter or heavier
than that on which this calculation is based the amount required. per
ton of pulp would be correspondingly greater or less, unless the differ-
ences in weight were due to resin alone.’ 7

COMPARISON OF THE SODA AND SULPHATE PROCESSES.

Table 3 contains the record of the semicommercial soda tests.
The best results in both yield and quality were obtained in the case of
cook 152. This cook employed 20 pounds of caustic soda per 100
pounds of wood at an initial concentration of 79.7 grams per liter and
5 hours’ cooking at 110 pounds gauge pressure, the total duration
being 6 hours. The resulting paper was very strong (strength factor
0.90) and the feel and wearing properties were also exceptionally
good for a soda pulp. The yield was 48 per cent, or 1,704 pounds
per solid cord.

TaBLE 3.—RKecord of semicommercial tests using the soda process.

Per Grams | Grams | Grams

Pounds. | cent. \perliter.\perliter.| per liter.| Per cent.| Gallons. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
102... 23. 97 22.6 84. 0 3.4 67.1 97.0 0. 538 37.7 1.5 30. 1
1361 25. 37 18.3 59. 9 2.3 47.8 97.2 . 400 20. 0 7.7 16.0
144 25. 38 18. 2 90. 0 3. 4 aT 97, 2 - 400 30. 0 1.1; 23.9
149 25. 89 12.0 90,.2 3. 2 71.8 97.4 332 25. 0 A!) 19.9
150 25. 89 12.0 90. 2 3.2 71.8 97. 4 «332 25.0 9 19.9
iN ae 25. 89 12.0 90. 2 3.2 71.8 97.4 ~ 332 25. 0 -9 19.9
152.... 25. 89 12.0 79. 7, 1.8 62.9 98.3 301 20. 0 5 15.8
176-12. 41. 89 14.6 90. 0 2.7 71.3 97.8 333 25. 0 8 19.8
176-22. 41. 89 14.6 90. 0 2. 42 71.2 98. 0 - 266 20. 0 5 15.8
176-3 2. 41.89 14.6 90. 0 2, 42 71.1 98.0 . 267 20. 0 A) 15.8

1 Weighing 3,550 pounds; see p. 6.

2 Standard moisture content of 10 per cent or 100 pounds air-dry weight equals 90 pounds bone-dry
weight.

3 The average specific gravity (oven-dry weight, green volume) of all of the longleaf pine from Louisiana
in the shipment from which the two test: logs were taken, including bolts cut higher up in the trunks of the
same trees and material from several additional trees, was 0.528. (See Forest Service Circular 213, Mechan-
ical Properties of Woods Grown in the United States, 1913, Table 1.) Thisis equal to a weight per cubic
foot of 33 pounds in comparison with the 35.5 pounds obtained for the two butt logs.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 13

TaBLE 3.—/fecord of semicommercial tests using the soda process—Continued.

é ! Digester pressure
Duration of cooking. we entail eh Steam |Apparent
pressure | conden-
THEI Cie] WL Sa Ne ashen thaotbbock cooking per sation per
Cook No. . ie square ound of
At zero Ab max: eva eT MIRO Maxi- inch at :: chips
Total. gauge ae mum | Blowing.| digester |(bone-dry
pressure. eure gauge. inlet. basis).
Hours. Hours. Hours. So Tebak SiG Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons.
LOD ¢ 6h) 0.2 2.5 331 166 90 40 115 0. 55
1361....... 6.0 22 5.3 331 166 90 45 115 35
44 ee 6.0 2) 5.5 338 170 100 40 110 - 80
TAGS FE 6.0 42) 5.0 338 170 100 40 AN le ot tah
T5OUS 22 he 9.3 3 8.3 3807 153 60 40 U20 ese eae
NUS Seca ae 4.5 32 3.8 361 183 140 40 142 1. 02
Up eles a 6.0 £2 5.0 345 174 110 40 125 55
176-12__... 7.0 =) 6.0 338 170 aICGy a) Perea pe ae a 110 94
176-22... ... 7.0 ae) 6.0 338 170 KOLO) ye ene oe 115 - 76
176-32..... 8.0 13 7.0 338 170 HOO Aes me we 110 91
Caustic- i Duration of eats treat-
ity of . mert. i Ream
Cook |_ black Bneiency Yield of crude pulp pirenet Pla weight of
No. | liquor at} ‘YaOq. | (bone-dry basis). ae tor Or | papers —
end of ; Motal, \Atlight| Atstitt| P*P°T- | Papet. | tested.
cook. ~~ | brush. | brush.
Lbs. per
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | solid cord.| Hours. | Hours. Pounds,
HO) Vi Re ON : 1, 676 4.0
LUSYO) ps AA ee Sep aa 50. 9 1,808 '
Tee aa| eee see
149... 22.7
150... 41.6
151... 17.6
152... 11.2
AGU 2 ae eee)
WG= 2.28 eee
Gomera aE ap cen ETT NAL AER hg Males cs Ea

(EM TOS, (Sh Te LeirGe Ie Ty ATGZet.)

1 Five pounds of sodium chloride (table salt) per 100 pounds of chips were used in addition to the chemicals
indicated. However, it will be shown later that sodium chloride has little or no effect. (See p. 19.)

2 Shipment L-3a from Mississippi was used as the test material. Data for these three cooks have been
published previously in Forest Service unnumbered bulletin, ‘‘Paper Pulps from Various Forest Woods,”
by Henry HE. Surface, 1912. Specimens of natural color and bleached pulps accompanied the data.

Cook 150 afforded a yield of 52 per cent, or 1,846 pounds per solid
cord, but the quality was not so good as in the case of cook 152, the
paper being quite weak (strength factor 0.56) with a correspondingly
low resistance to wear. The papers resulting from cooks 144, 149,
and 151 were all of very good quality, having high strength ratios
and good wearing properties, but the yields were considerably lower
than for cook 152.

Soda pulps from longleaf pine tend to be soft and fluffy, even when
slightly undercooked, or chippy. Proper beater treatments will
remedy this to some extent, but the pulp does not become so well
hydrated nor attain the same smooth, greasy feel during beating as
the sulphate pulps, and the resultant papers do not show the
parchmentized effect so characteristic of the sulphate papers. On
the paper machine soda stock runs “‘free,’’ while sulphate stock runs
“slow,” provided, of course, both kinds of stock are handled simi-
larly in the beater.

14 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The soda papers were inferior to the sulphate papers in resistance
to wear; the latter could be rubbed and crumpled for a long time
without showing signs of wear, while the former had a tendency to
become fuzzy and tear under similar treatment. Even those sul-
phate pulps at very high yields had wearing qualities equal to the
best soda pulps. There is little doubt that higher yields of good
kraft pulp can be obtained with the sulphate process than with the
soda process. Sulphate pulps of fairly good quality can be obtained
with yields as high as 61 per cent, while the limit for soda pulps is
approximately 50 per cent. With higher yields the soda pulps lose
strength and toughness and become brittle. A sulphate pulp with a
60 per cent yield can be made into a medium grade of kraft wrapping
paper, while a soda pulp having the same yield will produce only a
very inferior grade. Considermg bursting strength alone, equally
strong papers can be made by either process.

The main advantage of the sulphate process over the soda process
is that in the former the pulp can be very much undercooked and
still produce a fair quality of paper, while a soda pulp must be com-
paratively well cooked before a good paper can be made from it.
Moreover, the best sulphate kraft pulps were obtained with a total
duration of cooking of only 3.5 hours, while in the soda tests 6 hours
were required to secure the best results.

AUTOCLAVE TESTS.

The autoclave tests, which, as previously explained, preceded the
semicommercial tests, were made to determine the effects of varying
the cooking conditions in the production of sulphate pulp. The
cooking conditions investigated were:

(1) Amounts of the various cooking chemical employed.

(2) Cooking pressures or temperatures.

(3) Durations of cooking. —

(4) Initial concentrations of chemicals in the digester liquors.

Aside from the chemicals normally present in sulphate cooking
liquors—that is, caustic soda, sodium sulphide, sodium sulphate, and
sodium carbonate, the effects of sodium chloride and sulphur in con-
junction with caustic soda were studied. The tests, Tables 4 to
10, inclusive, were made in series, in any of which all cooking con-
ditions except the one under observation were held as nearly constant
as possible.

The amounts of sodium carbonate and of SO, compounds expressed
as Na,SO, in the cooking liquors were in general small and no
mention of them is made in the tabulated data. The amounts of
sodium sulphate present are indicated only relatively, except in
Tables 6 and 10.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 15

EFFECTS OF VARYING AMOUNTS OF CAUSTIC SODA.

The effect of varying amounts of caustic soda on the yield of crude
pulp is shown in Table 4. Two series of tests were made, differing
in the amounts of sodium sulphate and sodium sulphide employed.
In the first series increasing the amounts of caustic soda from 15 to
90 pounds per 100 pounds of wood resulted in a decrease in the yield
of from 52 to 27.7 per cent. This decrease, however, was not directly
proportional to the increase of caustic soda used, as values of this
chemical between 30 and 50 pounds had little effect in varying the
yield. For higher and lower values the effect was quite pronounced.
In the second series a larger amount of sodium sulphide was used,
and consequently the yields were lower for corresponding amounts of
caustic soda, but variations in the amounts of this chemical produced
similar effects.

TasLeE 4.—LH fect of varying amounts of caustic soda (NaOH) on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis)..........-------------------+--------- pounds.. 0.986 to 1.007
WHY Sie hha CLalhH OfHS e) EA AI eay 2 ACI Oe Mt a a ey percent.. 10.2 t012.6
Initial volume of digester liquors per pound of chips (bone-dry basis)........--- gallons.. 0.650 to 0.690
MUTA hionMoncookinertotale: fey 5 sh. eee =| ee eee e oe me ch ee ceeeeeeees hours. - 3.0
Duration of cooking at zero gauge pressure...-....--.----------------------------- do..-- 0.1
Duration of cooking at maximum gauge pressure...........----------------------- do...- 2.3
Maximum gauge pressure per square inch...-......-.....---------------------- pounds. . 90
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only)........-...---.---.----- hours. - Oorl

FIRST SERIES.

LNGISIO Clete I Chemicals charged per 100

pound of chips (bone-dry

he sll asis). Yield of
Initial concentrations. erda
Cook Sat ie ee ora pulp
ao All Caus- sulphia. nm || dey
sodium | ticity. ity. sodium | basis).
NaO8H. NapS.t com- NaOH. NageS.t com-
pounds, ; pounds,
as Na2O. asNa,O.

31 26.3 13.1 38. 1 53.6 27.5 15.0 7.5 21.7 52.0
55 52.1 13.0 57.9 69.7 17.9 30.0 7.5 33.4 42.9
56 69.6 13.0 72.0 74.9 14.4 40.0 7.5 41.4 39.6
57 87.0 13.0 85. 6 78.7 12.1 50.0 7.5 49.2 42.1
58 104.4 13.0 99.7 81.1 10.4 60.0 7.5 57.3 40.0
59 121.8 13.0 113.6 83.1 9.1 70.0 7.5 65.3 33.3
60 156.6 13.0 139.3 87.1 7.4 90.0 7.5 80.1 27.7

SECOND SERIES.

29 35.4 44.4 84.2 32.6 42.0 19.9 25.0 47.4 42.3
28 55.3 45.9 101.9 42.1 35.8 30.0 24.9 55. 2 38. 2
33 52.7 43.9 99.5 41.0 35. 1 30.0 25.0 56.6 37.0
54 60.8 43.3 104.5 45.1 32.9 35.0 24.9 60.1 2 39.9
32 70.1 43.9 113.0 48.5 30.9 39.9 25.0 64. 4 34.8
27 73.8 45.9 116.7 49.0 31.3 40.0 24.9 63.3 35.0
53 76.6 43.3 117.0 50.8 29.4 44.1 24.9 67.3 38.6
43 88. 2 44,3 128.3 53. 2 27.4 49.8 25.0 72.5 36.8
26 88.8 44.4 126.8 54.3 27.9 50.0 25.0 71.4 37.6
49 104. 2 43.4 139.2 58.0 24.8 60.0 25.0 80. 2 31.8
52 121.6 43.2 152.4 61.9 22.6 70.0 24.9 87.8 31.8
51 139. 0. 43.5 166.6 64.6 20.7 80.0 25.0 95.8 28.1

(P. L.—138, S. L.—3b.)
1 With a few minor exceptions, the same values apply to the NazSOu.

The best quality of pulp was obtained with cook 31, using 15
pounds of caustic soda per 100 pounds of wood. ‘This resulted in a
slightly undercooked product, which came from the autoclave in the

16 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

form of soft chips. The chips did not break up during the washing
operation, but were readily pulped by beater treatment. The pulp
was strong, tough, and resistant to wear. When larger amounts of
caustic soda were employed the pulp tended to be soft, fuzzy, and
less strong, while for smaller amounts it was harsh and brittle. (See
cooks 39 and 40, Table 6.) In the second series of tests (Table 4)
the conditions were such that all of the pulps were overcooked if
considered for kraft papers.

The higher the amount of caustic soda employed, the lighter in
color was the pulp. The extremes for the first series of tests were
brown in the case of cook 31 and light gray in the case of cook 60.
For the second series of tests the color change was less noticeable.

| EFFECTS OF VARYING AMOUNTS OF SODIUM SULPHIDE.

The effects of varying the amount of sodium sulphide were shown
by three series of tests employing different amounts of caustic soda
and of sodium sulphate. The cooking conditions and resultant yields
are given in Table 5. .

TasBLe 5.—Effect of varying amounts of sodium sulphide (Na,S8) on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis) -.......-...---2-+--2--+--2----------- pounds.. 0.996 to 1.043
Waterin chips?: 2 Sitios sos boc ate nocsetn ns TRL a per cent.. 11.0 to 16.0
Initial volume of digester liquors per pound of chips (bone-dry basis)..........- gallons.. 0.662 to 0.683
Duration of cooking, total’ 2.3.5. 52122 che eee. dbase ae eee eee ae eee hours. - 3.0
Duration of cooking’ at zero gauge pressure: 2. 42. 2 -8e2- 22 5--ce see ee eee eee douese 0.1
Duration of cooking at maximum gauge pressure....-.....------------------------ Gosze= -250" to? 255
Maximum gauge pressure per square inchy 20. 2 eee ee ae eee pounds. . 90
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only)........................- hours. . 0,1, or 2

FIRST SERIES.!

2
r)

Liquor charge. Chemicals charged per 100

pease of chips (bone-dry

cote a F asis). Yield of
Initial concentrations. Pade
Cook pulp
uae All Caus- | Sulphid- All ae
sodium | ticity. ity. sodium | phasis),
NaOH. | NaoS.2 com- NaOH. |} NaeS.2 com-
pounds, pounds,
as Na2O. asNa2O.
Grams Grams Grams
per liter. | per liter. | per liter. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Pounds. | Pownds. | Pounds. | Per cent.
31 26.3 13.1 38.1 53.6 PH 15.0 7.5 21.7 52.0
34 26.3 26.3 49.6 41.1 42.2 15.0 15.0 28.3 47.4
35 26.3 43.9 62. 4 32.7 56.0 15.0 25.0 35.5 44.5
36 26.3 70. 2 88. 0 23. 2 63.5 15.0 40.0 50. 0 39.9
37 26.5 88.3 103.8 19.7 67.5 15.0 50.0 58.9 40.3
SECOND SERIES."
133 i 27.2 1.8 31.1 67.7 4.6 15.0 1.0 17.2 68.9
134 27.2 5.4 34.4 61.3 12.6 15.0 3.0 19.0 67.6
139 27.0 9.0 37.3 56.1 19.2 15.0 5.0 20.7 60.1
) —— — =
THIRD SERIES.!
129 | 39.3 | ie | 39.4 | 69. 4 7.4 20.0 2.1 22.3 64.3
180-4 BEIM PE) aR al CBB 13.3 20.0 4.0 23.9 53.7
131 | 36.0 10.8 | 46.3 | 60. 2 18.5 20.0 6.0 25.7 49.7
132 | 36.0 14.4 | 49.6 56. 2 23.1 20.0 8.0 27.6 47.7
j 1 a AP hd le see Pes
(P. L—138.)

! The Mississippi wood (shipment L-3b) was used for the first series and the Louisiana wood (shipment
L-176) for the second and third series.

2 With a few minor exceptions, the Na2SO,4 amounted to one-half of these values for the first and third
series and to two-thirds of these values for the second series. =

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. RY

In the first series of tests, with an increase in the amount of sodium
sulphide from 7.5 to 50 pounds per 100 pounds of wood, the yield
decreased from 52 to 40.3 per cent. For amounts of 25 pounds
or less the pulps were of good quality, being strong with good wearing
properties, but for larger amounts the pulps became soft and fuzzy
and evidently were overcooked.

In the second series, increasing the amount of sodium sulphide
from 1 to 5 pounds per 100 pounds of wood resulted in a decrease
in the yields from 68.9 to 60.1 per cent. The largest amount (5
pounds) afforded the best pulp, considering strength and wearing
properties; the other pulps were much undercooked and quite
brittle.

The third series of tests, using a larger amount of caustic soda
(20 pounds), showed the effect of increasing the amount of sodium
sulphide from 2.1 to 8 pounds per 100 pounds of wood. Under these
conditions, the yield was decreased from 64.3 to 47.7 per cent.
The pulp obtained when using 2.1 pounds of sodium sulphide was
slightly undercooked and somewhat brittle. The other pulps had
fair strength and wearing properties and could be used for making
a medium grade of wrapping paper.

As the amount of sodium sulphide was increased, the disagreeable
odor arising from the cooking was more noticeable, being much more
offensive for cook 37 (50 pounds Na,S per 100 pounds of wood) than
for cook 31 (7.5 pounds Na,S). Increasing the amount of sodium
sulphide resulted in lighter-colored pulps, that from cook 37 being
considerably lighter in color than from cook 31.

Sodium sulphide is not so severe in its action on wood as caustic
soda. A cook of 8 hours’ duration was made with sodium sulphide
only, using 40 pounds per 100 pounds of wood and a maximum cook-
ing pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. A yield of 41 per cent
was obtained, while a similar cook using caustic soda alone in the
proportion of 20 pounds per 100 pounds of wood had a yield of 44.3
percent. ‘This indicates that caustic soda is almost twice as effective
as sodium sulphide in reducing the wood to pulp. The color of the
pulp produced when using caustic soda alone was lighter than when
using sodium sulphide alone.

EFFECTS OF SODIUM CARBONATE.

Sodium carbonate occurs in the commercial sulphate liquors due to
incomplete causticization. That it is of no assistance in reducing
longleaf pine was shown by a cook made with 40 pounds of this
chemical, 10 pounds of caustic soda, and 5 pounds of sodium sulphide
per 100 pounds of wood. The duration of cooking was 7 hours and

18 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the maximum ‘gauge pressure was 100 pounds per square inch. The
product came from the autoclave in the form of hard, black chips
which were quite “‘raw’’ on the inside; the yield was not determined.
In comparison with this result, cook 40 (Table 6), using, per 100
pounds of wood, 10 pounds of caustic soda, 5 pounds of sodium sul-
phide, and 5 pounds of sodium sulphate (the latter being of no
assistance in cooking), also afforded a product in the chip form.
These chips, however, were soft, and could easily be picked apart with
the fingers. Of the 3 hours’ total duration for this cook, 2.3 hours
were at a maximum pressure of 90 pounds. The yield was 65.7 per
cent. While it is hardly safe to base a general conclusion upon asingle
trial, this test indicates that sodium carbonate, at least when present
in considerable quantity, retards or diminishes the effects of the
caustic soda and sodium sulphide.

EFFECTS OF SODIUM SULPHATE.

Sodium sulphate is present in the commercial cooking liquors, due
to incomplete reduction of the sulphate to sulphide during the smelt-
ing operations. Like sodium carbonate, it is of practically no assist-
ance in cooking. A cook of 3 hours’ duration and 90 pounds maxi-
mum gauge pressure was made, using sodium sulphate in the propor-
tion of 50 pounds per 100 pounds of wood, which yielded 86.3 per cent,
while another cook of the same duration and pressure but without
any chemicals whatever (that is, using pure water alone) had a yield
of 89.1 per cent. Allowing for experimental errors, there was little
difference between the results of these two cooks, and in neither case
could the product be beaten into pulp.

A cook was also made, using 40 pounds of sodium sulphate, 10
pounds of caustic soda, 5 pounds of sodium carbonate, and 5 pounds
of sodium sulphide per 100 pounds of wood; the duration was eight
hours and the maximum gauge pressure was 100 pounds per square
inch. Only hard black chips were obtained, of no value whatever
for pulp. As in the case of the sodium carbonate, there is an indica-
tion that sodium sulphate retards the action of the other chemicals.
To prove this further tests are necessary.

EFFECTS OF VARYING ALL CHEMICALS IN SAME PROPORTION.

A series of tests was made varying the amounts of all sodium com-
pounds present in sulphate cooking liquors. The several constituents

were kept constant in regard to each other in the proportion of 50 —
parts caustic soda, 25 parts sodium sulphide, and 25 parts sodium

sulphate. For convenience the amounts of the different chemicals
have been computed to a common basis, and the combined values are
expressed as Na,O (sodium oxide).

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 19

The yields shown in Table 6 varied from 65.7 per cent for 14.5
pounds of total Na,O per 100 pounds of wood to 36.8 per cent for
72.5 pounds of total Na,O. The conditions indicated for cook 31
afforded the best results with regard to both yield and quality of
pulp produced. With the higher yields the pulps were harsh and
had less resistance to wear. Nevertheless, wrapping papers of
medium grades could be made from these pulps. The pulp from
cook 30 was of good quality, with strength and wearing properties
equal to that from cook 31, but the yield was not so high. Cooks
43, 26, and 38 were duplicates of each other, and show the accuracy
attained in the yield determinations. The pulps from these three
cooks were soft and fluffy, and had poor strength and wearing prop-
erties, due to overcooking.

Taste 6.—LH fect of varying amounts of all sodium compounds on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis)...........--.---------+2-2--2-2+++-+----- pounds.. 0.996 to 1.007
\WA0Gr 30 ONDS 3 Adio oe se CORN ROH BOSE Os POHOS Sunes EBE Cee Bae Bae SE ene ae seat percent.. 10.2 to11.5
Caushicinyomliquonechange: on jo5 9. s2 ceo ts tected. hemes eee Sais ath ceeyeias do.... 53.2 to 54.3
Sulpiidibyofliquoricharge. 22025... 2k ee SRE 3a ee ae eae do...- 27.4 to 27.9
Initial volume of digester liquors per pound of chips (bone-dry basis)......-.---- gallons.. 0.675 to 0.683 _
Dursnomotcookine sto talem4 sen so5 i) Se eats. fee SoU se aes hours. . 3.0
Duration of cooking, at zero gauge pressure.........-.--.---------------------- eee do.... 0.1
Duration of cooking, at maximum gauge pressure....-..--.-.-.------------------- GOee 2 230 nto 253
Maximum gauge presse Der SGuare inc hives. sts. Wek e aes eee sei pounds. - 90
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only).................-.....-.. hours. . 0, 1, or 2
Liquor charge, initial concentrations. OME Cae ey pe of ;
ver of
Cook | eile
2 | ulp
No. pe | All so- (pane:
NaOH. | NaS. NaSO.. com- NaOd. NaS. | NasSOx. cium pity
pounds | pour is asis).
as Na,O. ENE
Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams.
per liter. | per liter. | per liter. | per liter. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent.
40 17.6 8.8 8.8 25.5 10.0 5.0 5.0 14.5 65. 7
39 21.2 10.6 10.6 30.7 12.0 6.0 6.0 17.4 60. 2
31 26.3 13.1 13.1 38. 1 15.0 7.5 7.5 21.7 52.0
30 35.6 17.8 17.8 51.3 20.0 10.0 10.0 28.9 47.0
43 88.2 45.3 45.3 128.3 49.8 25.0 25.6 72.5 36.8
26 88. 8 44.4 44.4 126.8 50. 0 25.0 25.0 171.4 37.6
38 88.2 44.1 44.1 127.6 50.0 25.0 25.0 172.4 36.6

(2 Weick Ss neath)

1 The Na2O values for cooks 26 and 38 differ mainly because of different amounts of NaeCO3 which are not
separately recorded in the table.

EFFECTS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE.

A few tests were made to determine whether or not the use of
sodium chloride in conjunction with caustic soda would result in firmer
and less fuzzy pulps, more resistant to wear, than are ordinarily pro-
duced with the soda process. If this were possible a process might be
developed to produce pulps similar to those obtained with the sulphate
process without the disagreeable odors so characteristic of it. Table 7
shows a comparison between cooks made with caustic soda alone and
with caustic soda and sodium chloride. It is not probable that sodium

20 BULLETIN 72, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

chloride has an effect on the yield, as is evidenced by the data for
cooks 128 and 137. Both cooks employed 20 pounds of caustic soda
per 100 pounds of wood, but the former used 5 pounds of sodium
chloride in addition. The yields from the two cooks were identical.
The use of sodium chloride appeared to improve the qualities of the
pulps somewhat, but they were much inferior to sulphate pulps at
similar yields. The few advantages attending the use of sodium
chloride preclude the possibility of this modification of the soda
process being of commercial value.

TaBLE 7.—L fect of sodium chloride (NaCl) used in conjunction with caustic soda (NaOH)
on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis)........----------------------- ---pounds.- 0.

910 to 1.043
Wraternin Chips sscee es aneneeeer eee ao heer eee eee nee eee ---percent.. 15.1 022.0
Causticity of liquor charge (disregarding NaCl)-............-----.----.....--------- do..-. 96.0 t097.2
Duration of cooking at zero gauge cee c OuOE po SboUSe sun nesecootansenatic cme hours. - 0.1
Maximum gauge pressure per square inch.......-.-.-.--.--- 20-22 eeeeenecee nes pounds. - 90
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only)..........-...-.-----...-- hours. . 2
: : Chemicals charged é
qaaner charge, in per 100 pounds | {nitial yol-| Duration of cook-
tions. of chips (bone- ume of ing. Yield of
P dry basis). ‘ digester crude
ook iquors per|__ pul
No. pound of (hace.
(hone At maxi- he
one-dry mum asis).
NaOH. | NaClt | NaOH. | Nacsa | GMESY | Total. | Five )
pressure.
Grams Grams
per liter. | perliter. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. Hours. | Hours. | Per cent
118 44,2 28.6 15.0} - 10.0 0. 420 30) 2 5 73.
122 41.1 20.0 20. 0 10.0 - 600 4.0 3.5 63. 5
128 49.2 12.0 20.0 5.0 - 500 6.0 5.3 58.9
137 36.3 0 20.0 0 - 662 6.0 5.3 58. 9
72 35. 2 0 20.0 0 . 681 3.0 2.3 71.6

(P. L.—138, 8. L.—176.)
1 The values shown represent common table salt and not the pure chemical.

EFFECTS OF SULPHUR.

Cooks using ‘‘flowers of sulphur” and caustic soda as the cooking
chemicals produced pulps almost identical with those resulting from
‘the sulphate process. The addition of sulphur undoubtedly im-
parted to the pulps the resistance to wear and strength not obtainable
by the soda process alone. These cooks, however, were character-
ized by the same disagreeable odor as the sulphate cooks, and this
modification of the soda process seems to have no particular tech-
nical advantage over the sulphate process except in the matter of
control of the cooking liquors.

EFFECTS OF VARYING THE PRESSURES OR TEMPERATURES OF COOKING.

In the sulphate process, as in the soda process, the digester pres-
sures represent the pressure of saturated steam, since no other
gases are present in sufficient quantity to affect the pressure. This

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. yea

was determined by actual test. The digester pressures, therefore,
correspond to the temperatures of saturated steam; and values of
each may be converted into the other by means of standard steam
tables. |

Table 8 shows the effect on yield of variations of pressure from 40
to 140 pounds per square inch. As the pressures increased, the
yields decreased. Cook 45, with a pressure of 40 pounds per square
inch, resulted in a product so much undercooked that no pulp could
be prepared from it. The yield, of course, was very high. Cook 46,
using a pressure of 140 pounds per square inch, resulted in 50 per
cent yield. For intermediate pressures the yields were correspond-
ingly higher.

TaBLE 8.—E fect of varying pressures on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis)...........-.-----+-----+---2--- eee eee pounds...

1.000 to 1.005
\WWGIiGR 1a Cth e Ok ee aes ae tis ere Steet eRe Hc oe SEE Hea aaa ae percent.. 10.4 to11.0
Causticity a Leuies ene Rife ee arse Se See aee sche eek eee es ERAN a do.... 53.5
Sulpiiditviotiquonchargey es. 5 4. 2a. sees aes se sees tei erie cence cee se seme dozaes 27.4
Tnitial volume of digester liquors per pound of chips (bone-dry basis) ....-..-.-- gallons... 0.667 to 0.680
DTA OMONCOOKIN Ee LOtall ees 5. secs ceise se ecieicr si si niee aie oinie bini= sielalnete isis oes hours. . 3.0
Duration of cooking at zero gauge pressure............--..----------+--------------- do.... 0.1
Duration of cooking at maximum gauge pressure.........-...--------------------- Oeste PLO) re PA8)
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only) ............-..---------- do.... 0 or 1

Liquor charge, initial con- Chemicals charged per 100

(Pile 1386S l.—3:85)

1 The same values apply to the Na2SO, used. 2 Wood not cooked; no pulp prepared.

Pulps produced with the higher pressures were stronger and had
better wearing properties. than those resulting from the lower pres-
sures. With lower pressures the pulps became more and more
brittle and gradually lost their soft, pliable, leather-like feel. The
pulps resulting from the lower pressures were the more brown in
color.

The best pressure conditions for these tests seemed to be from 100
to 140 pounds per square inch. If larger amounts of chemicals had
been employed, pulps of the same yield and properties would prob-
ably have resulted from pressures of 80 to 100 pounds per square
inch.

22 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EFFECTS OF VARYING THE DURATIONS OF COOKING.

Since the time from the start of a cook until maximum pressure was
obtained in the autoclave was practically constant (varying from
0.5 to 0.7 hour), only the total duration of cooking will be considered.
Table 9 shows how the yields were affected for total durations varying
from one to nine hours in three series of tests, using high, medium,
and low amounts of chemicals. In the case of the first series, em-
ploying very high amounts of chemicals, 55.9 per cent of the wood
(giving a yieid of 44.1 per cent) was dissolved during two hours of
cooking, while by cooking for seven hours longer an additional loss
of only 12.8 per cent occurred. Cook 124, with a total duration of
but one hour, afforded the best pulp and the highest yield for this
series. This pulp came from the autoclave in the form of soft chips,
and the resultant paper made from the beaten pulp was firm and
strong, with good resistance to wear. The other pulps were soft
and fuzzy, due to overcooking. As the duration increased, the
color of the pulps changed from brown (cook 124) to light gray
(cook 78).

TABLE 9.—E ffect of varying durations of cooking on the yield of pulp.

Weight ofchipsicharzed (bone-dry basis) setae a seen eee eee pounds.. 0.964to 1.034
Wraterinichipst -& Secession Ags gee ae sen ee le ae per cent.. 16.0 t024.4
Cansticity: ofliquor charge. ... pi. cjentejaneh4-eeineoo sees ean e 2 eee ee eee eee do..-. 51.6 053.3
Sulphidity/of.liquoricharge. 3b. 522-5. at seen - - ecigee nee sae eee ieee ee OQ 222620) L074:
Tnitial volume of digester liquors per pound of chips (bone-dry basis).....--..-.--- gallons.. 0.667to 0.680
Duration oficooking ab zero\zarl ge Pressures 2 sera os tee ere ee ae eer eee ee hours. . 0.1
Maximum) gauge pressure per squaredinchs:)--- 2. -0eee. 22-2 5 Lee eee eee pounds. . 90
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only)...........--....----------- House.) leomyon 2

FIRST SERIES.

Chemicals charged per 100

Liquor charge, initial concen- ounds of chips (bone-dry |Duration of cooking.

trations.

124 71.9 36.0 | 104.7 40.0 20.0 58.3 1.0 0.5 57.4

125 71.9 36.0 | 104.7 40.0 20.0 58.3 2.0 1.5 44.1

80 72.0 36.0 | 104.7 40.0 20.0 58.2 5.0 4.3 37.8

78 72.0 36.0 | 108.1 40.0 20.0 60.1 9.0 8.3 31.3
SECOND SERIES.

123 44.9 22.5 65.4 25.0 12.5 36.4 1.0 0.5 68.6

126 44.9 22.5 65.4 25.0 12.5 36.4 2.0 1.5 48.5

84 45.0 92.7 65.6 25.0 12.6 36.5 5.0 4.3 45.0

83 45.0 22.7 65.6 25.0 12.6 36.5 9.0 8.3 38.2
THIRD SERIES.

| 86 21.6 10.8 31.4 12.0 6.0 17.4 1.0 0.3 80.9

127 21.6 10.8 31.6 12.0 6.0 17.6 2.0 1.5 66.7

88 21.2 10.6 30.8 12.0 6.0 17.4 5.0 4.3 59.0

87 21.6 10.8 31.4 12.0 6.0 17.4 9.0 8.3 57.0

(P. E188 e178.)
1 The same values apply to the NagSO, used.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 23

In the second series, when medium amounts of chemicals were
used, prolonging the durations of cooking likewise resulted in
decreasing the yields. The yield for cook 123, with a total duration
of one hour, was 68.6 per cent; and cook 83, with a total duration of
9 hours, had a yield of 38.2 per cent. With a 2-hours’ duration the
amount of the wood dissolved was 51.5 per cent (48.5 per cent yield),
while with a 7-hours’ longer cooking period the loss was only 10.3 per
cent additional. The best kraft pulps were obtained from cooks 126
and 84, with total durations of 2 and 5 hours, respectively. The
resultant papers were firm and strong, and resistant to wear. Cook
123, using a duration of 1 hour, resulted in a weak, brittle, and under-
cooked pulp, while the pulp from cook 83, which had a duration of 9
hours, was soft, fluffy, and evidently overcooked.

The same general effects resulted from varying the durations in the
third series of tests in which comparatively low amounts of chemicals
were employed. In this case, however, the best pulps were produced
with the longer durations, 5 hours for cook 88 and 9 hours for cook 87.
The tests employing shorter durations resulted in weak and
brittle pulps, due to undercooking. The pulp from cook 88 was
slightly inferior to that from cook 87, but both would be considered
of fair quality for making kraft wrapping paper.

The results from the three series of tests indicate that cooks
employing high amounts of chemicals and very short durations will
afford pulps of a quality and yield similar to those obtained when
using medium amounts of chemicals and medium durations and to
those resulting from the use of low amounts of chemicals and com-
paratively long durations. It is evident, however, that much more
careful control of the operations must be exercised in order to obtain
consistent results when high amounts of chemicals are employed.

EFFECTS OF VARYING THE INITIAL CONCENTRATIONS.

In each of two series of tests varying the initial concentrations of
chemicals in the liquor charge the amounts of chemicals per 100
pounds of wood were held constant as follows: 15 pounds of caustic
soda, 7.5 pounds of sodium sulphide, and 7.5 pounds of sodium
sulphate for the first series, and 12 pounds of caustic soda, 6 pounds
of sodium sulphide, and 6 pounds of sodium sulphate, for the second
series. Since the amounts of chemicals were held constant, and the
concentrations varied, the initial volumes of digestor liquors per pound
of chips also varied accordingly. Table 10 shows the effect of the
varying concentrations on the yield of pulp.

24 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 10.—Effect of varying initial concentrations on the yield of pulp.

Weight of chips charged (bone-dry basis).---...-..-..-.-.----------------------- pounds.. 0.964to 1.031
Miter inGhins! - 3832. 2 2 8 kn Se a se oe os oo ee ee percent.. 16.4 to24.4
Gaustirity of liquor charge-: 2. -2--25:-.-: 720522... E a eee do.... 52.8 053.6

Su.phidity of liquor charge.........-....-.----------, aeses = ES 555 i a es ee do.... 27.2 t027.5
Hagar or cookme. totale. 2 foe. ee eee 3
Duration of cooking, at zero gauge pressure. ...-.---.-------

Duration of cooking at maximum gauge Soe

Maximum eange pressnre'per square inch: 27... bese. - nf oe eee eee pounds. -
Total duration of beater treatment (at light brush only)......--............-.-... hours. . 2
First Second

Chemicals charged per 100 pounds of chips (bone-dry basis): Series. series.
1 ENO): ee a ee ee eee ee ee mer Se 9853s aa pounds... 15.0 12.0
bak ES oe el aah Se SS i a Ree OR ae 1 MO a es eye ows: A) 6.0
NY aS Og oe ee Ai See ee te oe ee ke ee le er dos. 1D, 6.0
All sodium compounds'as' Na:O-> >... 88. ae. a eee eee do 21.8 17.5

FIRST SERIES.

Liquor charge, initial concentrations. Thitial opts
Cook aap deen
No | NaOH, NaS. | NasSO,. compounds pound of chips Set
: as Na,O (eee basis).
Grams Grams Grams Grams
per liter. | perliter.| per liter. per liter. Gallons. . Per cent.
89 60. 0 30.0 30. 0 87.2 0.300 47.9
90 45.0 22.5 22.5 65.1 - 400 53.3
91 36.0 18.0 18.0 352, 1 - 500 55.2
t 493 30.0 15.0 15.0 43.6 . 600 58.6
94 25.7 12.9 12.9 37.4 - 700 61.3
95 22.5 11.2 11.2 32.7 - 800 64.4
96 20.0 10.0 10.0 29.0 - 900 66. 4
97 18.0 9.0 9.0 26.1 1.000 66.9

SECOND SERIES.

112 72.0 - 36.0 36.0 104.9 0. 200 51.0
100 49.7 24.8 24.8 72.0 . 290 51.1
101 36.0 18.0 18.0 52.2 . 400 52.3
105 28.8 14.6 14.4 42.2 . 500 56. 0
114 24.0 12.0 12.0 35.0 600 62.6
106 20.6 10.3 10.3 30.0 700 60.6
107 18.0 9.0 9.0 26.2 . 800 66. 0
108 16.0 8.0 8.0 23.3 - 900 67.4
115 14.4 7.2 7.2 21.0 1.000 67.3
110 12.0 6.0 6.0 17.5 1.200 67.8
111 10.3 5.1 5.1 15.0 1.400 7. 4

" (P, L.—138, S. L.—176.)

When the concentration of all sodium chemicals expressed as
Na,O was varied from 26.1 to 87.2 grams per liter (first series of
tests) the resultant yield decreased from 66.9 to 47.9 per cent. The
best results, considering both yield and quality of pulps, were obtained
from cooks 91 and 93, using Na,O concentrations of 52.1 and 43.6
grams per liter, respectively. Pulps produced from cooks having
lower concentrations were brittle and lacked strength and wearing
properties. In the second series of tests, using somewhat smaller
amounts of chemicals, the higher concentrations afforded the better
results. The best pulp with regard to strength and wearing proper-
ties was that obtained from cook 112, using a Na,O concentration of
104.9 grams per liter. The pulps obtained when using a concen-
tration of 35 grams per liter or less were quite brittle, and had little
strength and poor wearing properties.

SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 25
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS FROM THE AUTOCLAVE TESTS.

(1) The effective cooking chemicals in sulphate cooking liquors
are caustic soda and sodium sulphide, the former being the more
drastic in its action. Sodium sulphate and sodium carbonate, which
unavoidably occur in the commercial liquors, are of no assistance in
cooking, at least so far as the wood of longleaf pine is concerned.

(2) Increases in the amounts of either caustic soda or sodium
sulphide, or both, result in more thorough cooking. The same effect
may be obtained by increasing either the cooking pressure, the dura-
tion of cooking, or the initial concentrations of the chemicals in the
cooking liquors.

(3) More thorough cooking is evidenced by decreased yields and
by lighter colored pulps until a condition of very thorough cooking is
reached, after which the color of the pulp is not affected.

(4) The best, or well-cooked, sulphate kraft pulps will have good
strength and wearing properties, will be light brown in color, and
will have a smooth, firm, leather-like feel when properly beaten.

-Undercooked pulps are characterized by a darker brown color,
brittleness, lack of strength, and poor wearing properties. Over-
cooked pulps are light gray in color and may have good strength
and wearing properties when properly beaten, but the yield will be
low. Pulps much overcooked, in addition to being light gray in
color, will be soft and fluffy, with little strength.

(5) With each different combination of the cooking conditions
there is a definite minimum amount of sodium sulphide which must
be used in conjunction with the caustic soda present to impart to
the product the high strength and good wearing properties char-
acteristic of properly cooked sulphate kraft pulps.

(6) The use of sodium chloride in conjunction with caustic soda
improves the quality of the pulp to a slight extent only. The similar
use of sulphur results in pulps having properties practically the same
as those of sulphate pulps.

(7) As the proportion of sodium sulphide in the digester charge is
increased, the disagreeable odor produced in the cooking operations
becomes more pronounced.

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

While the present experiments are not complete, they show con-
clusively (1) that longleaf pine is well adapted for the manufacture
of natural-color kraft pulps and papers; (2) that the’sulphate process
of pulp making applied to this wood affords products of better quality
and of higher yields than the soda process; (3) that kraft papers can
be made from longleaf pine equal or superior in quality to the
‘Imported and domestic kraft papers now on the market; and (4)

26 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that the high gravity of the wood and the resultant high yield of
pulp per cord give longleaf pine an advantage possessed by few, if
any, other commercially important woods suitable for pulp making.
The autoclave tests indicate that there should be a certain com-
bination of values for the variable cooking conditions which will
result in the most economical method of operation. However,
other factors than the variables thus far investigated must be taken.
into consideration in determining what this combination is. For
example, the proper degree to which a pulp must be cooked will
depend partly upon the cost of the beater treatment. With cheap
power for beating, the pulp need not be so severely cooked as when
the cost of power is high. The best concentrations and proportions
of chemicals in the digester liquors will likewise depend upon the
efficiency of the recovery system and the method of operating it.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1914

BULLETIN’ OF THE

No. %3

5 Lorn Ss

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.
March 30, 1914.

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN
ALABAMA.’

By Dan T. Gray, Formerly Professor of Animal Husbandry, Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, and W. F. Warp, Senior Animal Husbandman in Beef Cattle Investiga-
tions, Animal Husbandry Division.

STATEMENT OF FORMER WORK.

During the years 1906, 1907, and 1908 the Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, working in cooperation with the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, conducted experiments in cooperation with Mr.
J. S. Kernachan, of Sheffield, Ala., to obtain definite information
regarding the cost of raising grade steers to the feed lot period under
average southern conditions. (See Bulletin 131 of the bureau, or 150,
Alabama Experiment Station.) The animals used in the Kernachan
work were a herd of grade Aberdeen-Angus cows, headed by two pure-
bred Aberdeen-Angus bulls. During the summer months the herd
grazed upon a good pasture; no feed was given in addition to the
pasture. This pasture was made up principally of white clover,
Japan clover (lespedeza), several varieties of native grasses, and
some Bermuda. This afforded the animals abundant pasture for
about seven months of the year. During the winter all of the cattle,
young and old, had the run of the range, which consisted of old corn
and cotton fields, with some cane along the river and creek banks. In
addition to the winter range, hay and cotton seed were fed, so that
when spring came the cattle were in reasonably good flesh. The
young stock made gains during the winter, but the cows and older
animals usually lost in weight during the latter part of the winter.
These cows and calves were allowed to become infested with the cattle
tick, but when they became badly infested they were greased on
those parts of the body where ticks were most numerous. The
presence of the cattle tick, together with an outbreak of tuberculosis,
caused the steers to be produced at an abnormally high figure, as the
ticks no doubt materially retarded the growth of the steers and the

1 The experiments reported in this paper were conducted in cooperation with the Alabama Agricultural ,
Experiment Station.
Note.—This publication is of interest to farmers in the Southern States.

26574°—Bull. 73—14

2 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tuberculosis caused several deaths. Even when these two extremely
unfavorable conditions are taken into consideration, the calves and
steers were still produced at a profit. The authors state that—

When all the expenses, as deaths, rent on pasture, interest on money, etc., were
charged against the animals and no credit was made for the manure, the expense of
producing a steer varied from $4.96 to $5.25 per 100 pounds, as follows:

To 12 months of age, $5.25 per hundredweight.

To 24 months of age, $4.96 per hundredweight.

To 30 months of age, $5.05 per hundredweight.

To 33 months of age, $5 per hundredweight.

These figures mean that if the animals are sold for the above prices, the feeds used
are marketed at a good farm price; all deaths are deducted; 7 per cent interest is
received on the money invested in the animals; $2.50 an acre is secured as rent for the
summer pasture, and finally the manure is secured free.

DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENT.

As noted above, conditions surrounding the previous herd were not
entirely satisfactory, as the animals were infested with ticks and
affected with tuberculosis, consequently the test reported in this
bulletin was undertaken with a herd which was free from tubercu-
losis and was rapidly being made free from cattle ticks, as every animal
on the farm was dipped in an arsenical solution every two weeks.
No ticks were seen on the calves during the progress of the test.

OBJECTS OF THE WORK.

The principal objects of the work were:

(1) To learn what it would cost to raise a beef calf to an age of approximately 94
months under average farm conditicns.

(2) To determine the profit, if any, in finishing these young calves for the market
during the winter months, and selling them when about 12 months old.

THE CATTLE USED.

The animals used in this work were a herd of grade Aberdeen-
Angus, a few grade Shorthorns, and four or five native cows, headed
by two bulls, one of which was a purebred Aberdeen-Angus, while
the other one was a high-grade Aberdeen-Angus.

The owner of the herd, Mr. E. F. Allison, of Sumter County, Ala.,
with whom the work was conducted, began ‘several years previously
the work of grading up scrub cows which had been bought from some
of the neighboring farmers. Consequently, when the herd was
entered in this experimental work it was under normal conditions
and consisted of individuals considerably above the average of the
State. As far as breeding and quality were concerned the Kernachan
and Allison herds were very similar. The cows in both tests were
small, those in the Sumter County experiment averaging only 630
pounds in weight February 9,1911. However, at this time of the year
they were poor and were in their lightest form. In the fall of the

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA. 3

year, before losing any of their normal summer weight, they averaged
perhaps 800 pounds in weight. It will be seen later that these small
cows raised calves which attained an average weight of 560 pounds
by the time they were 12 months old. The Kernachan cows averaged
about 830 pounds in weight at the end of the winter, but the calves
from these larger cows were undersized, due largely, perhaps, to
the presence of the cattle tick. As aresult of the use of good bulls,
the calves obtained from these grade cows were, as a rule, good ones.
They were in the first place much larger than the average calves
of the State, and in the second place measured up much more closely
to the ideal beef conformation than calves obtained from native
COWS.
MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD.

The cows were bred so as to have the calves dropped during the
spring months. During the summer months the animals, both
young and old, grazed upon a moderately good pasture; no feed
except salt was given in addition to the pasture. During these
pasture months the cows ate nothing but pasture grasses while
the calves had the cows’ milk in addition to the grasses. The
main pasture was made up principally of Japan clover and broom
sedge, which had come naturally after the cleaiing of the land.
This large pasture consisted of approximately 1,000 acres, but a
very large part was covered with trees; under these trees the ground
was bare. A small adjoining pasture of approximately 30 acres had
been partly set to Bermuda, but this was used only occasionally
for some calves. These permanent pastures afforded the animals
reasonably good grazing for about six months of the year.

When the pastures became exhausted in the late fall the calves
were weaned, the males castrated, and the cows and calves placed
in separate fields and fed and managed differently. The cows were
placed in the old corn and cotton fields, thus being fed the rough
feeds of the farm along with small amounts of cottonseed cake. The
calves were prepared for the winter fattening period. The fol-
lowing short statements give a brief history of the management
of the cows and the lives of the calves from January 1, 1911, to
Ae. L912 :

(1) The calves were born during the months of January, February, March, and
April in 1911. The majority were born in March and April. At this time the cows
were running in a field of 640 acres which had a small growth of cane; a part of this
field consisted of old corn and cotton fields.

(2) The cows ate nothing except the cane and what roughage they secured from
the old corn and cotton fields until January 23. By this time the rough field feeds
had been pretty well consumed, consequently a small daily feed of cottonseed cake

was introduced to supplement the range. The feeding of cottonseed cake was con-
tinued until April 14. On this date the cows and calves were all turned into the large

4 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

permanent pasture, and the ration of cottonseed cake was fed until May 7, as the
season that year was exceedingly unfavorable for the early growth of pasture grasses.

(3) During the summer months the cows and calves ran together in the large pasture.

(4) The cows and calves were separated September 25. The calves were placed in
a field containing old cornstalks, crab grass, and cowpeas. They remained in this field
until October 7, when they were transferred to a field of peanuts which were to be
subsequently grazed off by hogs. This peanut field afforded grazing until October 16
when they were returned to the corn and cowpea field. They were kept in this field -
until November 24, but were fed a small amount of cottonseed cake in addition, begin-
ning with 1 pound of cake per calf per day on October 28 and gradually increasing the
amount to 2 pounds. By November 24 the supply of feed in this field was exhausted,
so the calves were transferred to a third field of cornstalks and crab Bre, where they
remained until the fattening period was inaugurated.

(5) By December 21 all of the available rough feeds of the farm had been consumed,
and the calves were placed in a small barn lot and fattened for the early spring mar-
ket. During this fattening period they were fed cottonseed meal, corn silage, and
a cheap quality of broom-sedge hay.

(6) The calves were shipped to New Orleans and sold April 1, 1912.

(7) The bulls were allowed to run with the cows the year round. This, however,
was found to bea poor practice, as the date of calving could not be regulated. When
the bulls are with the cows continuously the first calves come too early in the season,
and the last calves come too late. It is a much better practice to keep the bulls away
from the herd of cows all the time except during the usual and proper breeding season.

PRICES AND CHARACTER OF FEEDS.

Cottonseed meal, cottonseed cake, pastures, corn silage, and broom-
sedge hay were all used i in the test. Cottonseed meal, corn-silage, and
the hay were fed: to the calves during the faitenine period. The
cows during the winter of 1911-12 were not given silage, as the supply
was limited, but there is no doubt that both the cows and the calves
would have done much better if the cows had been given a liberal
quantity of this succulent feed. All of the feeds except the broom-
sedge hay were of good quality. The cottonseed meal and cottonseed
cake were fresh and bright. “ The corn silage was also of excellent
quality; it was made of corn which would have yielded about 30
bushels of grain to the acre. While the hay was bright, clean, and
well cured, it was of exceedingly poor quality, as broom sedge will
not make a good quality of hay. It is, however, a roughage that
should not be wasted.

In-work of this character the financial statement is not as exact
as might be desired, because the price of feeds, as well as of cattle,
fluctuates considerably from year to year. The financial outcome
of a particular experiment may not be duplicated by the cattle raiser
or feeder, owing to the different conditions under which he is operat-
ing. The prices listed in this bulletin were the actual prices paid
for the feeds (except corn silage and broom-sedge hay, which were
made on the farm) and the actual prices realized for the cattle.
This test was conducted during the winter of 1911-12; prices have
not changed materially since that time. The following were the

Bul. 73, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

Fic. 1.—SOME OF THE COWS OF THE BREEDING HERD. THEY WERE GRADE ABERDEEN-
ANGUS, THOUGH PART OF THEM ALSO HAD SOME SHORTHORN BLOOD.

Fig. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF SOME OF THE CATTLE USED IN THE EXPERIMENT TO
DETERMINE THE COST OF RAISING CALVES IN ALABAMA.

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA, 5

prices of the feeds, those of corn silage and hay being estimated:
Cottonseed meal and cottonseed cake $26 a ton, corn silage $3 a ton,
and broom-sedge hay $5 a ton.

METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE WORK.

The herd was kept and fed under average farm conditions.
E. F. Allison, a farmer and stockman of Sumter County, Ala., agreed
to cooperate, and the feeding was all done upon his farm. Mr. Alli-
son furnished the cattle and the feed, while the work was planned
and the feeding carried on under the supervision of the authors of
this bulletin. E.R. Eudaly was stationed as assistant on the farm
and had personal supervision of the experiment.

No barns or other artificial shelter were provided for the cows.
During the winter months they were in fields where trees, together
with the underbrush, afforded ample protection for mature animals.
The calves, however, were provided with excellent shelter during
the winter. While being fattened they were inclosed in a small lot
in which was a good barn. The doors were always open so that they
could go in and out at will. They were fed twice each day in troughs
placed under the extending eaves of the barn. The calves were fed
in such amounts that the feed was all eaten within a short time after
it was put before them. An abundance of pure water and salt was
provided all the time.

At the close of the test the calves which had been fattened were
sold and shipped to New Orleans. The experimental farm was
located 4 miles from Bellamy, Ala., the nearest railroad station,
and the animals were driven to that point to be loaded on the cars.

THE EXPENSE OF RAISING THE CALVES TO WEANING TIME.

As previously stated, the majority of the calves were born in
March and April. During the winter months the cows grazed the
old corn and stalk fields and some ‘‘switch”’ cane which grew along
the banks of a small stream. Beginning January 23, or immediately
after the first cows dropped calves, the cows were given some cotton-
seed cake each day. As the grass was slow to establish itself in the
spring of 1912 it was necessary to continue feeding the cows a small
amount of cake until May 7. During the period from January 23 to
May 7 the 80 cows consumed 6,390 pounds of cottonseed cake in
addition to the feed they secured from the winter range and the early
pastures. This was an average daily feed of a little less than 1 pound
of cake for each cow, as they were fed for a period of 104 days. The
cows were wintered in an unusually economical manner, and the
farmer who lives on an average Alabama farm must expect to use
more feed than was given to these cows, as the average farm at the
present time has only a small acreage of old corn and cotton fields. It

6 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was these fields which made it possible to get the cows through the
winter in such a cheap manner. |

The calves were not put in the fattening lot at the date of weaning,
September 25. It had been planned to graze two or three fields by
them before the finishing period arrived; consequently, as soon as
they were taken from the cows, they were placed in a 50-acre field
containing cornstalks, crab grass, and cowpeas. The peas had been |
planted at the last cultivation of the corn. The calves remained in
this field until October 7, when they were transferred to a field of
peanuts, which had been grown for hogs; they were taken to this
field to graze off the tops of the peanuts. This small field afforded
grazing for nine days, or until October 16, when the calves were taken
back to the first field of old cornstalks and peas, where they were kept
until November 24. This field did not, however, afford sufficient feed
to produce gains, so on October 28 it was decided to add cottonseed
cake. The cake was introduced at the rate of 1 pound per calf daily
and gradually increased to 2 pounds. The 50-acre cornfield was so
completely grazed by November 24 as to provide no further feed, so
the calves were transferred to a second field of cornstalks, cowpeas,
and crab grass, which had been saved for them. They remained in
this second field, all the while eating 2 pounds of cottonseed cake per
calf per day, until December 21, when they were taken to the barn,
shut up in a small lot, and started on a preliminary ration of cotton-
seed meal, corn silage, ‘and. broom-sedge hay. By January 17 they
were all accustomed to the new ration, and the fattening period was
inaugurated. On this date they i eweed approximately 94 months
of age. The following brief statement gives a short summary of the
important facts of the cost of raising these calves to 94 months of age:

Cost to raise calves to an age of 94 months.

To 6,390 pounds of cottonseed cake eaten by the cows from Jan. 1, 1911, to

Jam: 1, 1912. at $26 a tom. 1429. 222 ethene ee $83. 07
To pasture rent for whole herd of 8) cows:..~..--.---2 22: -452522) -sge seer 250. 00
To taxes on'$2,380 ittvested in ‘Catiflie.-_--o32. s eee eeeee 4. 60
To interest on $2,380 invested in cattle, at 6 per 2ane! SAMA SN oe eens 142. 80
To 4,750 pounds of cottonseed cake fed calves in November and December... 61.75
To 3,425 pounds of cottonseed meal fed calves Dec. 21 to Jan. 16......-...-.- 44, 53
To 24,035 pounds of silage fed calves Dec. 21 to Jan. 16.-.....-...-.---.---- 36. 05
T'o labor devoted to, cattle during year--... ..-..-:..21 2.2) Dae se eee 58. 50
To 10 per cent depreciation in value of breeding cattle. ._.......-..--..---- 238. 00

Total cost of 64 calves to 94 months'of age. .....-......-.-.). JI ---.-- 919. 30
Average weight of each calf Jan. 16,.1912.......................... pounds. . 460
Average cést of each calf.) Be oS et to oe a eee $14. 36
Average cost per leaidredweiast 222. LEO SSN De ee eee 3. 12

In studying the above financial statement the reader should under-
stand that the cost of raising calves varies very materially from place

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA, 7

to place. They were raised to an age of 94 months on this farm at a
cost of $3.12 a hundredweight. On a second farm it may cost more,
and on a third it may cost less. Each item noted above may not be
duplicated upon another farm. The pasture rent, the taxes, the
interest, the prices of feeds, and the cost of labor all vary in different
localities.

When these calves had reached an approximate age of 94 months
they had attained an average weight of 460 pounds. While this is
not a heavy weight, still it is much greater than that usually attained
by native Alabama calves. In the experimental work carried on in
cooperation with Mr. Kernachan, of Sheffield, Ala., the calves, at 12
months of age, had reached an average weight of only 402 pounds.
Those calves, however, were infested with cattle ticks, which no
doubt very materially impeded the rate of growth.

By the time the calves had reached an average age of 93 months,
each one had cost $14.36, or $3.12 per hundredweight. These figures
include the cost of all the feeds which were given to both the cows and
the calves, the rent on the pasture, the taxes, and interest on the
money invested in the cattle, the labor required to care for and feed
both the cows and the offspring, and 10 per cent depreciation in
value of the breeding herd. The cattle were not credited with the
manure produced, as there was no way to determine this factor accu-
rately.

THE FATTENING PERIOD.

The calves were raised to the fattening period, at a cost of $14.36
each. On that date they had attamed an average weight of 460
pounds, sc it cost $3.12 a hundredweight to raise them. They were
consequently entered in the fattening period at an initial cost of
$3.12 per hundredweight.

There was a total of 64 calves in the herd, but all of them were
not fattened for the market. The owner wished to build up the
breeding herd, so 15 of the best heifers were kept on the farm. The
remaining 49 calves were placed in the feed lot and given a ration
of cottonseed meal, corn silage, and broom-sedge hay. The 15
heifers which were left on the farm were valued at $15 each. This
figure is incorporated later in the financial statement as a credit
to the increase in value of the herd.

The fattening period proper began January 17, 1912, although the
calves had been on a ration of cottonseed meal, corn silage, and
broom-sedge hay since December 21. A short time was necessarily
required to get the animals accustomed to their new feeds. The cost
of the feeds they ate during the preliminary period from December
21 to January 17 was charged against the cost of raising the calves,
and not against the cost of fattenmg. At the begining of the test

8 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

proper each calf was eating daily 3 pounds of cottonseed meal, ap-
proximately 20 pounds of corn silage, and 4 pounds of hay. The
allowance of meal was raised gradually throughout the whole period
of 76 days, until at the last each calf was eating 6 pounds daily.
At one time each calf was consuming as much as 28 pounds of silage
each day, but they would not continue to eat this much, so at the
end of the period, April 1, they were eating an average of only 20
pounds per calf per day. The allowance of hay was gradually de-
creased from the first. At the middle of the period each calf con-
sumed daily not over 3 pounds of hay, and near the end an exceed-
ingly small allowance met their desires. From the middle of March
to April 1 they averaged less than 1 pound of hay per calf per day.

The fattening period continued for a period of 76 days, or until
April 1, when. the 49 calves were sold and then shipped to New Orleans.
They pragelt $5.874 a hundredweight on the farm.

The following gives a short summary of the most important results
obtained during the fattening period:

The fattening period (Jan. 17—-Apr. 1).

Number,.of calves im lot. ciel o.{) 282 - eh ie Ey Ae AS Do Sa RR 49
Number of daysifed <i. i. 222) Me ae ae a I Sa 76
Average initial weit. Sb p5 2) hoi. SR Sa eer a en a pounds.. 456
Atverdge final wenshte op eee er yee etal ns ee a aoe 3 fo Ae MONTES 30)
Bveraee total earn Of ea nial os. sar agaace maag mye oh dine ie a dowec i 104
Average daily.caim 20. 2). .). Dy . eye eR ee eae ee oe ey. 3
Average daily ration per calf:

Cottonseed) meali yO LAURE SRO Soe RN Re ae ee oie doves). 4.4

Corn ‘silage'sse') Li cies pit 1021s Ce CR NR AR RSIS dod. ..5\) 29

FAY a8 32 iw eyehciel te enpiclcpels apa dd bora fate ania ate eye A ie OR aap le do. 2. 76
Amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain:

Cottonseed meal. 2% ilies SEM els se iN BORIS aoe ee doe t.a)) 328

Corn silage) Lick aki ce Ena Soe nial eal et eo Sea oe dow. 1.741

PPB ISLS ASS DS UIE 8 ERS ERY Ba es doves 200
Cost to:make 100 pounds/of gaineys i722 ee. 2. SES 2 $7. 31
Profit on each calfiasa resultiof jattening) 42! -:)-4¢). ee ye Be Ss ee ee 8. 88
{nitial cost of calves per hundredweight..............---- osha Rote Siege anasto? 3. 12
Selling price on the farm per hundredweight.........-.-...----..+---------- 5. 874

As previously stated, it cost $3.12 per hundredweight to raise these
calves to an age of 94 months, and they were valued at this figure
at the inauguration of the finishing period. At the end of the fat-
tening period they sold for an average price of $5.874 per hundred-
weight on the farm and made a clear profit of $8.88 per calf.

The average weight of the calves at the beginning of the fattening
period was 456 pounds. When sold, April 1, they had attained an
average weight of 560 pounds and were approximately 1 year old.
During this period they gained at an average daily rate of 1.37
pounds.

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA. 9

The only purchased feed used in the fattening period was cotton-
seed meal. The other two feeds, corn silage and broom-sedge hay,
were made on the farm, the silage being valued at $3 a ton and the
cheap hay at $5 a ton. Before a farmer spends $26 for a ton of
cottonseed meal he should know whether or not he will get his
money back in the shape of profit on the cattle. On this particular
farm the two feeds, corn silage and hay, were produced at home,
and the object was to find a profitable market for them. While the
cottonseed meal cost $26 a ton, it was fed to the calves and sold,
by means of them, for $78.64 a ton. The corn silage was valued at
only $3 a ton, but it was sold by means of the calves for $12.74 a
ton in this particular test. An abnormally high price was realized
on the hay because only a small amount was used.

The authors do not claim that such favorable results can always
be secured, but these results, taken together with those previously
secured during the progress of the beef investigational work in
Alabama, show that the farmer can usually well afford to buy certain
commercial feeds for his animals, and it is usually to his advantage
to feed the home-grown feeds to live stock rather than sell them on
the market.

RAISING AND FATTENING PERIODS TAKEN TOGETHER.

The following gives a brief outline of the whole life of the calves;
this comprises both the raising and the finishing periods, and includes
a full statement of the total expense of both the cows and the calves:

Total summary.

Naimiberion cowstimvWerd xine Myr A(T I see Ty ET payed y 8 80
Numbenaivoreedine pullstayherd op ike ory ate 2
Mambernoi calves alsed anaes yl en NBN VE Moe be US i ae 64
homedsimine ment ioriwiole, Herd giant leas juices years sce ato sana ess Ohare $250. 09
Mortaxedioni $2. 3s0.nvested 1m herdie. 23) eo acenl el. ab. a Ree 4.60
To interest at 6 per cent on $2,380 invested in herd..........-.....------ 142. 80
To 6,390 pounds of cottonseed cake fed to breeding cows during January,
ebniranvaeviarchiamcw Agora: Ces ls iui ein 0a a Se ce 83. 07
To 4,750 pounds of cottonseed cake fed calves in November and December. 61. 75
To 3,425 pounds of cottonseed meal fed calves from Dec. 21 to Jan. 16...... 44,53
To 24,035 pounds of silage fed calves from Dec. 21 to Jan. 16......-.....--- 36. 05
To 16,600 pounds of cottonseed meal fed calves from Jan. 17 to Apr.1...-. 215.80
To 89,545 pounds of corn silage fed calves irom Jan. 17 to Apr. 1.-...------ 134. 32
To 10,377 pounds of broom-sedge hay fed calves from Jan. 17 to Apr. 1-..--- 25. 94
To labor devoted to cattle during the year......-.....-....---2-----2+6-+-+- 58. 50
To 10 per cent depreciation of the value of the breeding cattle............. 238.00
aL Nic eK POMSESTOMMMENG sie. ney eNee ee WelM ete cake gm cee ele nea yy an a 1, 295. 36
Average cost of each calf when 1 year old...............-2-----22---------- $20.24

Average weight of each calf when 1 year old.....-..........----- pounds. . 560

10 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average cost, per hundredweight, to raise and fatten calves............... $3. 61
Amount of money received for 49 fat calves.......-....-- 22-2. 02-22222--20 1, 506. 55
Value of 15 heifers left on farm for breeding......-..........:.....-..---- 225. 00
Total mneome of.hberd during 19-12. isos oobi ann.) ac 1, 731. 55
Total proton herd during 1911-12 °c a ee 436. 19
Average’ profit on each calf (64 calves): ......0022...02.2200. 22). 2 6. 81
Average profit on each cow (80'cows):..0.2-. lick lee ak 5. 45

The herd consisted of 80 cows, but only 64 calves were raised to an
age of 1 year; this is, however, an excellent record. This is much
better than the results reported on the Kernachan herd, when only
70.8 per cent and 72 per cent of the cows dropped calves during the
springs of 1906 and 1907, respectively. The breeder can not expect
every cow in the herd to drop a calf each year. It is important,
however, that as many of the cows as possible produce calves each
year; the idle cows are not only idle capital but they are constant
consumers of farm products. The idle cow has a very important
part to play in the total expense of raising a calf, as an expense
of keeping her must be charged against the calves which other
cows produce. To illustrate: The above table shows that a clear
profit of $6.81 was made on each one of the 64 calves, but when the
total number of cows was taken into consideration it is seen that a
clear profit of only $5.45 was realized on each.

It cost $1,295.35 to care for and feed the whole herd during one
year’s time. This figure includes all possible expenses, as cost of
labor, interest on investment, depreciation in the value of the herd,
cost of pasture and all other feeds, and taxes. Forty-nine fat calves
were sold for $1,506.55; 15 good heifer calves were kept on the farm
for future breeding purposes, and they were valued at only $15 each.
When the value of these 15 calves, $225, is added to the sum received
for the fat calves, the total income of the herd is raised to $1,731.55.
A. total profit of $436.19 was consequently realized on the whole
herd of 80 cows.

These results are, of course, entirely satisfactory, as they represent
profits above the interest on the money invested, while the value-
of the manure made on the farm is not taken into consideration.
The worth of the manure should never be neglected but there was no
way to determine the exact amount produced and no approximation
was made.

SUMMARY STATEMENTS.

(1) The objects of this test were, first, to learn what it would cost
to raise beef calves to an age of approximately 94 months, under
average farm conditions, and, second, to determine the profit, if any,
in finishing these young calves for the market during the winter
months and selling them when about 12 months old.

RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA. 11

(2) A herd of 80 cows, mostly grade Aberdeen-Angus, were
employed. From this herd 64 calves were raised during the year
1911.

(3) The calves were born during the spring months and ran with
their mothers on pasture until late fall, when they were weaned and
prepared for the fattening period, which was inaugurated on January
17, 1912, and continued until April 1, 1912.

(4) In all, there were 64 calves, but only 49 of these were fattened
for the market. ‘The owner wished to build up the breeding herd,
so 15 of the best heifers were kept on the farm for future breeding.

(5) When the calves were 94 months old the 64 had attained an
average weight of 460 pounds.

(6) It cost $14.36 to raise each calf to an age of 94 months. This
cost includes all possible expenses, or cost of all feed eaten by both
cows and calves, interest on money invested in cattle, rent on pas-
tures, taxes, depreciation on the value of the herd, etc. The average
cost per hundredweight was $3.12.

(7) Forty-nine of the 64 calves were then placed in the feed lot.
These 49 animals averaged 456 pounds in weight at the beginning
of the fattening period and 560 pounds at the close. They, therefore,
gained at the average daily rate of 1.37 pounds. |

(8) Each calf, during the fattening period, ate daily 4.4 pounds of
cottonseed meal, 23.9 pounds of corn silage, and 2.76 pounds of
broom-sedge hay.

(9) To make 100 pounds of increase in live weight required the use
of 323 pounds of cottonseed meal, 1,741 pounds of corn silage, and
201 pounds of hay, costing $7.31.

(10) When the calves were fat they were sold on the farm for
$5.874 a hundredweight. It cost only $3.61 per hundredweight
to raise and fatten them.

(11) The total profit on the herd during 1911-12 was $436.19
or an average of $6.81 for each calf.

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€ > usnenereTorseecUTTE

b “A,
IN YA No. 74

Contributed by the Bureau of Crop Estimates, L. M. Estabrook, Chief,
and by the Office of Markets, C. J. Brand, Chief.
December 19, 1914.

INLAND BOAT SERVICE: FREIGHT RATES ON FARM PROD-
UCTS AND TIME OF TRANSIT ON INLAND WATERWAYS IN
THE UNITED STATES.

By Frank ANDREWS,
Chief, Division of Crop Records.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF INQUIRY.

The purpose of this inquiry was to collect information relative to
freight rates and time of transit of farm products carried on inland
waterways of the United States. It being impracticable to collect
complete data, the inquiries were made to cover a large number of
representative routes and commodities. The freight rates apply to
September and October, 1912, when a large part of the agricultural
products of 1912 was moving to market and, naturally, traffic on
waterways would be relatively large. The freight rates by boat
were obtained directly from captains, agents, and other officials of
steamboat lines. Some reports for distances were also obtained
from these persons, but mostly from the Chief of Engineers of the
United States Army, who has charge of the improvement of water-
ways. lor minor items and for verification other sources were used;
they included notes made by the author at various times in the course
of field work, information received through correspondence, and data
gathered from various printed matter.

RIVER TRAFFIC DEFINED.

River traffic as discussed in this bulletin is to be distinguished from
the traffic by coastwise vessels and on the Great Lakes. Conditions
are different in many respects between the river transportation and
that conducted by the large vessels on deep water. One point of
difference lies in the size of the river boats as compared with the
lake and coastwise vessels. A large freight steamer on the Great
Lakes will carry as much as 400,000 bushels of wheat at one load.
On June 30, 1912, the average gross tonnage of vessels on the Great

62705°—14——_1

‘ a

2 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Lakes was 876 tons of 100 cubic feet, while the average for vessels on
the western rivers was only 78 tons measurement. The carrying
capacity of river steamboats Is increased by the use of barges. This
is especially true in the shipment of coal from the Pittsburgh region
to New Orleans. From 30 to 50 or more barges, each carrying about
1,000 tons (of 2,000 pounds), may be moved by a single towboat. In
ordinary river freight service, one or more barges may be taken,
especially when a lot of lumber or brick is to be carried. The use
of a large number of barges is not practicable in the Great Lakes or
the coastwise traffic, because the rough water would make it difficult,
if not impossible, to handle them. ‘Towing is done on the Lakes and
ocean, but the vessels towed are larger in size than the river barges
and only a few are taken at a time.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF RIVER TRAFFIC.

The relative importance of receipts by river as compared with the
total receipts by rail and water of various farm products at leading
river ports is shown in Table 1. A considerable fraction of the wheat
and corn received at Baltimore, Md., comes from landings along
rivers which are tributary to Cheapeake Bay and is carried partly by
steamboats and partly by sail vessels. During the five years ending
with 1912 these receipts by water at Baltimore ranged from 10 to
nearly 30 per cent of the total receipts of wheat and from 3 to nearly
15 per cent of the total receipts of corn.

Cincinnati, Ohio, also has a large river trade in some products,
notably tobacco. Of the total receipts of tobacco during the five
years ending with 1908, from 10 to 20 per cent came by river boats.
This applies to tobacco packed in hogsheads, which formed all but
a small fraction of the traffic in that commodity. For other articles
the relative importance of the river trade was not so great. During
the five years mentioned about 5 per cent of the total receipts of eggs
were brought in by steamboat. Apple receipts averaged from about
one-third of 1 per cent of the total to more than 12 per cent. Rela-
tively little of the grain brought to the city came by river, the aver-
age being considerably less than 1 per cent of the total. In regard
to live stock, the river traffic in cattle constituted 1 to 2 per cent in
each of the five years in question, while for sheep the average was
between 2 and 3 per cent, and for hogs the average was about 4 per
cent of the total receipts from all sources. Statistics of the river
trade at Cincinnati have been given by the Cincinnati Chamber of
Commerce for a long series of years, extending back at least as far
as 1845. These statistics show the river trade when it constituted
practically all of the commercial movements to and from Cincinnati,
except produce hauled in wagons and live stock driven on foot; and

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 8

they trace the development of railroad traffic, together with the rela-
tive and the absolute decline of transportation by river.

One of the principal items in the freight received at St. Louis by
boat is apples, which are brought in large quantities from Calhoun
County, Ill. This county, consisting of a long strip of land bounded
on three sides by the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers, has no railroads
and depends upon river boats for transportation. In 1911, 54 per
cent of the barreled apples received at St. Louis came by river, and
in 1912 the river receipts exceeded 49 per cent of the total receipts
by all routes. Also, from 2 to 5 per cent of the eggs, from 4 to nearly
7 per cent of the cotton, from 1} to 2 per cent of the sheep, and from
24 to 34 per cent of the hogs received at this city in 1908-1912 came
by water.

Statistics of river trade at Memphis and New Orleans show rela-

tively large receipts of cotton. At Memphis, during the five years

ending with 1912, from 10 to nearly 14 per cent and at New Orleans
from nearly 4 to more than 7 per cent of all cotton received was car-
ried by boat.

MARKET VALUES OF PRODUCTS TRANSPORTED BY WATER.

Another basis of estimating the importance of steamboat traffic is
the market value of products carried. The following approximate
valuations are based upon average market prices at the respective
cities where the produce was received, and are to be regarded merely
as rough estimates. The wheat received by boat at Baltimore during
the five years ending with 1912, at average prices of southern wheat,
contract grade, was worth from $600,000 to $2,000,000 a year, and
the corn receipts ranged from about $200,000 to $1,000,000, according
to the prices paid for southern white corn.

At Cincinnati the receipts of tobacco by river averaged from
$1,500,000 to more than $3,000,000 a year in 1908-1912; the cattle,
hogs, and sheep were worth, at average prices, about $750,000 to
$1,250,000 per year, while the eggs brought in by boat averaged
$150,000 to $250,000.

Among the receipts at St. Louis during 1908-1912 whose value
illustrates the importance of river traffic are apples, with an average
annual value (disregarding the abnormally low receipts of apples in
1910) of about $125,000 to $775,000; eggs, worth $150,000 to $200,000
a year; cattle, sheep, and hogs, $1,500,000 to $2,000,000; and wheat,
$200,000 to $500,000.

The annual receipts of cotton by river averaged $5,000,000 to -

$7,500,000 at Memphis and $3,000,000 to $7,000,000 at New Orleans
in the five years just mentioned. Large quantities of other farm
- products were also received by river at these two cities.

a —

4 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SOME ADVANTAGES OF RAIL OVER RIVER.

While steamboat transportation is generally regarded as cheaper
than rail, in practice the boats are at considerable disadvantage in
some respects. A railroad car is free to move between any two
railroad stations, while the steamboat is naturally limited to those
places which it can reach. At terminals a car can be placed in any
one of a number of advantageous positions. A car of wheat can be
run into a grain elevator and unloaded over a grating, through which
the grain is received by the elevating machinery and carried to the
bins. A railroad car also may be placed alongside any one of a
number of warehouses, to receive or discharge its load across a few
feet of space; and it may be held for a day or so, if not longer, awaiting
a convenient time for consignor to load or for consignee to unload. In
regard to rates, as will be shown later, the steamboats do not always
quote lower rates than are quoted by railroads.

SOME ADVANTAGES OF RIVER OVER RAIL.

Since the river is a public highway, there is an opportunity for
competition among carriers which does not exist with rail traffic. In
railroad business the roadway and terminals are regularly under the
same management as the trains which use them, so that competition
between two or more carriers over a single railroad is not to be
expected. ‘The fact that the river is a public highway makes it possi-
ble for persons of small capital to engage in transportation. Conse-
quently sail vessels, gasoline launches, and small steamboats compete
with larger boats for the traffic on many inland waterways. Sweet
potatoes, watermelons, grain, and other commodities are brought ito
Washington and Baltimore from points from 100 to 200 miles distant
by means of sail vessels and power boats. A considerable part of the
produce sold at New Orleans is brought there by small boats, and on
the river system opening into San Francisco Bay gasoline launches,
sailboats, and other small vessels also share with the regular steam-
boat lines in the carrying trade. The opportunity offered to persons
or companies of small capital to engage in transportation is one of the
advantages of river over rail. These public-waterways are used also
by farmers to transport their own produce to market.

Another advantage of the river is the economy possible in a large
part of the traffic, especially where relatively nonperishable articles
are carried. The capacity of a boat can be increased or diminished
greatly by attaching or detaching barges, so that a large load can be
moved at a relatively low cost. In a large part of its business a boat
can work much more cheaply than a railroad.

Frequently river transportation is quicker than rail. A consign-
ment once loaded on a boat goes direct to its destination without
being subject to delays occasioned by transfer from one carrier to

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 5

another or from the switching of cars. This applies, of course, only
to shipments between points reached by the same boat and is true
more for less-than-car-lot than for car-lot shipments. A carload car-
ried by rail necessarily moves to its destination much more promptly
than a small lot, which may have to be transferred from car to car
in transit and possibly held for some days at various transfer points.
The small lot moves as rapidly as the large one when shipped by
boat, and, while the freight rate by boat is often lower for the large
shipment than for the small, the difference between the two rates is
usually not so great as it is in railroad traffic.

TERMINALS AND LANDINGS.

One striking difference between river traffic along the Atlantic

slope and that in the Mississippi Valley is the different kinds of land-
ings. On the tidal waterways of the Atlantic slope conditions
require wharves to be built to enable boats to land and freight to be
handled. This requirement naturally limits the landings to such
places as regularly have traffic enough to justify the expense of
building such a wharf. In the Mississippi Valley wharves are not
only unnecessary for purposes of landing but are practically impos-
sible to locate properly. The boat makes a landing by simply run-
ning alongshore and letting down the outer end of the landing stage,
so that any part of a river bank which has no unusual obstruction
may be taken asalanding. The great difference between the highest
water level and the lowest and the uncertainty of the rise and fall
of the river make it practically impossible to use fixed wharves at the
river landings of the Mississippi Valley. However, wharf boats are
established at principal landings and serve the purpose of a fixed wharf;
and, since they rise and fall with the water level, they are in the
right position to receive a steamboat alongside at any stage of the river.

The conditions which enable steamboats to stop at almost any
unobstructed part of the bank make it possible for many farms on
navigable rivers like those of the Mississippi Valley to have their own
landings. On some rivers the landings actually used by steamboats
are scarcely a mile apart, so that the entire country within hauling
distance of the river has a large number of shipping points from
which to select.

Convenient means of transfer between boat and rail are arranged
at some terminals and at some intermediate landings as well. Rail-
road tracks, in some cases, are laid convenient to the steamboat
landings and mechanical devices are used to facilitate transfer of
freight from one carrier to another. There are many instances, of
course, wherein improvement in transfer facilities is much needed,
where the railroad tracks are inconveniently distant from the steam-
boat landing, and where few or no mechanical devices, other than

6 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

hand trucks, are used to facilitate handling of freight. In fact,
most of the freight handled by rail or water is loaded and unloaded
by means of hand trucks. Motor trucks for unloading or loading are
found only in rare instances, but devices for assisting hand trucks up
or down inclines and for moving heavier weights from one level to
another are frequently used. At Riverton, Ala., an incline was
built on the bank of the Tennessee River for the operation of a car by _
means of a steam-driven cable. This elevator transferred freight
between the boats on the river and the railroad freight station up on
the cliff. At any stage of the river this incline, of course, could be
used, since it extended from the freight shed at the top of the high
river bank to the lowest water level.

TYPICAL STEAMBOAT ROUTES.

ATLANTIC COAST.

The actual routes followed by steamboat limes in various parts of
the United States have certain characteristics which differ according
to location. The Hudson River has a variety of traffic. One class
consists in the through service between New York City and Albany;
another class of traffic is composed of numerous routes centering at
various important cities along the way; and the canal-boat traffic
on the way from the Erie Canal to tidewater, the boats bemg towed
in groups each by a single tug. Among the farm products carried
on this important waterway are grain, hay, fruit, and vegetables.
Large quantities of wheat and corn are carried in canal boats on this
river down to New York Harbor, the grain having been loaded at
Buffalo.

Another important system of waterways is that of Chesapeake
Bay and its tributaries. Traffic on this bay radiates from the prin-
cipal cities—Baltimore, Washington, and Norfolk. The usual local
steamboat trip from Baltimore begins late in the afternoon, the boat
reaching the mouth of some river early the following morning, pos-
sibly some hours before daybreak. Here the first landing is made,
which is followed by other landings up to the head of navigation.
After a few hours at the terminus the boat starts on its return trip,
often reaching the mouth of the river and entering Chesapeake Bay
by nightfall and arriving at Baltimore early the next morning. This
applies to a route of average length and of average distance from
Baltimore. Some of the longer routes require 40 or more hours for
transit one way, and on some of the shorter ones the round trip is
made within a day. A great variety of produce is carried on these
Chesapeake Bay routes. Grain, hay, and many kinds of fruits and
vegetables constitute a large amount of trafic. From the lower part
of the eastern shore of the bay sweet potatoes are shipped in such
large quantities in the fall that they often make practically full

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. qT

eargoes for the steamboats. Among other farm products received
by water at Baltimore are tobacco from Patuxent River landings,
live stock from the upper Rappahannock, and poultry and eggs from
practically all the river routes.

Through service between Baltimore and Norfolk, Baltimore and
Philadelphia, Norfolk and Washington, and between Norfolk and
Richmond is maintained throughout the year by regular lines of
boats. Over each of these routes the trip is made in a single night
and the schedules are maintained as regularly as on railroads.

An important feature of Chesapeake Bay trade, as of some other
waterways, is the large number of small craft, such as sail vessels,
power boats, and small gasoline launches, which serve as common
carriers on these waters. Early in July Baltimore Harbor swarms
with such vessels bringing in the first of the wheat crop from the lower
bay. They also carry a considerable amount of canned goods, water-
melons, sweet potatoes, and other agricultural products. Their
traffic in oysters, fish, lumber, railroad ties, and firewood is important
also.

South of Virginia the Atlantic plain becomes wider and the navi-
gable rivers extend farther inland, thus affording a wider reach from
the coast for steamboat traffic than is afforded farther north. Steam-
boat traffic here begins to differ somewhat from the traffic on tidal
waters and shows some points of resemblance to that of the Mississippi
Valley. The long route from Baltimore to Fredericksburg, 285 miles,
is not directly inland, but extends more than halfway parallel to the
coast, the Rappahannock River itself measuring but 106 miles from
its mouth to Fredericksburg; but from Savannah to Augusta the
202-mile route extends inland, as does the 370-mile route from
Brunswick up the Altamaha and Ocmulgee Rivers to Macon.

Two isolated routes in the Atlantic coast region are worthy of
mention. Lakes Champlain and George’ afford a highway for local
traffic along part of the borders of Vermont and New York; and at
the southern part of the Atlantic slope the Kissimmee River, with
Lakes Kissimmee and Tohopekaliga, afford a steamboat route between
the town Kissimmee and Fort Bassenger.

Numerous other routes are followed by steamboats on the inland
waterways of the Atlantic coast and are mostly characterized by
regularity of service and by lack of hindrances to navigation, except
on the northern waterways in winter.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY, INCLUDING GULF COAST.

The principal steamboat routes of the Mississippi Valley and Gulf
coast may be grouped according to some central river port, as Cin-
cinnati, St. Louis, Memphis, Vicksburg, New Orleans, or Mobile.
From Cincinnati regular lines of boats extend up the Ohio River as

8 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

far as Pittsburgh and down the Ohio and Mississippi to Memphis;
up the Ohio and Great Kanawha to Charleston, W. Va.; and an
important line plies nightly between Cincinnati and Louisville. In
addition to these, a number of other lines give regular service at
Cincinnati. The longest route followed regularly from Cincinnati is
the one to Memphis, 749 miles away. From Cincinnati to Pittsburgh
the distance is 470 miles; from Cincinnati to Charleston, 263; and
from Cincinnati to Louisville the distance is 128 miles.

From St. Louis regular lines reach to St. Paul on the upper Mis-
sissippl and to Memphis on the lower; and extend also up the Mis-
souri River to Kansas City, up the lesan to Peoria, and on the Mis-
sissippi, Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers to Waterloo, Ala.

Steamboat lines from Memphis reach points as far down the
Mississippi River as Vicksburg, the up-river boats, as has been said,
running from Memphis as far as St. Louis on the one hand and
Cincinnati on the other. . 3

Another important steamboat center in the Mississippi VaHey is
New Orleans. From this port steamboats serve landings as far up
the Mississippi River as Vicksburg, and at least one line of boats fol-
lows the Mississippi, Red, and Black Rivers up to Harrisonburg, La.

Various other routes are followed through the network of rivers,
bayous, and canals in the traffic between New Orleans and numerous
towns and landings in southern Louisiana as far west as Bayou
Teche and as far north as Red River. The variation in distances
traveled by steamboats between New Orleans and St. Martinville on
Bayou Teche illustrates the intricacies of the bayou routes. The
trip by way of the Mississippi River and the Plaquemine waterways
is 257 miles. By way of Harveys Canal, Bayou Barataria, Lake
Salvador, Harang Canal, Bayou Lafourche, a private canal, Bayou
Terrebonne, Barrows Canal, Bayous Black, Chene, and Boeuf, Ber-
wick Bay, and Bayou Teche, the steamboat route is 192 miles; and
by still another but shorter series of waterways the distance is
reduced to 178 miles between New Orleans and St. Martinville.

Another group of steamboat routes from New Orleans consists of
those reaching points on Lake Ponchartrain.

Of the many products carried on these various groups of steamboat
routes from New Orleans, cotton may be taken as the typical com-
modity carried on the routes extending northward, sugar on the routes
of the bayou region, and fruit and vegetables on Lake Ponchartrain.

Of the Gulf slope, as distinct from the Mississippi Valley proper,
Mobile is one of the principal river ports. From this city steamboat
lines extend up the Mobile, Alabama, and Tombigbee Rivers to
Montgomery, Selma, Demopolis, and minor landings. Cotton is
one of the most important agricultural products carried on these
waterways.

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 9

The old route from New Orleans to St. Louis on the one hand,
or to Cincinnati on the other, is no longer followed by any one line
of boats. From the pioneer days of steamboating until a few decades
after the Civil War, New Orleans was reached by lines terminating
at St. Louis and Cincinnati, but with the development of railroads
and improvement of their service steamboat traffic gradually changed
in its nature, so that the bulk of the freight movement became local,
and long-distance shipments grew less and less important. With
the passing of the Anchor Line in the early nineties, St. Louis ceased
to be connected with the city of New Orleans by any direct line of
packets, and about 10 years later through freight service also ceased
when the line of barges and towboats operated by the Mississippi
Valley Transportation Co. went out of business. The through
traffic consisting of large tows of coal barges, taken from Pittsburgh
down to New Orleans, is not to be classed with regular steamboat-
line service, which is conducted according to fixed schedules of
arrivals and departures.

PACIFIC COAST.

One important system of waterways on the Pacific coast consists
of the rivers emptying into San Francisco Bay; the Sacramento from
the north and the San Joaquin from the south. The delta near the
junction of these two rivers affords a number of channels which are
used by various boats and which afford transportation to a rich
truck region not conveniently reached by rail. The principal cen-
ters of steamboat traffic here are San Francisco, Sacramento, and
Stockton. Hach of these cities is connected with the other two and
with numerous landings by regular lines of boats. Here, as well as
on the Atlantic coast, sail vessels (especially on the lower river) and
gasoline launches share in transportation. Here, also, barges are
used to increase the capacity of steamboats in handling the large
amount of business on this inland water system. One characteristic
of this traffic is the large quantity of potatoes, beans, asparagus, and
other vegetables. Their tonnage is great enough to give a distinctive
character to the commerce, although grain, hay, and other products
are carried in considerable quantities. Another important item in
the river trade is milk shipped to the cities of San Francisco, Sacra-
mento, and Stockton.

A second important system of waterways consfts of the Columbia
River and its tributaries. On the lower section of the river steam-
boats from Portland, on the Willamette a few miles from the Co-
lumbia, run down the Columbia to Astoria and others run up the
river as far as Celilo Falls. Other routes extend from just above the
falls to various points on the upper Columbia and Snake Rivers. On
the upper Columbia one line connects Wenatchee with Bridgeport.

62705°—14-_2

10 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LOCAL TRAFFIC.

The steamboat routes thus described illustrate the fact that river
traffic is generally local. A few hundred miles is usually the maxi-
mum length of the route of any one line of steamboats. In fact, it
may be said that a run of 400 miles or more is exceptional. Of the
92 routes specified in Table 4, only 16 are more than 250 miles in
length, which is slightly more than the average length of haul for all
freight carried on railroads in the United States. In other words,
steamboat traffic is distinctly short-haul traffic. The business of the
boats in general is to concentrate at important centers freight picked
up at local landings and to distribute to those landings commodities
shipped from the trade centers. Again, it is to be noted that this
applies to the river trade in general and not to such movements as the
barge traffic in coal from the Pittsburgh region.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAMBOAT FREIGHT RATES.

There is a great variety of freight tariffs for steamboat river trade.
The unit of quantity in some cases is 100 pounds or the short ton,
and in others the package. Some boats quote rates for carlots lower
than for less than carlots, as is done in railroad freight tariffs. Spe-
cific conditions give rise in many cases to specific rates. A certain
commodity may be carried in one direction for a lower rate than in
another, if the trade in the favored direction is large enough to
justify special concessions in order to obtain it. Distance frequently
has little or no influence upon the rate charged by boat. Sometimes
over an entire route the same rate will be charged between any
two landings regardless of distance.

The minimum charge for a single shipment by water is by no
means uniform throughout the country. In Louisiana the minimum
charge for a single package is 10 cents and for a single shipment is
25 cents, but if the boat has to make a special landing for a single
shipment the charge is at least 50 cents. The steamboat tariff
authorized by the State of Alabama specifies a minimum charge of
15 cents on a single shipment.

An example of the variety of packages taken as bases for steamboat
freight rates is afforded in the Potomac River trade, between landings
down the river and Washington. Rates on apples are as follows:
30 cents per sugar barrel, 25 cents per flour barrel, 15 cents per half-
barrel basket, 12 cents per bushel basket, 10 cents per box, 15 cents
per bag, and 13 cents per small carrier; also 15 cents per two-basket
carrier, and 8 cents per basket of five-eighths of a bushel.

ILLUSTRATIONS AFFORDED BY THE NORFOLK TRADE.

A large amount of freight is carried between Baltimore and Norfolk
by bay steamers. This traffic, except where commodity rates apply,
is subject to the Southern Classification, which ranges from 10 cents
per 100 pounds for class 6 to 26 cents for class 1, and from 10 cents

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. iit

per 100 pounds for class A to 16 cents for class B and class H. An
important group of commodities carried over this route consists of
fresh fruits and vegetables. Some of the freight rates applying to
these products are of considerable importance to the fruit and truck
industry of the Norfolk region. The following rates applied in 1912
to shipments from Norfolk to Baltimore: Berries were charged from
18 cents per crate of 24 quarts to 42 cents per 60-quart crate; fresh
fruits, 7 cents per bushel box, 11 cents per half-barrel box or carrier,
20 cents per standard vegetable barrel, and 25 cents per sugar barrel;
cabbage, cucumbers, and spinach, 15 cents per flour barrel and 20
cents per sugar barrel; lettuce and potatoes, 20 cents per flour barrel’
and 23 cents per sugar barrel; tomatoes, 11 cents per half-barrel car-
rier; and watermelons, 24 cents each. The charge on cotton in
square bales was 40 cents per bale if compressed, and 50 cents if not
compressed. Cotton in cylindrical bales was charged at the rate’ of
10 cents per 100 pounds.

FREIGHT TARIFF ZONES.

An example of the application of what may be termed ‘‘zone rates”’
is afforded by the tariffs established by the Railroad Commission of
Alabama for the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. Freight tariff
No. 3 of this series applies to shipments between Mobile and three
principal cities up the river—Demopolis, Montgomery, and Selma.
This tariff is based chiefly upon the Southern Classification. Cotton
and cement are given special rates, but other articles are charged
according to their respective ‘‘classification.”” The six numbered
classes are charged from 30 cents per 100 pounds for articles in class 1
to 10 cents per 100 pounds for those in class 6, and the lettered classes
9 cents per 100 pounds for articles in class A to 19 cents per 100
pounds for those in class H. Articles coming under class F are
charged 20 cents per barrel. The rates just quoted apply to ship-
ments between Mobile and any of the three cities mentioned. Freight
tarifi No. 2 applies to shipments between Mobile, Demopolis, and
points located between those cities. This schedule of rates is chiefly
a ‘“commodity”’ tariff, each article being given a special rate. For
landings in general on the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers and their
tributaries tariff No. 1, also a “‘commodity”’ tariff, applies.

Another instance of a zone system of freight rates is that afforded
on the route between Evansville, Ind., and Bowling Green, Ky.
including parts of the Ohio, Green, and Big Barren Rivers. There isa
special tariff between Evansville and Bowling Green. Other landings
are divided into four groups, according to their distance from Evans-
ville, No. 1 being the nearest to that place. The freight rate from all
landings on the Tennessee River between Florence, Ala., and its
mouth, to and from St. Louis, is the same for a given commodity.
Tt costs as much to ship from Sf. Louis to any one landing in this ter-
ritory as to another.

. 7
q

12 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BLANKET RATES.

An example of a “‘blanket”’ or “‘postage-stamp”’ rate—that is, the
same charge for a given commodity between any two landings—is
afforded by the traffic on the Apalachicola River and its tributaries.
Also the tariff for river boats, issued under the authority of the
Railroad Commission of Louisiana, No. 8467-S, applies to traffic
between any two landings from New Orleans up to Devalls Landing.
A large number of commodities are separately rated. For those not
included in the commodity rates the Western Classification as used
by railroads applies. The numbered classes, which apply to less-
than-carload shipments, are charged from 15 cents for class 5 to 30
cents per 100 pounds for class 1; and the lettered classes, which
apply to carload shipments, are phemeed from 8 cents for lees E to
15 cents per 100 pounds for class A.

UNIFORM BASIS OF COMPARISON.

Detailed information as to freight rates and distances are shown in
Table 2. The original quotations of freight rates when expressed in
other units were reduced to cents per 100 pounds in order to facilitate
comparison. The column in Table 2 giving the rates per ton per mile
has been computed in order to compare short-distance with long-
distance shipments on a uniform basis. While in practice distance
frequently has but little to do with cost over a single route, neverthe-
less it is logical to use length of haul as a factor in comparing the cost
of various services of transportation. While it may not cost the
shipper more to send his product 50 miles than to send it 10, the cost
to the carrier is greater for the 50 miles and consequently, from the
carrier’s point of view, the service rendered is greater. Therefore, in
comparing one cost with another, and taking into account service
rendered, the ton-mile rate may be used to advantage. However,
care should be taken in comparing the ton-mile rate between two
points over one route with the corresponding rate between the same
points over a longer or shorter route. Here the actual service
rendered to the owner of the freight is not necessarily greater or less
over the longer route than the short one.

GROUPS OF WATERWAYS.

Water routes are divided in Table 2 into three classes or groups:
The Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, including the Gulf slope, and
the Pacific slope. Under each group the quotations and routes are
arranged in order of distance, beginning with the shortest. Since
the data in Table 2 are not comprehensive enough for satisfactory
averages to be made from them, no such averages are shown here.
The data are, however, complete enough to illustrate costs of trans-
portation over long, medium, and short steamboat routes.

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 18

RAIL AND WATER RATE COMPARED.

Some important routes and commodities are selected for comparing
rail and water rates in Table 3. Between Hartford, Conn., and New
York City the rates on apples, eggs, hay, and potatoes, as well as other
commodities, are the same by rail as by water; that is, the rates paid
by the shippers. Reduced to cents per short ton per mile, the rate
by water appears much less, since the distance by water is 52 miles
oreater than by rail.

Between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh the actual as well as the ton-
mile rates are much lower by water than by rail on the commodities
represented in Table 3. These are not exceptions; lower rates by
water than by rail are general over this route. However, between
Charleston, W. Va., and Cincinnati the steamboat charge per package,
when reduced to an equivalent cents per 100 pounds, indicates higher
rates for apples and eggs by boat than by rail. The rate on hay,
however, by boat over this route is 124 cents per 100 pounds for either
small or large lots, while by rail 22 cents is charged for less than car-
loads and 12 cents per 100 pounds for carloads. For potatoes the
boat charges per package is equivalent to 13 cents per 100 pounds,
while the railroad charges 15 cents for less-than-carload lots and 12
cents per 100 pounds for car lots. The steamboat rate applies to any
quaotity. Bétween Cincinnati and Memphis and between Memphis
and St. Louis the boats quote higher rates than the railroad for eggs,
when the boat rates are reduced from cents per package to cents per
100 pounds. In practically all other rates shown in Table 3 between
Memphis and the two cities just named the charge by water is less
than by rail.

DISTANCE AND TIME OF TRANSIT.

It is convenient to express the average rate of transit in miles per
hour, but it should be distmetly understood that this rate should be
applied to a number of hours-say, 12 or 24—in order to make a satis-
factory application for practical purposes. The rate itself has been
computed by dividing the total number of hours im transit into the
total miles run, and includes allstops at landings. Thus, if an average
rate is given as 4 miles per hour, it means that a day’s run of a vessel,
say, of 12 hours, will cover 48 miles; or, if the rate is only 2 miles per
hour, the day’s run will cover possibly 24 miles; or, with 24 hours for
the unit, a local boat making various landings and averaging 3 miles
per hour will cover a distance of 72 miles in the 24 hours. It will be
noted that the average rate of transit is subject to wide variations,
some as low as 2 miles per hour and some reaching 15. This is gov-
erned partly by the speed of the boat while under way, but largely
by the number of landings made in transit.

14 BULLETIN 74, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NUMBER OF LANDINGS.

To illustrate the influence of the number of landings on the average
rate of speed, Table 5 has been compiled. Between Cincinnati and
Memphis 346 landings are reported over a distance of 749 miles,
making an average of about 2 miles between landings. Between St.
Louis and Memphis 318 landings are reported for 415 miles. Of the
six routes in Table 5 illustrating Mississippi Valley conditions, the —
average distance between landings ranges from 1.30 miles to 3.31
miles.

From Baltimore, Md., to Fredericksburg, Va., a distance of 285
miles, 34 landings are reported. These are all on the Rappahannock
River, extending along a distance of 106 miles, there being an average
of 3.12 miles between landings. From Hartford, Conn., to New York
City there are 12 intermediate landings for a certain line of steamers,
which 12 landings are all on the Connecticut River, and their aver-
age distance apart is 4.33 miles. One of the fastest rates of
transit on inland water routes is between Baltimore and Norfolk, a
distance of 184 miles with but one intermediate stop.

SUMMARY OF RATES OF TRANSIT.

In Table 4 there are 102 routes for which rates of transit are given.
Of these, 15 show an average rate of less than 4 miles an hour, 22
average 4 miles to less than. 6, 19 routes have an average of 6 to
less than 8, and 21 routes an average of 8 and less than 10 miles per
hour, making 62 out of 102 showing from 4 to less than 10 miles per
hour; 25 rates of speed were 10 miles and over, 15 of them from 10 to
less than 12 miles, and 10 rates were 12 miles and over. Of the 50
instances reported for the Mississippi Valley, including the Gulf slope,
29 were rates of 4 to less than 8 miles per hour, 12 rates were less than
4 miles, and 9 were 8 miles and over per hour. On the Atlantic slope
32 out of 43 rates were at least 8 miles per hour and 11 rates were less
than 8 miles per hour. The nine reports from the Pacific slope
showed five instances of 8 to less than 12 miles per hour and four
instances of 4 to less than 8 miles per hour.

FREIGHT RATES AND FARM PRICES.

A practical use of the data compiled in this bulletin is to compare
freight rates with prices. This may be done here, for the sake of
illustration and to indicate the method. For instance, the rate on
apples over a certain 25-mile route in Maine was 15 cents per barrel
in September and October, 1912. The average ferm price for all
apples in the State those months was $1.725 per barrel, making
the freight rate 8.7 per cent, over this specific route, of the farm
price in the whole State for all kinds. For a 24-mile route in New
York, the freight rate happening to be 15 cents per barrel also,

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 15

made 10 per cent of the farm price for the State. In this case the
_ average farm price of apples for New York State was $1.50 per barrel.
While the prices mentioned do not necessarily apply to the actual
commodities carried subject to these rates, both prices and rates are
representative enough to give a fair measure of relationship. These
percentages are as low as 6.67 for a 33-mile route in New York and
as high as 34.25 per cent over a 239-mile route in the Pacific north-
west. In cotton traffic, quotations of the freight rates by boat in
a number of instances range from about 0.9 of 1 per cent of the farm
price to slightly more than 3 per cent, most of the instances noted
showing less than 2 per cent. Eggs are charged from one-half of 1
to as high as 10 per cent of their farm value for water transporta-
tion. Hay, owing to its large bulk as compared with price, is fre-
quently charged from 10 to 40 per cent of its farm price for freight.
Potatoes compare with apples in the percentage of the freight rate,
as based upon the average farm price. For wheat, from 3 to 15
per cent of its farm value is equivalent to the freight rate. The
average farm price meant here is the price received by the farmer
for delivery to shipping point, and does not include freight charge.

TABLE 1.—Receipts of various farm products by water compared with total recetpis, at
selected cities.

[Sources: Baltimore Daily Produce Report, Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, St. Louis Merchants’
Exchange, Memphis Cotton Exchange, and New Orleans Cotton Exchange. ]

Receipts. Receipts.
City, product, and By river. City, product, and By river.
See Total a ae Total
quantity. : Per quantity. Per
Quantity.| cent of Quantity.| cent of
total. total.
Baltimore, Md.1 Cincinnati, Ohio—
Continued.
corn Abushels):
Seles asc 13, 665, 794 |1,100,000 8.0 conn Guushels):
1900 Peanee 4 .--| 10,213,817 {1,500,000 | 14.7 7,763,457 | ' 5,976 | 0.1
IOs cee saas -| 10,428,779 | 400, 000 3.8 1909. 7, 145, 408 5, 682 pal
an skieeiw siz -.-| 14,482,742 | 700,000 4.8 1910 8, 631, 574 3, 590 04
Gh GACOR een 18), 197, 593 | 400,000 3.0 1911 9, 367, 710 4,678 04
Wheat (ashes ae faint ee 1912... 9, 806, 063 2,786 02
tee ar | , 865,044 |1, 700, : ~
ree: 5,821,809 | "600,000 | 10.3 |] *88s (cases) Wael. on aeeillaes
1910 ween een es ee eee 6, 723, 673 2,000, 000 29, 7 Hone TPO MT Dar Nee 519, 652 26, 340 5 1
Oe Sea erseccee 11,088, 586 |2,000, 000 18.0 TOTO MMe: 511.519 39 840 6.4
Lue ae eae : ‘ y
GH) Gobadesosons 12, 488, 385 1, 300, 000 10. 4 LOU uae TI: 605, 131 33, 367 515
Cincinnati, Ohio. . LOLS eect. ses 668, 942 31,072 4.6
ee) ats ieee 156,151| 1,692] 1.1
INN 378, 163 1,254 3 en eyes , , :
1908 BEbBO Bee ROotE 167, 263 3, 093 1.8
‘ 1909 Weeyaeieteve sate, dtare 240, 587 7,174 3.0 ; i
) ONO Mesias 189, 262 3,275 1.7
LOL O ee ce cies arniclsie 521,814 31,036 5.9
TOU ei a cin trees 155, 195 3,139 2.0
a odobodaatarae 293, 204 7,057 2.4 1912 151/238 1 454 1.0
CROCS Tee 378, 524 45, 849 12.1 7 Exton cn Cane A La ss i y i
Catt (aaiaba Hogs | umpet):
2 aS a 274, 520 3, 751 1.4 Seobcbeconese! TCE BO) cL TeD || GLE
1909 Ea enna aa 293, 331 4,474 1.5 1909 SOTHO Se 951,522) 41,034] 4.3
NOLO ES eee) 312, 962 3, 630 1.2 ONO ETc eieein = cicis 838, 850 35, 227 4,2
TOD Tee steels 312,143 3,020 1.0 WOU rene cere 1,135,121 45, 585 4,0
USS ee ais aeeeiae 342, 249 6,343 1.9 OND ya eeencse = 1, 204, 949 49, 367 4.0

1 Receipts at Baltimore “by river” refer to receipts from landings In Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries.

* a ih
16 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 1.—Receipis of various farm producis ly water compared wiih toial receipts, at
selected cittes—Continued,

Receipts. Receipts.
City, product, and By river. City, product, and By river.
se 2 Total ie Total
quantity. Per quantity. Per
Quantity.| cent of Quantity.| cent of
total. total.
Cincinnati, Ohio— St. Louis, Mo.
Continued.
APP (barrels):
Potatoss!\(bushsls): £25) 5b La ee a i 190 Gare ea 306, 192 37,580 | 12.3
90S. 27-5 Fee 2,472,724 | 36,717 1.5 1909 che Senne 317,664 | 62,014] 19.5
Ue ae ae ae 2,012,009 21,597 1.1 19VOU arenes 248, 615 60 . 02
1Q1OR ALE NY 2,394,621 | 60,839 2.5 1911 Le eas 411,808 | 222,563 | 54.0
AON ASS a 2,364, 427 31, 832 13 1912. 5 SAS he 433,891 | 213,531 | 49.2
2,428, 562 31, 407 1.3 APD ES (boxes):
ES SUP OL ett LOSE AT CRG ORS eee aes 97, 295 35 03
485,278 13, 033 257 1909 soe stecraereeteces 70, 350 182 reo.
491, 206 14,713 3.0 1910; ct 135, 730 45 03
508,715 | 18,632 any 1911S sss 104, 995 2,062} 2.0
546,989 | 10,898 2.0 191933 BEB 337, 910 960]. .3
500, 386 12, 236 2.4 || Cattle (oun ;
190823425 Fos 45 1, 293, 564 11,671 9
1909)... steers: 1,418, 005 9,320 Ai
54,717 46 al 1910. Stee ek 1,356, 232 6, 552 25
53,918 143 3 BAS) ie ee ert ges 1, 206, 423 8,073 Sth
48,810 67 BLE LOTR UIE < eae ct 298, 295 8, 422 ~6
48, 902 147 .3 || Cotton, for local use
73, 097 38 ait ales):
1908 2, Juste 128, 452 7,562 5.9
68,798 | 14,064] 20.4 TODO NAS eretieae 108, 257 4,277 | 4.0
64,013 6,742 10.5 LOIOE A Saeee eee 78, 786 3,100 3.9
70, 370 9,832] 14.0 101: oui aie 115, 552 7,469! 6.5
82,122 15, 129 18. 4 1OTO Sears eee, 101, 389 4,140 4,1
75,510 } - 15,059 19.9 || Eggs, for local use
: 2 (oagiete):
4,052,.264 41, 288 1.0 1908 605, 197 28, 869 4.8
4,178,771 34, 603 .8 443, 591 23,929 5.4
1OLO See eset 3, 776, 828 19,714 As) 522, 365 21,961 4,2
TOU cet e a ctecer 3, 946, 681 26, 008 ait 807, 509 22, 485 2.8
LOND Se em nitine ae 3, 235, 605 8, 440 2 615, 741 21,739 3.5
Mice ae ales): ; -
135, 702 490 4 3,199,922 | 108,399 3.4
78, 994 336 4 3,076,065 | 83,399] 2.7
54,421 558 1.0 2,548, 480 60, 343 2.4
52,713 444 8 3, 634, 851 98, 044 27
127, 783 1,083 .8 3,023,739 | 72,778} 2.4
Memphis, Tenn. 724, 781 16, 080 2.2
835,973 | 16,446] 2.0
Cotton stale: 776, 665 14,321 1.8
NGOS ee aeciisee 750,442 | 102,195 13.6 1,024, 402 15, 037 1.5
1900 ree it 984,370 | 101,648 10.3 1,052, 208 14,315 1.4
IGIQ ES emcees oe 785, 485 91,324 11.6
LN fe ee ee 920, 887 98, 376 10.7 19, 047,240 | 1350, 178 1.8
19D es Une cee 969,670 | 107,827 11.1 1908 Seecscadectine 21,372,726 | 1373,040 ier
1910.2 222 -2\- See 19, 642,312 |1 391,512 2.0
New Orleans, La. : TOU: ose ae eee 17,025, 604 | 1 393,018 2.3
(for a ending 19U2 Ferenc aes 30,516, 432 | 1 194, 148 6
Aug. 31). Wool (pone
1908 S252 ao terse: 23,123,340 | 252,350 11
Seiten ae ales): 190922 weve Yeas 22,649, 110 35, 600 2
LOOSE erecta 2,015,071 | 146,516 7.3 UO ese esc 21,044,440 | 211,320 1.0
1909 eee see 2; 107, 956 77, 896 3.7 1911. essere 26,773,770 | 390,840 1.5
1910S ee eres 1,342,112 50, 059 3.7 TOU2. ste eee 23,390,150 | 317,510 1.4
LOD seapocnenaien 1,629, 303 60, 894 3.7
AP ek 1,709, 028 87, 803 5.1

1 Reported in numberof sacks; reduced to bushels by assuming 1 sack to average 2 bushels.

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84 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasLe 4.—Distance and time of transit over selected river routes in the United States
during September and October, 1912.

{Sources: Distances chiefly as reported by the Chief of Engineers, War Department; time of transit as
reported by representatives of steamboats or steamboat lines.]

Route. Miles. | Hours. Dee
< Atlantic slope.
etween—
Newburgh and Wappingers Falls, N. Y...... ‘i 12 1.50 8.0
Same ae Pa., and Billingsport, N.J... P 12 1.00 12.0
New Baltimore and Albany, N. Y ........--- “ 15 1.75 8.6
Newburgh and Poughkeepsie, N.Y ........--.--.-.-2---:es-cee- fat 16 3.00 She
Philadelphia, Pa., and Bridgeport, N.J.......-...0.-- 2c cee cene cence 18 2.00 9.0
Philadelphia and Chester, Pa : Joss osu 8 sec sb oo oe det se eeee nee eee 18 1.50 12.0
Bartfordiand: Middletown, Connse at eae en. ae See ee eee eae 20 2.00 10.0
Burlington, Vt:; and; Plattsburgy No Wi 222 cn see noe see eee 22 1.50 14.7
Gardiner and Bath, Mo ceo. 0 Soke soe cw cate pee eee eee eee 24 2.50 9.6
Newburgh and Haverstraw, IN. oY 255.28 os ee coe ee eeeeee Soee nes 24 4.00 6.0
Jacksonville and Green Cove Springs, Fla...............-.-.--.-------- 30 4.00 7.5
Philadelphia, Pa., and Wilmington, Del................--.--0.0---0--- 31 2.00 15.5
Albany. andi CatskilNiY o-.2. 2. .seses-scs-= cee Cae eee eee 33 3. 50 9.4
Philadelphia, Pa.,and:Trenton, N. Jig. 25 2 ecco seat en ce ee eee 36 3.00 12.0
Burlington and St. Albans Bay, Vt.......----+-ssssseseseeececeereeee, 40 3.50 11.4
Lake George and Baldwin, N. Y ..-........-------.- 1 arms oeat eet te re eee 40 3.00 13:3
Hartford'and Bast Haddam, Conn 2.222.261 2cee snc cm esi eeeeee ne | 41 3.75 10.9
Philadelphia, ‘Pa-, arid.Salem Ne Is ee. dee aoe ee eee 45 4.00 11.2
Philadelphia, Pa:, and Delaware City, Del...........--.--.-.2...-.-0-.- 45 4.00 11.2
Georgetown'and Coriway, 8:0 '.5. <2. 2). See e tenes oe eee eens 46 8.00 5.8
Hartford and Lyme,'Conn <......-c% - eee vn eines e eee eee 49 5.00 9.8
Jacksonvilleand St.cAqpustine: Masse os ve Peers c eee ee eee 58 12.00 4.8
Savannah; Ga;, and! Beatort, SG. sano 5. eee een eee eee eee eee 60 7.00 8.6
Washineton, D.'C., and’ Mount Holly, Vas. 2. 2scstte- nc ee oe ce eeemeee 84 18. 00 4.7
Georgetown, S. C., and Cains Landing—Peedee River .................. 86 24.00 3.6
Philadelphia, Pa., and Frederica; Del. 252-52 4--~ 2-2 - nese eee 90 10. 00 * 9.0
Newburgh and: Troye igh isesc sscc sens oto oee eee nee eee eee 91 11.00 8.3
New: York and Sauverties,. IY. (Y usesc5.- estes eek eee eee eee 98 10. 00 9.8
Kissimmee and Fort Bassenger, Fla ....--..--2---...------s-esceceeee 100 48. 00 2.1
Norfolkand: Richmond |Wiaisese: fo ach ohe fore ee sete ee eee 116 12.00 9.7
Baltimore, Md., and-Philadelphia, Pa....<..----- 00... c.cceneseeeen sen 120 12.00 10.0
Baltimoreiand Salisbury, Md s 2.22. eee ee ee eee ee eee 142 15. 00 9.5
Jacksonville and’ Sanford. bla .. See. oak ee aceon ae eee eee 147 18. 00 2.2
Baltimoreand/ Bristol. Mds.c.. oo ee. 2 ee sees ae eee p ee eee 150 24.00 6.2
Baltimore, Md: /andiSeaford, Delizer..--cac- eee coe eee eee eae 160 16. 00 10.0
Hartford, Conn:, anditlew Worko N.Y .25 2e 05 oe ee ee 162 | : 14.00 3 11.6
Baltimore, Md-;and\Norfolk, Vaeis: & <b eee aes see eee ee ene ee 184 { 1 of Ed 1 ee
Baltimore, Md., and West Point, Vaio. -w222).-a- doss0- a--i-2 i eee ces 195 15.00 12.0
Savannahand Aurusta, Ga. 25: oo.0cb 3 bese eae cee a eee zie 202 84.00 2.4
Baltimore, Md., and Wappabannocks Wa. sek ocean webb cere cece een 225 17.00 13.2
Baltimore, Md., and Wredericksburg, Vaso nc8 a. - oe oe aac eee eee 285 40. 00 7.1
Macon and’ Branswictk; Ga 21/5226 sce ens ocien ia eee ee ee eee ee 370 36. 00 10.3
Mississippi River and tributaries, including Gilf slope.
Between— ;
Memphis, Tenn., and Mount City, Ark 4 1.00 4.0
Shawneetown and Cave in Rock, Ill .........-...sescsesseeeeee 25 6.00 4.2
Charleston and Montgomery, W. Va...........--..---0---0-0-e : 28 20. 00 : 2.8
Cairo; TIL, and Paducah pkey - oo is)\ct- ees eee eer eereeoae 26 45 { 3 z a jie
Lake Charles and Cameron, La 53 7.00 7.6
Alfonand Hambures tee bes 5. eee eeiene seer oem eeee 54 : 30. 00 ; 1.8
Charleston, W. Va., and Gallipolis, Obio.......00..00.0.:::eseeeeeee aa] OA emai ee
Memphis, Tenn., and White Hall, Ark............ 65 12.00 5.4
Albany and Bainbridge, Ga.......... = 69 12.00 5.8
Shawneetown and Rosiclare, Ill...... 76 10. 00 7.6
New Orleans and Donaldsonville, La. 79 18. 00 4.4
St. Louis, Mo.,and Rip Rap, Ill........-.. 5 90 48. 00 1.9
St. Lonis; Mo.; and Hlamibure aml oo. yt te oe ones eee en arte 90 48. 00 1.9
Vicksburg and Natchez; Miss ee 2 oo oc seniets an are init, S scan en ioe anes 100 36. 00 2.8
Chattanooga and Kingston, Tenn...............-.--.-- 2-2-2 ++ eee nnncee 104 40. 00 2.6
Momphis, Tenn., arid Priar Point; Miss-2 25ers ae eee 105 12. 00 8.8
St,-Louis and. Lowisiana Mos aier. wn\<,. on, e seitorcie ie ora miet eta clpiclet enti eee 107 12+) % 8.9
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Louisville, Ky. . 2.222.250... ne See eee ne eee an 128 {1 3 a ae
Evansville, Ind:, and Paducal, Ky: 22a sc ~ ic horn oe ener eee 137 36. 00 3.8
Britte Landing, Tenn., and Paducah, Kyo... cst se ee cjec's leone neat 138 24. 00 5.8
Chattanooga, Tenn., and Decatur, Ala..............22-0- eee ee ene cceee 160 96. 00 RY
Apalachicola, Fla;, and Bainbridge, 'Ga..- 0.2 <5. 2. - co setnce semen cae ret > 78 18. 00 — 10.8
Evansville, Ind., and Louisville, Ky. ..:.-....------s-cceeeeceecerecsees | 185 30. 00 6.2

' These quotations are from different boats. 2 Downstream. 8 Upstream.

—

INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 35

TasBLEe 4.—Distance and time of transit over selected river routes in the United States
during September and October, 1912—Continued.

Route. Miles. | Hours. ents
Mississippi River and tributaries, including Gulf slope—Continued.
Between—
Bowling Green, Ky., and Evansville, Ind..-.....--.-.-.....---.+------ 190 30. 00 6.3
Bialowisy Mouand Peoria, Bei. fe oe cee cae wscetie ss seis bible cece 200 30. 00 6.7
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Parkersburg, W. Va......-.---.---.--- eee eee eee 200 24. 00 8.3
Memphis, Tenn., and Arkansas City, Ark.....-..-.---.----0---.------- 209 30. 00 7.0
MODUOADG Demopoliss Ala: ets eee ek baacesoleickelavcce oleae 230 48. 00 4.8
New Orleans and Bayou Teche, La...........-.---...---------- 1240 40. 00 6.0
Memphis, Tenn., and Cairo, Ill.....-. 254 38. 00 6.7
Charleston, W. Va., and Cincinnati, Ohio 263 48. 00 5.5
Memphis, Tenn.,and Paducah, Ky........-.-.-----.------ 299 46. 00 6.5
Moabileaud Selma Alas: SC yee e ele ee oe eee 308 : 72. 00 4.3
Charleston Wie Va., and Pittsburgh, Pay. 2522525 2.02.2. essss2s es) - 2 325 { 3 a ne Ane
New Orleans and Harrisonburg, La-..........---..-.- 340 150. 00 2.3
Columbus, Ga., and Apalachicola, Fla... 340 132. 00 2.7
Vicksburg Miss.,and Memphis, Tenn............--..--....--- age 370 72. 00 5.1
St. Paul, Minn., and Davenport, Iowa...........---..--2--.2----------- 378 4 60. 00 6.3
CATISASIC IY pA St lsOWUIS 5 MOlsta oar er ais cisecr sie miclsaicieintes eeinwicietemicins csi 407 { 8 ae a ; ie
Memphis, Tenn., and St. Louis, Mo...............-.2..22202-2 22 eee eee 415 72. 00 5.8
NiewsOrleans) va; and) Carriola, Anko o.. 2.50253. tele te eee ccc cece 446 84. 00 5.3
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Pittsburgh, Pa..........-......---------- 2-0 eee 470 84. 00 5.6
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Memphis, Tenn....-...............-------------- 749 108. 00 6.9
Pacific slope.
Between—

Kennewick and White Bluff, Wash ...............-.---2ceee cece eee eee 42 8.00 5.2
iBrewstonand. Wenatchee, Wash 2.0.25 ces es tense ote loecee eens 70 { aoe a eae
Wenatchee and Bridgeport, Wash............--.---------+-------------- 79 { GH a Boas
San Francisco and Walnut Grove, Cal..........--------.-.-------- 2. 80 8.00 10.0
Sansunaneiscoand stockton, Calas. Nose een cee Soc elwe cs es eee 94 12.00 7.8
San Francisco and Sacramento, Cal.......-..-.--.-----.---2-222---2----- 112 12.00 9.3
Kennewick, Wash., and Portland, Oreg.-............-.-.-------------- 239 30. 00 8.0

1Boat routes from New Orleans to St. Martinsville range from 174 to 257 miles.
2 Downstream.
3 Upstream.

TaBiEe 5.—Number of intermediate landings and average distance between landings over
selected routes.

Number
of interme- Se tnee
Route. diateland-| Miles. erent
_ings, as :
rep orted. ‘ landings.
Between—

Cincinnati, Ohio, and Memphis, Tenn.......................-.- 346 749 2.16
St. Louis, Mo.,and Memphis, Tenn...........-.--s0s0eceee eee 318 415 1.30
St. Louis, Mo.,and Waterloo, Ala............2-2-..2-0.-------0- 267 613 1.91
Apalachicola, Fla.,and Columbus, Ga............--.--.-------- 246 360 1.46
Pittsburgh, Pa.,and Cincinnati, Ohio...............-....----.- 141 470 3.31
Evansville, Ind.,and Bowling Green, Ky...-........-..-----.-- 71 190 2. 64
Baltimore, Md.,and Fredericksburg, Va..........-....-.------- 34 285 { 1 ee
Hartford, Conn., and New York, N. Y.:........-.-.---.---+..-- 12 162 { are a
Baltimore, Md., and Seaford, Del........22.0..-..-22222s00000e 12 160 Nea
Baltimore, Mid: and Norfolk VWias: 2.252 2ee eee ss cin mere ih 184 92.00

1 Average for part of route on which the group of intermediate landings are located. Distances: Hart-
ford to mouth of Connecticut River, about 52 miles; Fredericksburg to mouth of Rappahannock River,

about 106 miles; Seaford to mouth of Nanticoke River, about 41 miles.

36 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. «~

TaBLe 6.—Summary of average rates of speed of steamboats on inland waterways.

Number of average rates reported.

Rate, miles per hour. Mississippi
Atlantic | Valley, in-| Pacific

slope. | eluding | slope. | 70tl.
Gulf slope. :
LM OSSp Are Tie 2 BES ee eS Se Re ee eee ae ee one ce 3 12 oO 15
Rand Jess tAnG 22 Ste as so se FS onan osenc omer cues 4 15 3 22
DRESS Re NCS Sas Ta eee nS ep ronTe Eee aeynety eS) 4 14 1 19
ETE WES Ree TOES ES Se eee eS Rea 2 13 5 3 21
S@and less (ata 5 Bee a ome oh ec nd some anmenre meee 9 4 2 ue
1Rand overieseee | Awe ee wa sons none ss -acinann de doe aaneeee 10 0 0 10
Totals oo on ~ Seta sen i axasa ae Uaaenoae acne 43 50 9 102

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WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1914

BULLETIN OF THE

GB) USDEPARIMENT OF AGRCULIRE

No. 75

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
April 8, 1914.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION; POLLINATION
STUDIES.

By C. VY. Pirer, Agrostologist in Charge, and Morean W. Evans, Rotanp McKez,
and W. J. Morss, Scientific Assistants, Forage-Crop Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

For a number of years past it has been a conspicuous fact that in.
sections where alfalfa seed is grown commercially the yield varies
greatly from season to season. Particularly striking examples of
this variation in yield have occurred in the Milk River Valley of
Montana, where in some seasons yields of 10 to 12 bushels per acre
have been obtained, while in other years the crop was almost a
complete failure. It has been generally supposed that the visit of
certain insects to the flowers is absolutely necessary in order to
effect pollmation. In accordance with this belief, some have held
that small crops of alfalfa seed were due to an unsatisfactory number
of pollinating insects, while others have suggested that thrips or
other destructive agencies might be accountable. .

In view of the importance of the matter to alfalfa seed growers,
investigations of this subject were undertaken, beginning with the
season of 1906. These investigations have been conducted during
subsequent seasons at various stations and have resulted in the
accumulation of a mass of data which throw new light on the sub-
ject. Incidentally they have revealed the fact that the problem
is much more complex than had been anticipated, and there is need
of much further work, especially in the careful correlation of cli-
matic data, as well as the abundance of insects, with the seed yields
from season to season. The factssherein set forth substantiate the
previous belief in the importance Gf insect visitors, but also show
that, under certain climatic conditions, automatic self-pollination of
_ the flower takes place. The amount of self-pollination varies from
season to season and with individual plants. Whether self-pollination
is sufficient to produce satisfactory seed yields is still a matter of
doubt, but the observations at Chinook, Mont., indicate that at that,
locality this is the most probable explanation.

Nore.—This bulletin deals with the biological problems concerned in the pollination and fecundation
of the alfalfa flower. It is intended primarily for technical agronomists and botanists.

23437°—14_1.

2 BULLETIN 75, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Observations at the same place also indicate that the factors or
conditions which favor seed production vary during the season, as
shown by the distribution of pods on mature plants. For instance,
in the latter part of August, 1910, a great many plants could be found
on which the earliest racemes to develop in the spring, located at the
base of the plant, produced large numbers of pods. A little higher ~
on the plant most of the flower stalks were almost or entirely bare
of pods. Still higher on the stem there were a number of large,
well-filled clusters of pods, indicating that for a period of two weeks
or more preceding August 20 a very large proportion of the flowers
had developed pods. Near the tip of the stems nearly all of the
flowers fell off, leaving the stem almost bare of pods. It is probable
that this variation in seed production at different periods during
the season was due, directly or indirectly, to climatic conditions.

At Arlington farm, Virginia, it has frequently been observed that a
large eet of the pods fail to set, even when the flowers have
been artificially tripped. While this is especially true of the flowers
of the first crop of alfalfa, it seems to be due more to adverse climatic
conditions than to the vigor of the plants.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STRUCTURE AND POLLINATION
OF THE ALFALFA FLOWER.

According to Urban, the peculiar structure of the alfalfa flower
by which it trips, or explodes, when visited by certain insects was
known in the time of Linneus. The first explanation of the process
of explosion is apparently that of De Candolle,' in 1832. De Candolle
states that the explosion of the flower takes place when a certain
stage of its maturity is reached.

Hildebrand,” in 1866, gives a brief general account of the structure
of the alfalfa flower, comparing it with both Indigofera and Cytisus.
He clearly recognizes that the peculiar mechanism of the flower is
an adaptation for pollination by insects, but states that inclosed
flowers finally trip in the course of their development without the
help of insects. Apparently he considers that fertilization may also
take place in untripped flowers, as the pollen may fall on the stigma.
His observations were made in Germany.

In November, 1865, Henslow* presented a paper before the Lin-
neeai Society of London, which, however, was not published until
1867. Hensiow studied carefully the structure of the alfalfa flower
with a view of locating the explosive force. This he attributed to
the elasticity of the stamineal tube, but he was uncertain whether the

‘Candolle,A.P.de. P ays iologie Végétale, t. 2, Paris, 1832, p. 548.

* Hilde} rand, ©. Ueber die Vorrichtungen an einigen Bliithen zur Befruchtung durch Insektenhiilfe.
Botants che Ze itung, Jahre. 24, No. 10,p. 75, 1866.

* Hounslow, George. Note on the structure of Medicago sativa, as apparently affording facilities for the
intercrossing o! « distis wt flowers. Journal, Linnean Society, Botany, v. 9, p. 327-329, 1867.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 3

curvature is due to the contraction of the cells on the upper side or
the distension of those on the convex side. After the explosion of
the flower he states that the tube can not be straightened to its
original position without causing a transverse fracture. No simi-
lar elasticity was found in the free filament or in the pistil, but the
tendency of the keel to open laterally was noted. Henslow also
observed honeybees gathering nectar from alfalfa flowers, but in no
instance observed by him was the bee able to trip the flower. He
also mentions that he did not see bumblebees visiting the flowers.
These observations were made in England.

In the same year Delpino described the structure and mechanism
of the alfalfa flower. He apparently considered the explosive force
due to the irritability of the stamineal tube. Hildebrand ' criticizes
this conclusion and points out that the explosion is due to the ten-
sion of the upper filaments in the stamineal tube. He agrees, how-
ever, that, after tripping, insects are barred from reaching the nectary.

Urban,” in 1873, refers to some of the preceding literature and
gives a detailed description of the corolla and of the explosive mech-
anism. According to his observations, only bees bring about pol-
lination, although butterflies are frequent visitors. In rare cases
untripped flowers were found to form pods and seeds. Shortly after
the flower has been tripped the opening to the nectary is closed by
the drooping of the edges of the standard.

In the same year Miller? gave an extended description of the
alfalfa flower, together with excellent figures, in which the whole -
mechanism is clearly explained. The elastic tension of the stamineal
column is mainly in the upper stamens, as can be determined by
dividing the upper ones from the lower. The former then show
much greater curvature. Muller gives a considerable list of insects,
including the honeybee and numerous butterflies, which he had
observed sucking nectar from the flowers, but states that he never
succeeded in seeing the explosion of the flower actually performed
by insects, though he watched for it frequently. He also states
that self-pollination in untripped flowers does occur, citing Hil-
debrand’s work as confirmatory. Miller also calls attention to
certain imperfections of the mechanism of the flower, namely, that
nectar secretion continues to take place after the flower is exploded,
thus continuing to attract insects without obtaining any additional
benefit, and, second, that bees and butterflies can obtain the nectar
by inserting the proboscis on one side of the untripped flower, which
under no circumstances results in tripping.

1 Hildebrand, F. H. G@. ¥ederigo Delpino’s Beobachtungen iiber die Bestéubungsvorrichtungen bei
den Phanerogamen. Botanische Zeitung, Jahrg. 25, No. 36, p. 283, 1867.

2Urban, I. Prodromus einer Monographie der Gattung Medicago L. Verhandlungen, Botanischer
Verein, Provinz Brandenburg, Jahrg. 15, p. 13-16, 1873.

’ Miller, Hermann. Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten und die gegenseitigen Anpassungen
beider. Leipzig, 1873, 478 p., 152 fig.

4 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Henslow' in discussing self-fertility in Medicago sativa wrote as
follows:
This plant, when protected, yielded seeds, as compared with unprotected, in the

ratio of 101:77. Hence it is highly self-fertile, though specially modified, in oe
“irritable” stamens, for cross-fertilization.

This note of Henslow has been cited by later writers, but it is
really an erroneous abstract from Darwin’s discussion of Medicago
lupulina. Darwin? writes as follows:

Medicago lupulina (Leguminose). On account of the danger of losing the seeds,
I was forced to gather the pods before they were quite ripe; 150 flower-heads on
plants visited by bees yielded pods weighing 101 grains; while 150 heads on pro-
tected plants yielded pods weighing 77 grains. The inequality would probably have
been greater if the mature seeds could have been all safely collected and compared.

As Henslow’s paper is primarily a review of Darwin’s book, it is
clear from the two quotations that Henslow erroneously wrote
“sativa” in place of ‘‘lupulina.”’ This is rendered the more certain
as Henslow in his earlier paper on Medicago satwa had referred to
Darwin’s work in a footnote, where the data are properly stated to
apply to Medicago lupulina.

In 1895 appeared a paper by Burkill,? who reviews the principal
contributions to this subject by previous writers and adds important
new observations and-experiments. He verifies the conclusions of
earlier investigators that the explosive action of the flower depends
on the uppermost stamens of the stamineal tube. Burkill obtained
no pods in a considerable number of flowers covered with nets to
prevent insect visits, for which phenomenon he presents an interesting
explanation:

Pollen is shed in the bud and lies round the stamens and stigma in a little lens-
shaped space made by the carina. . . . No seeds are set in the unexploded
flower in spite of the pollen in contact with the stigma. This is explained by the
fact that the stigma does not become receptive until rubbed or until its cells are
injured in some manner. My proof is, I think, conclusive. Firstly, the stigma
appears not to be moist, but when rubbed on glass leaves a sticky mark. Secondly,
I have caused flowers to set seed though unexploded, (1) by pinching the stigma
through the keel, (2) by perforating the keel and rubbing the stigma with a stiff paint
brush, and (3) by cutting off the tip of the keel and rubbing the stigma with a stiff
paint brush. An insect visitor exploding the flower will injure the stigmatic papille
and bring about fertilization.

Burkill gives a list of 31 insects which he observed visiting alfalfa
flowers in and near Cambridge, England. In no case did he see a
butterfly causing the flower to trip, but on one hot afternoon he

1 Henslow,George. Ontheself-fertilization of plants. Transactions, Linnean Society, London, Botany,
8.2, Vv. 1, pt. 6, p. 361, 1879.
, 2 Darwin, Charles. The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. New York,
877, p. 368.
3 Burkill, I. H. On the fertilization of some species of Medicago L.in England Proceedings, Cambridge
Philosophical Society, v. 8, pt. 3, p. 142-147, 1894.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 5

watched a bumblebee tripping the flowers in great numbers and on
two occasions observed honeybees doing the same thing.

In artificially tripped flowers Burkill found that 12 out of 34
tripped set seed; 50 flowers from which the standard had been
removed were artificially tripped and none set seed. The impact on .
the standard, Burkill believes, ruptures the stigma sufficiently to
insure fertilization in about one-third of the cases. Burkill’s inter-
esting data on the tripping of alfalfa flowers when vertical force is
applied to the tip of the keel are quoted in full on page 27 of this
paper.

Hunter! conducted observations on the relation of the number of
seeds per pod in alfalfa as correlated with the proximity of domestic
honeybees. He evidently assumes that honeybees are capable of
pollinating the flowers, but he does not record, any observations of
his own on this point. Pods were compared from two fields, one
within half a mile of a large apiary, the other 25 miles distant from
any domestic bees, none of which were observed in the latter field.
Of pods taken half a mile from a large apiary, 87 contained 482 seeds,
or 5.58 per pod; 80 pods taken 25 miles distant from any colony of
domestic bees produced 268 seeds, or 3.35 per pod.

Kirchner,’ after pointing out that the data on the self-fertilization
of alfalfa are contradictory, gives results of his own experiments at
Hohenheim, Germany. Of exposed clusters of blossoms, 54 on two
plants with 432 blossoms produced, August 23, 208 pods, which,
though they were not perfectly ripe, showed that they contained
636 well-developed seeds. On the other hand, 21 covered clusters
of blossoms on the same plants with 166 blossoms produced only 2
pods with 3 seeds. He concludes that alfalfa flowers are self-sterile,
and suggests that Henslow’s results were due to some experimental
error.

Westgate,? in 1906, presented a brief review of the work of Henslow,
Urban, Burkill, and Kirchner, calling attention to the disagreements
in the results of different investigators and pointing out the need of
further studies.

Fruwirth* found that inclosed plants occasionally formed a few
pods at Vienna, Austria.

Roberts and Freeman® have recorded results of alfalfa pollination
experiments at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Great

1 Hunter, S.J. Alfalfa, grasshoppers, bees: their relationship. University of Kansas, Department of
Entomology, contribution 65, p. 84, 1899.

2 Kirchner, O. Uber die Wirkung der Selbstbestéubung bei den Bapiicnaceert Naturwissenschaft-
liche Zeitschrift fur Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Jahrg. 3, Heft 1, p. 9-10, 1905.

8 Westgate,J.M. A method of breeding a strain of alfalfa from a single individual. American Breeders’
Association, Proceedings, v. 2, p. 65-67, 1906.

4Fruwirth, Carl. Die Ziichtung der Landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen. Bd. 3, Berlin, 1906, p. 189.

5 Roberts, H. F., and Freeman, G. F. Alfalfa breeding: materials and methods. Kansas Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin 151, p. 79-109, 14 fig., 1908.

6 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

differences were observed among individual plants as regards seed
production. Of seven plants which showed marked differences in
this respect, five were classified as “strong” and two as “weak.”
When these plants were inclosed in screens to exclude pollinating
insects the same tendencies remained evident, two of the plants
producing pods and seeds in much greater numbers than the others.

In a second series of plants inclosed in screens and self-pollinated
by hand the percentage of pods to flowers pollinated varied on differ-
ent plants from 5.5 per cent to 65.4 per cent, and in one exceptional
instance 115 per cent. In this last case some flowers evidently
formed pods without hand pollination. A single plant was inclosed
in a wire cage to exclude insects. On one half the stems the flowers
were self-pollinated by hand and produced 97 pods containing 118
seeds. The other half, not hand pollinated, produced 37 pods con-
taining 59 seeds. .

In another experiment the investigators inclosed one half of each
of five plants in a screen cage, leaving the other half exposed to natural
conditions of pollination. The flowers inclosed in the cage were self-
pollinated by hand; those outside the cage were naturally pollinated,
but not necessarily cross-pollinated by insects, as assumed. The
results they obtained are shown in Table I. A remarkable feature
is the extraordinarily large proportion of sterile pods recorded.

TaBLE I.—Results of naturaland of artificial pollination of alfalfa, at Manhattan, Kans.,
by Roberts and Freeman.

Bods prosdueie Number of seeds.
Method of| Weight | Num- | Num-

Plant. pollina- | ofstems | ber of | ber of Per 10

: tion. (grams). | stems. | pods. Wingriee| “TBas Pro- |Average} grams
ber. cent. | duced. | per pod. | weight of

plant
No. 29 este 49. 87 11 255 30] 11.76 61 2.03 12.2
PUTAS BEE AEE Hand.... 35. 63 9 272 12 4, 41 14 1.17 3.9
No. 38 Insects 103. 88 12 327 91] 27.82 164 1. 80 15.7
(ECG aerocingigs carci Hand 114. 00 18 279 164] 58.77 236 1.44 20.7
No.97 (ee 28. 50 8 239 65 | 27.19 67 1.03 23.5
HOI som secss soo ia12 Hand 37. 00 20 608 103 | 16.94 128 1.24 34.6
No. 98 Insects 85. 50 11 449 228 | 50.78 451 1.96 52.7
CBee ogee and. 64, 13 8 779 571 7.30 70 1,22 10.9
No. 109 Insects. . - 14.00 6 198 67 | 33.83 96 1. 43 68.5
HUE cine 1858 96 oe Hand.... 14.00 8 311 180 | 57.87 239 1.32 170.7
: Insects...] 281.75 48 | 1,468 481 | 32.76 839 1.74 20.7
Summary. .... (Hand. 264. 76 63 | 2) 249 516} 22.49 687 1.33 25.9

Brand and Westgate! give a brief discussion of the relation of
insects to the production of alfalfa seed. These authors assert that
‘insect visitors are essential to the proper pollination of the alfalfa
flower.’ They state that bumblebees are the most efficient of all
insects in tripping the flowers and hence bring about pollination.

1 Brand, C.J.,and Westgate,J.M. Alfalfa in cultivated rows for seed production in semiarid regions.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 24, 23 p., 3 fig., 1909.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 7

Honeybees are not nearly so effective as bumblebees, but should not
be underrated in this connection, while bees of the genera Andrena
and Megachile and various butterflies are also valuable agents in
pollinating alfalfa flowers.

Results are also given showing the seed production of plants whose
flowers were artificially tripped in comparison with untreated plants.
At Arlington farm, Virginia, artificial tripping resulted in an increased
production of 25.5 per cent, while at Chico, Cal., an increase of 129
per cent of pods was obtained.

Piper,‘ in a report of the American Breeders’ Association committee
on forage crops relating to the breeding of alfalfa, gives an epitome of
the answers of members to various subjects of inquiry, five of which
relate to pollination. The answers are diverse, some of them based
on experiment and careful observations and others more or less
expressions of opinion.

Westgate ? records that he observed over 500 visits of honeybees
to alfalfa flowers, the flower being tripped in but one case.

Wildermuth * records with some doubt that he has seen the butter-
fly of the alfalfa caterpillar (Hurymus eurytheme) trip alfalfa flowers.
In a personal interview he states that he observed five or six indi-
viduals trip the flowers during one season, but has not seen it since,
though he has frequently watched the butterflies. This butterfly is
very common on alfalfa throughout the Western States.

It will be noted from the brief reviews given that investigators have
differed as to their conclusions on several points in connection with
the pollination of the alfalfa flower. The most important questions
that affect the problem of seed yield left in doubt are the following:

1. To what extent are the flowers self-fertile?
. Is cross-pollination more effective than self-pollination?
. Do alialfa flowers trip automatically?
. Do untripped flowers form pods and seeds?

. Is the rupturing of the stigma essential to its becoming receptive?
6. To what extent do honeybees trip alfalfa flowers?

or B® WwW b

In the investigations reported in this paper will be found abundant
data which go far to clear up the discrepancies in previous work.

STRUCTURE OF THE ALFALFA FLOWER.

The structure of the alfalfa flower has been described and illustrated
in detail by Hermann Miller and other writers. The most interesting
feature is the explosive apparatus which functions to facilitate polli-
nation and under proper conditions to favor cross-pollination. The

IPiper,C. V. Alfalfa and its improvement by breeding. American Breeders’ Association, Report, v. 5,
1908/09, p. 94-115 1909.

2Westgate, J. M. Methods of breeding alfalfa by selection. American Breeders’ Association, Report,
v. 5, 1908/09, p. 147, 1909.

8 Wildermuth, V.L. The alfalfa caterpillar. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology,
Circular 133, p. 1, 1911.

$ BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

essential parts of the mechanism (fig. 1) are the tension of the stamin-
eal tube, which is held from contracting by two opposite restraining
lateral processes on the inside of the keel. These processes are really

Fic. 1.—Alfalfa flower (much enlarged). The left-hand figure shows an optical section of the flower,
indicating the position of the stamineal column before and after tripping. The upper right-hand
figure gives a view from above of an untripped flower with the calyx and standard removed; the
lower right-hand figure, the same after tripping.

invaginations, on the outside occurring as depressions. Each of the
wing petals is provided with two fingerlike processes, one extending
forward and the other backward. The anterior process of each wing
fits into the depression on the same side of the keel, and the two wings

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 9

‘thus serve to strengthen the keel. Contrary to Miller’s statement,
both of the wings can, by exercising great care, be removed without
tripping the flower, thus showing that their function is purely sec-
ondary. ‘The posterior processes of the wing meet on top of the
stamineal column. They can have but little, if any, effect in confin-
ing the column in position, as Henslow supposed, for the reason above
stated, namely, that their removal is not necessarily followed by
explosion. The keel is not purely passive, but its basal tissues are
under a lateral tension which tends to pull it open, as Henslow first
observed. ‘This tension is restrained by the pressure of the stamineal
tube against the two internal knobs. If both the apex and the base
of the stamineal column are severed by a razor, so that pressure is
removed from the keel, the latter will open automatically. If the
edges of the keel are again brought together, they open as soon as
the restraining force is removed. In an uninjured flower a very
slight separation of the edges of the keel, and consequently of the
restraining knob, will release the tense stamineal column. Heavy
insects, like bumblebees, may do this by their combined weight and
pressure on the tip of the keel, but usually it is accomplished by the
insect’s proboscis separating ever so slightly the. upper posterior
edges of the keel. This may be done directly, but more commonly
by spreading apart the two posterior processes of the wings and thus
indirectly spreading the keel. The terminal part of the keel, not-
withstanding the cohesion of the two petals, has little influence to
prevent tripping, as, with the inclosed stamineal tube and style, it
can be cut off with a razor without releasing the explosive mechanism.

As shown by Henslow, and perhaps earlier by Delpino, the elastic
tension lies entirely in the coalesced filaments of the nine anthers
and not at aliin the style. With care the style can be severed atthe
base without affecting the tripping movements, as Henslow pointed
out.

After tripping, the opening to the nectary is almost closed by the
upcurved stamineal tube, but insects continue to visit tripped flowers
until the wilting of the petals makes the closure complete.

The occurrence of this explosive mechanism is not unique in. the
alfalfa flower, but is found in at least 20 other species of Medicago
which have been examined in this connection. In yellow or sickle
alfalfa the stamineal column is relatively much shorter, but the
mechanism is the same. It is also very well developed in Medicago
scutellata, M. rugosa, M. turbinata, M. rigidula, VM. cihharis, and WM.
echinus. It is less noticeable in some other annual species, because
the stamineal column is shorter and not exposed when tripped, as in
alfalfa and the species just mentioned. Other genera in which
tripping mechanisms occur are Alysicarpus, Trigonella, Indigofera,
and Genista.

28437°—14——-2

an a '

10 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RELATION OF TRIPPING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEED.

In order to obtain more abundant data in regard to the relation
of tripping to the production of pods and seeds, the experiment here
described was conducted:

On selected plants, approximately two-thirds of the branches were
inclosed in fine-meshed mosquito-bar tents to prevent insects from -
having access to the flowers. Tarlatan was the material used for
the netting. The meshes averaged 25 to the linear inch, thus being
from one-half to one-third finer meshed than ordinary mosquito
bar, which was thought to be too coarse to exclude the smaller insects
which might gain access. The remaining stems of each plant were
left outside the tent, where the flowers could develop under natural
conditions. On both portions of the plant a number of racemes were
marked, each with a tag, and numbered. All unopened flower buds
and all wilted or tripped flowers were cut off from each of these
racemes, leaving only the fresh, open, and untripped flowers. The
flowers on approximately one-half of the marked racemes inside the
netting were artificially tripped. . This was done usually by means of
a slender alfalfa stem or grass stem, pushed down between the keel
and the standard. On some of the plants used in this experiment, a
separate stem was used for each flower, so as to exclude pollen from
other flowers, while on other plants the same stem was used to trip
several flowers on the same plant. The flowers were fertilized in all
cases, therefore, with pollen from the same flower or with pollen of
other flowers on the same plant. The flowers on the remaining
racemes inside of the netting tent were allowed to develop without
being tripped through the visit of insects or by any artificial agency.

This experiment was carried out at Pullman, Wash., in 1908, 1909,
and 1910; at Chico, Cal., in 1908 and 1909; at Arlington farm, Vir-
ginia, in 1908; at Chinook and Havre, Mont., in 1909; and at New
London, Ohio, in 1912. The summarized results are shown in
Table IT.

TaBLE I1.—Pods and seeds produced by alfalfa flowers on the same plants, free and pro-
tected from insects.

A.—OUTSIDE NETTING: FLOWERS DEVELOPED UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS.

Total Total Blowers Average

Waar Blancs Number | number | Number |} number bearin number

, * of plants. of of pods. of aa 8 | ofseeds

flowers. seeds. Bou per pod.

Per cent

AOS eersee ns <a Sralene Teqouibery:S0le yf aaa 7 633 155 4 24. 2. 74
CHICG a erate Hes cleea aye 15 3, 474 321 681 9. 24 2.12
ATUINE TON. seis cr mee. 1 80 35 31 43. 75 - 88
UY ats sien odie bows ba Panlnianls 5 oes os <3 15 1, 468 480, }, 730 32. 69 3. 60
(G) cite (of Ape es aa 10 944 143 320 15.14 2. 23

ELGWIC: Joma wees = 9 366 La Ge RSD UAE oe ee

CHICO eo osc beele cis ote 8 1,589 228! \eeeakivnse Wa Saale blselaielie
UAlOes ecole sc aud ass 3 Lcgoithect: 11S) Saeeey yee 228 30 38 13.15 1. 26

NOU Zsa Pate attetiate = 2's New London........ 6 157 56 105 35. 66 1

Mictalimmeuetn store ied ont. edie 77 8, 939 | 1, 499 EBs (euevaaa ate | CaS

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 11

TABLE II. mae and seeds produced by alfalfa flowers on the same plants, free and pro-
tected from imsects—Continued.

B.— INSIDE NETTING: FLOWERS NOT TRIPPED EITHER ARTIFICIALLY OR BY INSECTS.

Total Total Flowers | Average

Year Place Number | number | Number | number | }oa;ing | BUmber

: i of plants. of of pods. of ade of seeds

flowers. seeds. | P per pod.

Per cent

TOOSES eo ees Seas Pullman...........- 7 651 25 29 3. 84 1.16
CHICO ee nae as 15 4,116 157 230 3. 81 1. 46

Arlington.........-. 1 BIA ee Cee cc SSeS Ae [SAP en cia Arte Meets
TO ee cic clad os ale Pullman............ 15 1,500 131 357 8.73 2.72
Chinook............. 10 1,186 138 282 11.63 2.04

AVEC ace ania es 53 9 535 BOK Be pjalete bio’ BGO) eee eneaee
Chicora ee eee 8 832 AD eceiie saree SOs |e ee eS
DONO eianiereapicieje ss Pullman..........-. 6 314 12 22 3. 82 1.83
Tey Ae ae Saar New London........ 6 169 il 11 6. 50 1.00
GN CYRENLS Oe) Sees] ears ors ane a 77 9, 340 519 OSilen Base ee ope ey sae ae
AWOIRISEE UG Re SIRS SABRE CS SO SUeA SO Se ol ROBOE SO rCs CC OMAOEOEE SS Fe Shoes Paice e acre 5.55 1.78

—INSIDE NETTING: FLOWERS ARTIFICIALLY TRIPPED
{

GOSS A eee! Ane Pullmaneencesses eee 7 576 148 205 25. 67 1.38
CHICOnee eee us 15 4, 229 1,086 1,908 25. 67 1.75
Arlington..........-. 1 22 7 31. 81 1.30
L909 eiececces sees oe Bullmane see ease ee 15 1,379 599 1, 783 43. 43 2.97
Chinook..........-.- 10 830 370 681 44. 57 1. 84
Havretsey ewe fo 9 337 Or esha 30586) |Peeeeeeeee

Chico eee ea 8 1, 250 SAO Me leone 27560) Sas
NOLO eae ce cekieks IB ollbreio ee Goontanes 6 296 75 103 25. 33 1.37
ihe) OSA ee eee New London.......- 6 155 50 91 32. 25 1. 80
FIMO ee So CNS | erate Sy ae Pen 77 9,074 2, 784 4780) ode seus ale ce oae wanes
PASVCT ASC mayne Nal Oe ee ice [ey weute cual Mine 'a cs alata a a elsistalajen oiell tcleste alte wi 30. 68 1.72

In Table IT there are no data to indicate what percentage of flowers
actually tripped by insects or other natural agencies form pods.
Data on this point were secured by observations at Pullman, Wash.,
in 1908. Flowers which had been tripped naturally were marked by
putting a drop of insoluble drawing ink on the calyx of each. The
racemes were then inclosed in netting to prevent other insect visits.
The results are shown in Table III.

TaBLeE I11.—Pods and seeds produced from alfalfa flowers tripped under natural conditions.

Number of pods} Total number of

Number of flowers. developed from— | seeds developed.

re !
Raceme Flowers Sue
; l ti Not a | Trippea | 2° From monet
n ra- : rippe rippe : ; no
ceme. Tripped. when in-} flowers. tipped nipped tripped

closed. See ea ca oaallhwihenyine

closed. elgced

INOS eerie eae ales sis cies 50 11 4 7 Dee tea Saha de 2) | aarp asters
TO PIE 5s Cena ee eee ea il 8 3 Dee seh see BEN ae aac eee
INOS ane eer isso ascot ace 16 11 5 Sail sees este GY pees le hens
INTO CG: Eiets Ge ES ate see 8 6 2 Si eeeeeeu eee Jal Ae eas
INO MOR Seen ee to oul 17 11 6 7 1 11 1
INC O Qe ace ae cade Cee eee ame 10 5 5 GIN ace Rise i a Vary seven ae
INDE AG ARS U SORE Coe Bee eee 18 10 8 else eae Dil yee Aue aye
ENO Sree eet erecta csc es 9 Noe se aeosoS palit re Boneless
TNC Cee oe ee 11 6 5 it eee sen 2 ae eee
INORLO nse etiee om eyes sits oe 13 8 5 Mate) s eres Bil aye wed sean
NOS see acts doce. Ooh 15 8 7 Gres sealed QO oes Halse ben
ONCE Dios eine cite nectecee Mele alee eee 11 7 CO OAS Hee | PA ese eee 2
VIRKG) Ea ES Sa ae a 150 93 57 54 3 191 3

12 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tripped flowers bearing pods... 2.5 255500. cc per cent.. 58.06
Flowers not tripped when inclosed bearing pods. ............. desc ete 26
Average number of seeds per pod from tripped flowers............... 3.53
Average number of seeds per pod from flowers not tripped when in-
Bigepderset sore eae cl ER. So Jo ee 1.00

The abundant data presented in Table IT permit the following con-
clusions:

(1) Flowers not tripped either artificially or by insects may produce pods. The
percentage of pods to flowers under these conditions varies from 11.63 to 0, the aver-
age for 77 plants being 5.55.

(2) Flowers artificially tripped produce pods in percentages ranging from 25.33 to
44.57, the average for 9,074 flowers on 77 plants being 30.68.

(3) Under natural conditions the percentage of flowers setting pods varies from 9.24
to 43.75. The average percentage of pods from 8,939 flowers on 77 plants is 16.76.

(4) The number of seeds per pod in artificially tripped flowers is usually less than
in naturally fertilized flowers, the average number of seeds per pod for 77 plants being
1.72 in the former case and 2.22 in the latter. In caged plants not tripped either
artificially or by insects the pods averaged 1.78 seeds each. The larger number of
seeds per pod in the exposed portions of the plants is perhaps due to cross-pollination.

RELATION OF INSECTS TO TRIPPING.

To obtain data on the efficiency of insects in tripping alfalfa flowers,
observations have been made at Pullman, Wash.; Chinook and
Havre, Mont.; Chico, Cal.; and at Arlington farm, Virginia. No at-
tempt was made to secure a list of visiting species, the object being
rather to ascertain the relation, if any, of insect visitors to seed forma-
tion.

BEES.

Among the commonest insects which visit alfalfa flowers are honey-
gathering bees. The data from detailed observations made at Pull-
man, Wash., and Chinook and Havre, Mont., are shown in Table IV.

TasLe [V.—Alfalfa flowers tripped by different honey-gathering bees.

Total Flowers tripped.

: Nee ee r number

Year. Species. Where observed. ofiowersiote te
visited. | Number. | Per cent.

19002282)! Apis mollifica.- caer. = esac ase | Pillman; Washes: == eeeseeee 318 1 0.31
i £3) (teas ee ah ee a ee 2 Risin pate alec hie ateiga| eee (0 (RE ee Soh 189 3 | 1.58
1909: ee ee ss; GOs ete. can eee Dam sew eisiceene Chinook, Mont... .¢aceece 126 6 4.76
19002 s)|Bombus spp: o-feees 2a cesses ne Havre, Mont’s....5 2 a2eeeces 268 79 29. 47
1909....| Megachile latimanus.............. iPalimansWashs: sseteece see 52 47 90. 38
19005 Sots i300 (as eit Bel Sieh, — ap heen Chinook, Wont; 22: oeeeeee e@ 45 42 93.33

1 Four species of Bombus were found tripping flowers at Havre, viz, B. auricomus Robertson, B. sepa-
ratus Cresson, B. bifarius Cresson, B. borealis Kirby.

It will be noted that the leaf-cutting bee ( Megachile latumanus Say)
is by far the most efficient, tripping about nine flowers out of every
ten visited. Bumblebees are decidedly inferior to Megachile, tripping

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. j 13

only about 30 per cent of the flowers visited. No attempt was made
to secure records of different species of Bombus, but there is certainly
considerable difference in their ability to trip the flowers. The
larger bumblebees are clumsy insects and at Chico have been observed
to trip with their feet flowers other than the one in which the pro-
boscis was inserted. Honeybees trip but few alfalfa flowers, as previ-
ously noted by other observers.

In 1907 a single individual of Megachile latimanus was observed to
trip 4 flowers in 30 seconds at Pullman, Wash.; another tripped 12
flowers in 70 seconds, and a third tripped 20 flowers in 2 minutes and
15seconds. ‘These three bees tripped flowers at the rate of 9.2 flowers
per minute, or 552 flowers per hour.

The process of tripping is thus described by Evans:

When Megachile latimanus visits an alfalfa flower, it grasps the wings or the keel
from below, braces its head up against the standard, and in this way forces the wing
and keel petals apart from the standard, so that it can push its head down and reach
the honey. Asa result, the flower is usually tripped. When this occurs, the pollen
is thrown in a miniature cloud that is sometimes visible to the eye. There is abun-
dant opportunity for the pollen to lodge upon the head and other parts of the bee,
where portions’of it can easily come in contact with the stigma of the next flower
that is tripped. Occasionally the proboscis of a bee is caught by the pistil,
which after the flower is tripped presses up quite closely to the standard. When
thus caught, the bee braces up on all six legs and after one or two vigorous
shakes releases itself. Such an accident does not result in any injury to the bee, but
merely occasions a short delay. The insect then rubs its proboscis with the
two front feet and flies off to gather honey from other flowers.

Honeybees were also carefully observed by McKee at Chico, Cal.,
in 1909. But few flowers were tripped by these insects, though
repeated visits seemed to increase the ease of tripping. Thus, one
flower tripped after four visits by honeybees; another, after seven
visits. In other cases, however, the flowers did not trip even after
seven visits by honeybees.

Short-tongued bees of the genus Andrena have also been observed
tripping alfalfa flowers both at Pullman, Wash., and at Arlington
farm, Virginia.

BUTTERFLIES.

Various species of butterflies are among the common insect visitors
to alfalfa flowers, the most abundant at Pullman, Wash., and Chinook,
Mont., being species of Pieris and Eurymus. Several species of
butterflies were carefully observed at the two places above mentioned

as well as at Chico, Cal., and at Arlington farm, Virginia, but in no
case was an individual seen to trip a flower. In all cases the butterfly
inserts its proboscis at one side of the flower. Our observations on
these insects agree fully with those of Urban.

14 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MOTHS AND OTHER NIGHT-FLYING INSECTS.

Owing to the fact that tripped flowers are sometimes abundant
while day-flying insect visitors are scarce, it was suspected that night-
flying insects might be a factor. To secure information on this point
two series of experiments were undertaken.

One of these experiments was conducted at Pullman, Wash., in
1909. Seven alfalfa plants were inclosed in fine-meshed mosquito
netting. Five of the plants were left under the nettimg during the
entire time of the experiment in order to find out what proportion
of the flowers become tripped when insects were entirely excluded.
Two of the plants were kept inclosed in netting during the daytime,
but were uncovered during the night. The results obtained are
given in Table V.

TaBLe V.—Alfalfa flowers tripped by night-flying insects at Pullman, Wash., 1909.

On same plants outside of

On plants inside of netting. netting: open to insects

Flowers Flowers
Plant. pacers bearing Plant. bearing
Ppee- | pods pods

* Inclosed in netting during entire experiment. + Inclosed in daytime; open for night-flying insects.

A similar experiment was conducted at Chico, Cal. On May 31,
1909, 400 alfalfa flowers on several different plants were marked and
observed until June 2. Table VI shows how many flowers were
tripped during the day or night.

Tasie VI.—Alfalfa flowers tripped during different periods of the day and night at Chico,

Cal., 1909.
Period ¢ d. Period ec :
eriod covere Number eriod covered Riitmiber
of flowers la | OP Wwers
From— To— tripped. From— To— tripped.

4p.m., May 31...... 7.30 p. m., May 31. 22 || 1la.m., Junel....| 2p.m., June1.... 16
7.30 p. m., May 31...| 5.304. m., June 1.. 0 || 2p. m., Junel..... 4p.m., Junel.... 18
5.30 a.m., Junel.... 10 a.m., June 1.... 23 || 4p. m., Junel..... 7.30 p.m.,June1.. 18
10 a.m., June 1...... 11 a.m., June 1.... 11 || 7.30 p.m.,Junel...| 6a.m., June 2..... 0

From the evidence presented in the two preceding tables, as well as
from the results of observations made at other times and places, it is
clear that night-flying insects are at most a small factor in tripping
alfalfa flowers.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 15
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS.

A number of species of small insects visit alfalfa flowers, not for the
purpose of getting honey, but to feed upon the pollen and the cellular
tissue of the flower. The most common insects of this kind are the
thrips. These insects are found in all parts of the United States, and
have frequently been abundant in the alfalfa flowers at Arlington
farm, Virginia; Chico, Cal.; Pullman, Wash.; and at Chinook and
Havre, Mont. At Pullman 1,119 thrips were found on 16 racemes
of alfalfa flowers, or an average of 69.9 thrips on the flowers of each
raceme. At Havre 48 thrips were found on 13 racemes. These
minute insects do not trip the alfalfa flowers.

In conducting the various experiments described in this paper,
it has been observed that even when the thrips are present in very
large numbers the flowers very rarely develop into pods and seed
unless tripped. On the other hand, when the flowers are tripped, a
large proportion usually produce pods and seeds, even though the
thrips are very abundant. The evidence at hand indicates that
the thrips are neither appreciably beneficial nor injurious in their
influence upon the development of alfalfa seed.

Another insect commonly found on alfalfa flowers is the tarnished
plant bug (Lygus pratensis). Blister beetles (E'picauta puncticollis
Mannerheim) are found on alfalfa in abundance at Pullman, Wash.,
feeding on the more tender portions, especially the stamens and style.
At Brookings, S. Dak., occurs the related Macrobasis unicolor Kirby.
This beetle, according to R. A. Oakley, does considerable damage
to the flowers, but incidentally trips many.

EFFECTS ON SEED SETTING OF VISITS OF INSECTS WITHOUT TRIPPING FLOWERS.

To determine whether or not the visiting of flowers by insects
without actual tripping aids in seed setting, observations were made
at Chico, Cal., as shown in Table VII. The plants designated as A,
B, and C were in full bloom at the time of beginning the experiment,
and up to that time were not protected in any way. After counting
and tagging the old and young flowers to be observed, the plants
were screened with tarlatan netting, with the exception of a portion
of plant B, which was left to develop under natural conditions.

The flowers designated as old flowers were the oldest on the plant
not tripped at the time the experiment was started, and many of
them probably had been visited one or more times by bees or other
insects without tripping. That insects had visited the older flowers
is merely assumption, but as many bees and other insects were work-
ing the alfalfa flowers on the days immediately preceding the starting
of the experiment, this seems probable. The flowers designated as
young flowers were not yet in bloom when they were screened.

16 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasLe VII.—E fects on seed setting of visits of insects without tripping the alfalfa flower
at Chico, Cal., 1909.

Pods set.

Number
Description of flowers. Plant. of
flowers. | Number. | Per cent.
A 109 3 2.74
Young flowers untripped and protected from insect visitors. --. 2 34 0 0
40 1 2.5
: A 311 5 1.6
Old flowers untripped and protected from further insect visitors. a Fd 0 0
0 0
Young flowers developed under natural conditions. ...........- B 52 31 59. 61
Old flowers developed under natural conditions................ B 70 18 25.71

These results indicate that a small percentage of flowers set pods
without insect visitors and that insect visitors that do not trip the
flowers have no effect.

EFFECT OF POLLEN FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES.

To determine the relative effects of self-pollination and cross-
pollination, a series of experiments was conducted at Pullman, Wash.,
Chico, Cal., and New London, Ohio. Using the same female parent,
pollen was applied to the stigma (a) from the same flower, (6) from
another flower on the same plant, and (ce) from another plant of the
same variety. The results-are presented in Table VIII.

TasLe VIII.—Pods and seeds produced by alfalfa flowers when fertilized by pollen from
different sources.

A.—WHEN POLLINATED FROM THE SAME FLOWER.

Number of seeds.

; Plant | Number | Num- | Flowers
Locality. Year Nowe leon ber of | bearing
. flowers. | pods. | pods. Total. | Average
per pod.
Per cent.
GHICOM@ de nmias eee ee eee er 1909 3399 65 17 AOA | RES Need OR ee are
DOzee 252 tach ee eee Lees 1909 5099 95 34 BO. Dh Eeee eC eee coe.
Pemlinan, Wash. -5:oscceeeos chee eee 1910 1 43 9 20.9 11 ee
1D eee eee ne eee. See 1910 3 29 2 6.9 2 1.0
DO) occ coe ea es Seems sae 1910 5 61 42 68.8 55 1.3
Ols poees 8 Sess ee 1910 7 50 19 38.0 34 1.8
New London, Ohio.........-s-....-.. 1912 1 33 1 3.0 0 0
ee snae Saat - Se Soe tee ogy a sec 1912 2 26 16 61.5 24 1.5
DO ss See yeep aee sas tees See oe 1912 3 13 0 0 0 0
DOL eset alto l eesti 1912 4 27 13 48.1 26 2.0
1B (ses = See ae a 5. oes: 1912 5 32 12 37.5 6 a)
LDU eae hee ee ectigssa= Seca eee 1912 6 39 0 0 0 0
Mopals- o2 diene Ra ce oh ees Bee ere 2: & 513 1659] <2. cee esee Use SaaS Sane

AVEPAZO!s colecwcoseec ees a ee Se | Leia Saleen os ce] Gee cees sol Meee OFA | etme eee 1.4

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. ly

TaBLE VIII.—Pods and seeds produced by alfalfa flowers when fertilized by pollen from
different sources—Continued.

B.—WHEN POLLINATED FROM DIFFERENT FLOWERS ON THE SAME PLANT.

Number of seeds.
Plant Number | Num- | Flowers
Locality. Year. F of pee of pearing in
owers. | pods. pods. verage
Total per pod.
Per cent.
Chico, ie Bi. CEI eee tes Boe NU 1909 3399 26 4 MU Aes ie aya tats, 2) spleen
Sea cA EM RRO EES 1909 5099 28 12 AD AOI Re eer Be
Pullman, NBS OR ee ac insets 1910 1 34 26.5 18 2.0
Bo ceit Sic aie, eh er SPC ae a ee 1910 3 69 9 13.0 18 2.0
Do Ho ete el NSM AR ISDE a) BRU meat 1910 5 66 33 50.0 90 4 97/
DNR See SU cee I ae Ie 1910 7 59 17 28.8 21 1,2
Hew. London, Oder tay.s en yen ae 1912 1 31 1 3357) 0 0
parative a) Hoh) Naar asds pas eels 1912 2 23 19 82.6 63 3.3
De mine eS aU Sere se Dae aa eg 1912 3 15 6 40.0 8 1.3
IDO jcticc ne SEE ROO eee ree Ae eee 1912 4 26 14 53.8 13 9
TD Os Hci crs aA EI TOR eae ae ee ean 1912 5 28 8 28.5 7 .8
IDG Le Ce SHEE HOR BEBE SE ARE Gees eres 1912 6 32 2 6.3 0 0
TNC Let pease epee acca cr acetic A ec 437 OAS eee cea e 238) Ree Saseaee
ACY CIEE ER Sac Be CEB See oi aCe ING Ree re Meee peel ACE epee eects BOG oaaasoaoce 2. 02

3399 44 31 CUR ee ee meee egy ann
5099 43 15 AS 9) Hesioseeoelss |G eenne eels
1 38 18 47. 4 39 2.2
3 54 21 38. 8 113 5.4
5 48 24 50.0 49 2.0
7 51 20 39.6 58 2.9
1 34 10 29. 4 13 1.3
2 25 18 72.0 27 1.5
3 19 9 47.3 14 1.5
4 20 16 80.0 47 2.9
5 35 14 40.0 15 1.1
6 30 10 (28.5 7 7
ces ASE ACEI CRE PTE ates | (PSP CIE 446 7403) go daeoades O84 |loacoobsuse
pososecosossscocndesuccolecacenab|looqsooscllecasescosaiooncoacd AG Tala | Merarcestelets 2.38

In the first and second sections of Table VIII the most striking
fact is the wide variation of the individual plants in their ability to
form seed when the flower is self-pollinated or pollinated from
another flower of the same plant. There is clearly a great difference
between individuals in this respect. In the matter of averages, 513
self-pollinated flowers produced 165 pods, or 32.1 per cent, while
437 flowers, each pollinated from another flower on the same plant,
produced 134 pods, or 30.6 per cent. On the same 12 plants, 446
flowers, each cross-pollinated from another plant of the same variety,
produced 206 pods, or 46.1 per cent.

From 114 pods of the self-pollinated flowers 158 seeds were pro-
duced, an average of 1.4 seeds per pod; 118 pods from the flowers pol-
linated from another flower on the same plant contained 238 seeds,
an average of 2.02 seeds per pod; while 160 pods from the cross-
pollinated flowers contained 382 seeds, or 2.38 seeds per pod.

It would appear, therefore, that cross-pollination is more potent
than self-pollination, while pollination from another flower on the

18 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

same plant gives practically the same results as self-pollination. As
the same 12 female parent plants were used in all the experiments,
the factor of individual variation is eliminated.

At Chico, Cal., in 1909, flowers on different branches of two se-
lected alfalfa plants were pollinated, (a) from the same flower, (0)
from a different flower on the same plant, (c) from a separate plant -
of the same variety, and (d) from a different variety. The female
parent in one case was a plant of Peruvian alfalfa, S. P. I. No. 3399;
in another, ordinary alfalfa, F. C. I. No. 5099; and in the third,
Turkestan alfalfa, S. P. I. No. 18751. The results at Chico and also
of similar experiments conducted at Arlington farm in 1908 and
1909 are given in Table IX.

Tasie 1X.—Resuits of the pollination of alfalfa flowers from different parents. -

CHICO, CAL., 1909.

=~ Essie = es

Number of seeds.
Number Flowers
Female parent. Male parent. of flow- eee: bearing
ers. pous. "|. pods. Total Average
* | per pod.
Per cent.
Samoejflower 22 25 65 17 262 0} OeENa Bray ces, Shins, 6
eae flower on same 26 f a ES a: Sl Pee Seta Nferenatte ete ays
pla
Another plant of same va- 44 31 HOS Sjy| oe re eal rc setae acre
riety. x
19822 "Tunkeyienecceoser ass 70 48 GReSice sera | sete atest
12694, Provence..........-- 76 46 GOD See pate
re BOER ae herenine ie 16 8 SO Oy Pe ae ae ela Cale SS
1SR23 VATA Dia eeeeeeeer ee er 38 28 ELSA enn ae Gillis eet eee
991, Turkestan...........- 47 27 O72 Ome eee es epeye Braves oie
| 18827, (Ns eee ae ae 24 11 ASU RT a ian en ie) 2 ae
| Same flower.........-..-.- 95 34 SOLT) [Uae ese lees ome siete
Another flower on same 28 12 42: O)-\iod ocean Mnscisthese wa
plant
Another plant of same va- 43 15 BEBE Res Gael asc Cobb
riety.
Grimms) 2 see eee Nee oe 68 44 GR An casoee Hes bt REanecce
Same flower.............-- 112 5 AUG I ats UN Soe cIAM setae iss
Another plant of same va- 50 23 AG One eaeretemi | eidmteisiain stew
| riety.
12694, Provence..-..------ 16 8 EOE asc risceeal tr Ane
ARLINGTON FARM, VIRGINIA.
F.C. a 1,M.sativa....... Same flower.............-- 125 62 49.6 108 UAC
oe ae pe ede .C. 1. 28, M. sativa(Kan.) 14 64.3 39 4.3
Do pay Sas wee F.C. 34 Grimm seeps 16 15 93. 8 50 3.3
(By ae ee ee eS F. C. I. 2072, M. falcata. . 5 3 60. 00 17 5.6
DOPE oe ees sy S. P. T. 20571, sand lucerne. 38 27 71.00 126 4.7
DOS See EL ee F.C. dis, Kansas varie- 8 6 75. 00 31 5.1
gate
.| S. P. I. 19534, M. falcata. . 4 4 100. 00 16 4.0
Same flower.............¢. 267 172 64.4 354 2.0
F.C. 1.2072, M. falcata..... 73 51 69.9 259 5.0

The results indicate that cross-pollination is usually much more
efficient than self-pollination, whether the latter is by the same flower
or by another flower of the same plant. The efficiency of cross-
pollination is about the same, regardless of whether the pollen-
producing parent is the same or a different variety.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 19

RELATION OF THE NUMBER OF FLOWERS PER RACEME TO THE
NUMBER OF PODS FORMED.

In Table IIT there is some slight evidence to indicate that racemes
with many flowers produce proportionately fewer pods than racemes
with few flowers. This matter was further investigated by McKee
at Chico, Cal., in 1909, and his results are shown in Table X. Accord-
ing to these results it would appear that few-flowered racemes produce
proportionately twice as many pods as many-flowered racemes.
While this factor is evidently one to be taken into consideration, it
could hardly modify materially the results shown in Table II, owing
to the very large number of flowers counted in these experiments.

These data are the combined readings from 15 different plants.
Exactly analogous conclusions are shown, however, by tabulating the
results of each individual plant.

TABLE X.—L fect of the number of alfalfa flowers per raceme on the percentage of pods set.

nice Number of seeds.
Number | Number Flowers
Number of flowers per raceme. of (0) pee OL pods setting
racemes. | flowers. pods: lee 5 Total Average | pods.
‘ per pod.

Per cent.

Nee etc orntchajeyeie sie edo 3!e 153 707 Sly) 2.07 553 1.7 44,
Vf TCO) TL os eda ee 138 1, 212 464 3.36 806 ee 38. 2
ORO MORe Re oelyscus-iseides qos seee 50 669 205 4.1 401 1.9 30.6
HCELONZG es teint pisos) 2M jacsiarcs wines = 17 344 68 4.0 96 1.4 19.7

AUTOMATIC TRIPPING.

The term ‘‘automatic tripping” is used when an alfalfa flower
becomes tripped without the aid of insects or any other external body.
This phenomenon was first actually observed at Chinook, Mont., in
1909, but was suspected from observations of the previous season at
the same place. In 1909 two of the plants inclosed in netting pro-
duced pods on racemes from which insects had been excluded. To
obtain further facts in regard to the process, all wilted and all un-
opened flowers were removed from a number of the racemes under
the netting, leaving only opened, untripped flowers, which were
closely observed during the following days. In the course of a day
or two several of the flowers had become tripped. On one of these
two plants the keel petals were partially separating in some of the
flowers. While these flowers were being examined one flower was
seen in the process of tripping. The pistil and stamens snapped up
vigorously against the standard, scattering the pollen around. No
object had come in contact with any portion of the flower.

The calyx of each tripped flower was marked with carbon ink as
soon as it was detected. Those which did not trip were watched until
the corolla had wilted or the flower had fallen. The number of

20 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

flowers that were tripped and the pods that developed from tripped
and untripped flowers are shown in Table XI.

TasLte XI.—Pods and seeds from automatically tripped alfalfa flowers at Chinook,

Mont., 1909.
Number of pods.
| Flowers
diane Flowers h
Plant. tripped. From. |From un-| Pearing

Total. | tripped | tripped | POds-
flowers. | flowers.

Per cenit. Per cent.
2 SES elie eter Be ; 7 0 58.33
c(h: SERED (5 3 0 27.27
LATS 3 eee eee eee 0 0
Nol pa: fos] pee 5 0 45.45
Mose eee 5 0 50.00
Bist 3 ei Peete 1 0 16.66
Poted «Are ee A ye eee. oe 21 ih eee ae
AWVEFALC. << oo |c cadena sea] sececces-a|tsenceseas|, ?.| SDTSSB iia = ne sel eee eee eee 36. 84
inde 19i taxa ho tag ile yee aR gd eters ae
fe See a ee 0 0 0
NS ete re 8 0 40.00
ING Boos eee 0 0 0
NGS Sion 2 ee 5 0 38. 46
Total 22-2 aie 64 86 |i 2-2 ee 16 1. ede ae
Average 22 Elise. 33 lee capincecs Hee cea Weiiiiaaaas licaadibac 1 |umne as 25.00
Flowers tripped on plants 3 and 8.........-.-----1--------- per cent.. 57.02
Flowers producing seed-on plants 3 and 8.........-.---------- dents 30. 57
Tripped flowers producing seed on plants 3 and 8..-_.-------- done 53. 62
Untripped flowers producing seeds on plants 3 and 8....------ dois. 2. 0

At Arlington farm, Virginia, in 1909, an entire alfalfa plant was
inclosed in a screen of tarlatan about the time the first flowers came
into bloom. Ten days or two weeks later the plant was observed
to be in full bloom. When the screen was removed it was noticed
that the flowers seemed larger than those on plants that had not been
screened. Seventeen racemes were tagged to show the number of
flowers on each, all unopened flowers being removed. The screen
had been removed only two or three minutes when a snapping or
clicking sound was heard. On close observation it was found that
some of the flowers had become tripped. The sound of the column
striking the standard was quite distinct, but even with very close
watching no single flower was actually seen in the act of tripping.
No insects visited the flowers of this plant, and the only way in which
the flowers could be tripped would be automatic. The day was clear,
very warm, and with no breeze stirring. The screen was removed
about 11 o’clock in the morning and for not more than 15 minutes.
No actual count of the flowers tripped in the manner just described
wasmade. At first the flowers did not trip very fast, but as the plant
remained longer in the sunshine the trippings became more frequent.
At times three or four would be heard almost simultaneously. The

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 21

flowers that tripped first were on the outside of the plant. The
screen was replaced, so that insects had no access to the flowers, nor
was the screen again removed until the seed was mature.

It was estimated that more than one-half of the flowers counted
on each raceme thus became self-tripped before the screen was re-
placed. None were artificially tripped, as extreme care was taken.
The results are presented in Table XII.

No flowers already tripped were noticed when the screen was first
removed. Apparently the tripping was induced when the screen
was removed by the increased transpiration from the turgid flowers.
- Certainly no insect agency was involved. The total number of pods
produced was 23.7 per cent of the total number of flowers counted
and tagged.

TaBLE XII.—Results obtained with a single alfalfa plant screened from insects and exposed

for 15 minutes on a bright, warm day when vn full bloom, thus bringing about the auto-
matic tripping of its flowers.

Number of seeds.
Flowers
Number | Number F
Raceme. of flowers.| of pods. bearing
pods. Total Average
* | per pod.
Per cent @
ING) Uo oadoce be OO BO BEE ESSER EEe Ere Beep EeeDOoe bora & 26 10 38. 4 13 1.3
INO) Moss odae dee tCe se oe GEA BEE Se ie ae E nse Hemet & 16 3 18.7 6 2.0
INDLB susbooc coodepe sab Glee Se eee BEB e eee ae ees & 12 3 25.0 7 2.3
IN@b Cho coc od SE OSB URC CeCe UE EBSD Ea Be opie tals a tyes sae 17 8 47.0 10 il, ®)
INOS Bodo oe BESO SAGA Re He eerste Ears reste pineal mr egam oat 2 20 5 25.0 14 2.8
IN@, Gscacsobes bode BN OSH Sr OSeE BEES SER er aeS CaS See ees 18 4 22. 2 8 2.0
ING Taddié cao SennSOG HOSS Cee EB pHee Soe Bee eeesos om eprors ae 12 1 8.3 3 3.0
IN@y Bate Cee eee Ue Bd OS: SOU ReR BOUe ae eee eneooemeacineo 4 22 3 13.6 6 2.0
IRIOS Oo ne cage a CO BEe Be ABR EE EC ae eee ara a Soe ee eeat 14 2 14.2 4 2.0
ING WO se ce ode her Seu ROO EAC EEE Oe Sea see ne AGE aE 14 1 7.1 2 2.0
IN| Gopher mites eee tai) Uae ces a aire Be Sea 16 2 12.5 4 2.0
INO WBSSeSSc cade ees BOSE EERE SRA SE Ee eee Een eae Etec, 18 2 11.1 5 2.5
IN@, 19. ,rsecanesabendancadaoaesncoonscoeuesseEesceeee 17 6 35. 2 12 2.0
INO, Ie nae bone Stee ace GUC rea ee SE Ne ene ens TA COe nT eee 17 4 23.5 10 PALE
INIO5 US sas Shee be OS Se EOF CRE EUS Re SANA] Ae epee sree ei 24 5 20.8 10 2.0
IN@s UB. She Bed Ale Meee ty EEE ea sieys IRMA ores ste ane onNE amy BS 12 4 33.3 7 v7
ING), Ue jlsboodco SOS OSU CEB BO CAE SEE eT Ea tee eters. 20 7 35.0 12 7
CONOR seth Ere ba et eet Ne Vay EE RSE 295 DO's | eee TBR alec ee a oe
ASYEIRD. Sooce abe aor eco eed aee SaRb ACE boo BR Ogn eb 4| 4aumeme sea bbe se pcre PBT Seas aoe 1.9

In 1910 an experiment was conducted at Pullman, Wash., for the
purpose of determining what proportion of flowers became self-
tripped. Accordingly, nine alfalfa plants, which were producing
more pods and seeds than most of the alfalfa plants in the experi-
mental plats, were inclosed in netting tents and were closely ob-
served for several days.

The tents in which the plants were inclosed were carefully covered
with fine-mesh mosquito bar, so that no openings were left for honey-
gathering insects to gain access to the flowers. The tents were made
large enough and pains were taken so that no flowers which were
being wad were in such a Boviion that they could peush against
the sides-or top of the tent.

a a

22 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

After the flowers from which insects were to be excluded had been
inclosed in the netting tents, they were examined every day or every
second day until all of the flowers had become entirely wilted. When-
ever any flower was found tr ipped, the calyx was marked with a mix-
ture of carbon black and water in order that the pod which might
develop from the tripped flower could be distinguished from any pod |
that might develop from a flower that had not been observed to be
tripped. The unmarked flowers were observed until they wilted, so
it is certain that none of them became tripped.

Table XIII shows the number of flowers that became tripped and

also the number of pods and seeds that developed from tripped and

untripped flowers.

TasLe XIII.—Pods and seeds from self-tripped alfalfa flowers at Pullman, Wash., 1910

Nuwber of flowers.

Number | Number
Number | o¢mature| of pods | Mature
Plant Not Bs pods |" seeds from | ' seeds
nt. rom rom
rota. | TER | tipped | markea | tm, | flowers | ogy noe
anand aaron owers. | “pods. | marked. | ™@tked.
INR Oe Se =o Se eee aot. eben OEE 128 9 119 1 0 0 0
2 OE! ee ee ns Seen 104 17 87 12 18 4 4
IND 10 ae eee ee 59 2 57 il 0 1 0
NGS Aas © 12 a a. Re 100 15 85 4 3 0 0
AO ee ee ee 62 4 58 0 0 0 0
fe Ene or RONEN GCE AE 91 1 90 1 1 0 0
ING MIS a ers. 0 aah omn er me 79 3 76 2 4 0 0
OO see Ae ate ie a on oe 71 8 63 0 0 0 0
eT ie RE A i 81 1 80 0 0 0 0
Do taal ene pen Vee te 775 60 715 21 26 5 4
Flowers tripped. 2.32. 35. 225s a ee ee percent.. 7.74
Tripped flowers producing podst..o2.. . 2-27 ae He sleye 2 stay, O10)
Flowers not tripped producing pods.................---------- C0525 eous
Average number of mature seeds per pod from tripped flowers........ 1. 23
Average number of mature seeds per pod which developed from flowers
not observed to be tripped: .. -.s8. 055352: 2S ee . 80

Table XIII shows that 7.7 per cent of the flowers observed on the
nine plants became tripped. In several of the flowers the keel was
observed gradually to open, and later the flowers were found to be
tripped. As the tents were made so that honey-gathering insects did
not have access to the flowers and as care was taken to prevent any
other object from coming in contact with the flowers, it seems clear
that the tripping which occurred was automatic.

Five of the 775 flowers observed produced pods, when no evidence
that these flowers had been tripped could be found. It is possible
that three of these flowers may have become tripped without being
observed or that the carbon which was placed on the calyx may have
been removed. However, two flowers were found in which the pod
was developing and the tip of the young pod was protruding through

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. ae

the tip of the keel while the flower remained untripped. This proves
that a pod may develop from a flower without the flower having
been tripped. The further evidence obtained in this investigation,
however, indicates that it is only in rare instances that untripped
alfalfa flowers produce seed.

In some seasons the alfalfa plants in the fields about Chinook,
Mont., produce seed in abundance, though honey-gathering insects
are present in only very small numbers. In other seasons most of
the flowers fall off the plants without producing pods and seed, and
only light seed crops are harvested. On August 22, 1910, it was
found that practically all flowers that had been open for more than
a few hours had been tripped and that during a period of 10 days
or 2 weeks prior to this time a very large proportion of the flowers
had developed into pods. A typical raceme was found to have on
it 20 flowers which had been opened. Of this number 15 had become
tripped. The 5 flowers not tripped were newly opened, all being
located near the top of the raceme. For several days the weather
had been bright and warm, though not excessively hot. On this
date flowers just beginning to open were inclosed in netting tents
and were watched in order to determine what was causing the flowers
to become tripped. At this time, however, the weather became
much colder, a heavy frost occurring on the night of August 24.
After the weather became colder comparatively few flowers were
tripped or produced pods. Of a total number of 390 marked flowers
inside netting tents, only 1 became tripped; of 333 marked flowers
on plants not inclosed ingnetting, only 3 became tripped. Practically
all of the flowers that opened after August 22 fell off the plants with-

out producing pods. Since honey-gathering insects were compara-:

tively rare in the alfalfa fields during the warm weather prior to
August 22, it seems evident that a large proportion of the flowers
were becoming automatically tripped and that when the weather
became colder conditions were no longer favorable for the flowers to
become tripped and produce seed.

From the evidence presented, there can be no question that auto-
matic tripping does occur in alfalfa flowers. It also indicates that in
rare cases pods form without the flower becoming tripped.

The evidence also shows that atmospheric or climatic conditions
greatly affect automatic tripping, so that it is not improbable that this
factor alone accounts for a great variation in seed production during
different seasons at the same place.

In 1913 it was found at Arlington farm that alfalfa flowers could
readily be tripped by focusing sunlight upon them with a burning
glass. The tripping takes place without any evident wilting.

At Brookings, S. Dak., in 1913, R. A. Oakley observed that when
the flowers in the shade near the ground were carefully raised into

24 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the hot sunshine automatic tripping took place quickly and could
easily be observed. These observations remove any possible doubt as
to the movement being automatic. It will take place, however, only
when the sun’s heat is intense. It now seems clear that automatic
tripping is induced mainly by hot sunshine, though it is not proved
that flowers continually in the sunshine will be tripped to the same .
extent as those alternately in the shade and exposed.

POLLINATION IN RELATION TO THE RUPTURE OF THE STIGMATIC
CELLS.

Burkill’s conclusion that the stigma is not susceptible of pollination
until the stigmatic cells have been ruptured has already been men-
tioned. To test this matter further, the following investigations
were conducted by J. M. Westgate in the greenhouse at Washing-
ton, D. C., by W. J. Morse at Arlington farm, Virginia, and by
M. W. Evans at Pullman, Wash. Two methods were used. In the
first, the standard was removed and the flower then tripped. The
results of the experiment with this method at the three places
mentioned are shown in Table XIV.

TaBLE XIV.— The setting of alfalfa pods by flowers tripped after removing the standard.

| . = Number of seeds.
ie * : - * | Num- | Number | Number | Flowers
Observer. } Place. Year. | ber of | offlowers} of pods | bearing
| plants. | tripped. | formed. pods. Total Average
| * | per pod.
| Per cent.
Wesieate eo ae Washington, D.C.| 1908 18 468 74 15.90 cep eer eee oon
Boe ee eee | ie farm....| 1908 5 123 28 22.8 37 103
ot Se Se | eC On tase meres 1909 5 23 10 43.4 16 1.6
Tears, Pop Sah: 8) : vain Washes 23||) 1909 tee ee 113 14 rip Bicls | Sh 3 Fe |i 5

These results show clearly that the mechanical effect of the stigma
striking the standard is not necessary to insure fertilization. Morse
also tripped flowers, allowing the stigma to strike the standard.
In these experiments, 76 flowers in 1908 produced 18 pods, or 23.7
per cent, and 42 flowers in 1909 produced 22 pods, or 52.4 per cent.
These figures are but slightly larger than where the standard was
removed. When the stigma was allowed to strike a piece of wood
used in tripping, 21 flowers in 1908 produced 3 pods, and 12 flowers
produced 4 pods—percentages 14.3 and 33.3, respectively. Though
the numbers of flowers used in the last test were small, the results
do not indicate that any additional benefit was secured.

The second method was to remove the standard and then sever
the keel at the base with a razor. The column thus retained its posi-
tion in the keel unchanged after tripping. The results of the ex-
periment with this method are shown in Table XV.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 25

TaBLE XV.—The setting of alfalfa pods by flowers when the standard was removed and
the keel severed at base.

Number of seeds.
Num- | Number | Number | Flowers

Observer. Place. Year. | ber of jofflowers| of pods | bearing
: plants. | tripped. | formed. | pods. Total. | *verage
per pod.
; Per cent.
Westgate....... Washington, D.C.| 1908 13 246 PA ee (aaa eae WIN ae 2
IMOVSCeeoee. cs: Arlington farm....} 1908 10 120 19 15.9 28 1.4
DOSS een eee Boree GOH cess acrace 1909 1 6 - 22 12 54.0 23 1.9
IDO SSS sacaoe Goes COs a esate 1909 2 8 27 11 40.8 19 1.7
Eyans.........-} Pullman, Wash...| 1909 |..-...... 76 13 Wipe Lnlersrevesine Berl eraictaceteeies
1 Plants screened. 2Plants not screened.

The proportion of pods to flowers is in fair agreement with those
tripped otherwise. It would seem, therefore, that no importance can
be attached to the keel as a passive agent of friction when the column
retracts.

ARTIFICIAL AGENCIES EFFECTIVE IN TRIPPING.

Any force giving sufficient pressure on the keel, either laterally or
vertically, will result in tripping the flower. This may be accom-
plished by means of the fingers or even by the hand in grasping an
entire cluster or bunch of clusters. Tripping may also be accom-
plished by means of a stick, straw, or pencil point inserted into the
flower and then separating the posterior processes of the wing petals.
In order to determine the relative effect of these various means, an
experiment was carried out in which tripping was accomplished in
the following ways: (1) Hach flower tripped with a small piece of
wood, (2) with a pencil point, and (3) rolled between the fingers.

The data obtained (Table XVI) show little difference in the effects
produced by these various methods of tripping.

TaBLE XVI.—Efect of tripping alfalfa flowers by different mechanical methods, at
Arlington farm, Virginia.

Number of seeds.
Number Nember Flowers

Method of tripping. | Year. Plant. of pods.

(0)
flowers.

ods. Average
Total. per pod.

With a small piece of |f 1908
wood. 1909

With a pencil point... 1909

thumb and fingers.

By rolling between the 1908

26 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EFFECT OF AGE OF FLOWERS UPON SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FERTILIZATION.

An experiment by Westgate was performed in one of the green-
houses of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washing-
ton, D. C., for the purpose of determining whether the age of the
flower affects its susceptibility to fertilization. A single plant of
Peruvian alfalfa (F. C. I. No. 60) was used in this experiment. A.
number of young, prime, and old flowers were artificially tripped.
For the purpose of comparison, a number of flowers at each stage of
development were marked, but not tripped. Table XVII shows the
percentage of flowers which produced pods under each method of
treatment.

TaBLeE XVII.—Pod setting in relation to age of alfalfa flowers when tripped.

Number | Number} Flowers Flowers | Number! Flowers
Age. offlowers| of pods bearing not of pods bearing
tripped. | formed. pods. tripped. | formed. pods.

Per cent. Per cent.
Young flowers 2.72. 25.220 3 tse. 15 7 46. 66 18 0
PTUNSTGWHIS( 23 oo eek. Se 34 17 50. 00 38 0
Olid flowers. ..4.8 30. te ts 81 40 49. 38 89 3 3. 37

A similar experiment, designed to show at what stages of its devel-
opment an alfalfa flower may become fertilized and also to throw
some light on the question as to how long it may remain capable of
fertilization, was conducted at Pullman, Wash., by Evans in 1909.
All opened and wilted flowers were removed from a number of
racemes on five different plants inclosed in netting tents. On the
following day all unopened buds on these racemes were removed, leay-
ing only those flowers which had opened during the preceding 30 hours.
As the experiment was carried out in September, when the weather
was comparatively cool, the flowers remained fresh and open for a
longer period than would have been the case in warmer weather. A
number of the flowers on these racemes were tripped each day up to
the end of seven days, when the tips of some of the petals were begin-
ning to wilt. The experiment was discontinued at this time because
the supply of flowers was exhausted. The number of the flowers
that were tripped and the percentage of tripped flowers which pro-
duced pods are shown in Table XVIII.

TasLe XVIII.—Results obtained at Pullman, Wash., in tripping alfalfa flowers at
different intervals after blooming.

Number of| Flowers
Time from opening of flower until tripped. sah eee of ’ ree joer
: ormed. pods.

Per cent

Degas Bes ee are ces seat FE. vin ste Des Se 103 s 27.18
PC ee RE SR SE OES, -,. Se EES, RB Es ASS

GRP e see es vee ee cals od oe s OSe 2 dace 2 DORE sain’ Seas Sake ORE RE 96 36 87. 50
Oe ee ee ot a Ses bo fe iS Be oak. ee 64 21 82. 81
By cg os ae, Pea oo ee Se a ee 79 19 24.05

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 27

A number of flowers were left untripped on these plants. Less than
5 per cent of the untripped flowers produced pods.

The results of both experiments, as tabulated, show that there is no
definite relation between the age of the flowers when tripped and the
proportion of pods developed. Clearly there is no diminution in the
ability of the flowers to become fertilized as long as the flowers remain

open.
FORCE NECESSARY FOR TRIPPING.

Burkill’s results in measuring the force necessary to trip alfalfa
flowers are thus reported:

That the separation of the basal processes is the legitimate and almost only natural
method of exploding the flower is obvious from the following consideration. By
means of a fine wire hung onto the ale, weights to a known extent were suspended
from them. In September, 1892, flowers obtained near Poulton (Gloucestershire)
were found to explode with an average weight of 1.68 grams (maximum and minimum,
2.37 and 0.93). Now, an insect visiting the flower rests its weight on the points whence
these weights were hung. The worker of Apis I find to weigh about 0.096 and Bombus
hortorum (large specimens) 0.199 grams. The mere weight of these two insects is
therefore quite insufficient to explode the flower. Moreover, the pedicel of the
flower bends under a weight insufficient to explode the flower, so that in these experi-
ments I found it necessary always to fix the flower by a wire hooked into the standard;
and, again, the hive bee so settles as to hold the parts of the flowers together with
its feet.

By the same method of experiment I discovered that the flower is not always in the
same degree of explosiveness; the hotter the weather the more explosive is the flower.
In cold weather the flower frequently remains unexploded for eight or nine days, after
which it withers, but in hot, sunny weather I found three days to be the maximum
duration, for explosion is brought about often within 24 hours from the opening of the
bud. We must remember in this connection that M. sativa is of Persian origin and
has only traversed Europe northward by slow degrees.

Shaking by the wind can not explode the flowers. Pieces of paper with a surface
of 184 and 22 square inches were tied to stalks of this plant in order to give more power
- to the wind, but no effect was observable from the shaking it produced.!

Table XIX gives the results of experiments carried out by West-
gate with an apparatus similar to that used by Burkill. His results
confirm those of Burkill in showing that the force required is much
greater than the mere weight of bumblebees or other insects which
trip alfalfa flowers. ‘They also show clearly that the force required
diminishes as the flowers become older. There is also a considerable
range of variation in the weight required to trip different flowers of
approximately the same age.

1 Burkill, I. H. On the fertilization of some species of Medicago L. in England. ede, Cambridge
Philosophical Society, v. 8, pt. 3, p. 146, 1894.

28 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe XIX.— Weight (in grams) necessary to trip alfalfa Jlowers on different plants at
different stages of maturity.

AT ALMA, NEBR!

Young Prime Old
Plant. flowers. | flowers. | flowers.

BIGs Delae ce seca gece Saisie am yes oe ceicieiss sn eticls nye occgniseae de se eee ee 2.14 1.49 0. 6
GSO. cee ote ee leo ate ajatchata a a sfelaler a= a's wale ia etc ea 3. 89 3.37 3.3
1 9 Y-7.1 Rare 6 SARS Ue hep ae See See Se eS Ce Oe mmeE apne et mS ORE oe 6. 42 3. 56 2.60
IM 12229. 2- .taic on sees saat eek sees se ceeaes oe - Sas eect eee 3.37 2. 54 1.30
VIM OE RIKER RE ae See OSS odo Se ee Ro EO RE ASD Oc SRMRHRE CREO E AM ab cbeccesce 7.12 3. 69 2.14

Average tf 2 Lipset dese ba tek Seema ed SRA A aatted Hee AG 5.18 2.92 2.07

AT ARLINGTON FARM, VIRGINIA.?

WAC. T2995 Se SI Ek wank Ja eS ae sen sean a bebisd sates Denis Bem ae eee eee 6. 57 2.22 1.68
io hel ie IS) WA ee ee See eae SRS Een GHS a7,2 SOUMABE SHEE ameoe sdoeersc on 2.07 1.49 33
5S Sad lp 2 ah ee ee ar baa eESMSY She osuE coor 4.79 3. 04 45

AVCYASO 25 fe oe algae tes Sajtis she ats cee eet tela nls Secale 8 ce euers eS ene 4,21 2. 33 Hie

1 Experiment performed August 4, 1908. Temperature 98° to 101° F.; TuLicaey. very low; bright sun.
Number of flowers used in ae as follows: Young, 16; prime, 22; "old, 2
2 Experiment performed July 2, 1908; used one flower at each stage of sates

Observations made at different times and places indicate that
wind or rain do not ordinarily cause alfalfa flowers to become tripped.
Even when blowing with high velocity the wind sways the plants
back and forth usually without causing the racemes to strike against
adjoining plants. At Chinook, Mont., during a high gale accom-
panied by a rainstorm, which lasted for a few minutes, a small pro-
portion of a number of flowers that had been marked was tripped.
The number of flowers which become tripped through the influence
of wind or rain, however, in ordinary seasons is evidently small.

EFFECT OF PARTIAL SHADE.

In conducting the experiments described in this paper it has been
observed that on the different plants used those flowers which have
been inclosed in the covering made by a single thickness of mosquito
bar remain in bloom longer and that the petals seem to be larger
than on those flowers which were not inclosed. Asit seemed possible
that the effect of the slight shade or the breaking of the force of the
wind might also influence the development of pods and seed, an experi-
ment was performed at Pullman, Wash., in 1908, to obtain some infor-
mation in regard to this point.

Several plants were selected, and a portion of each plant was
inclosed in a tent made of netting (tarlatan); the remaining portion
of each plant was not inclosed, but was protected on three sides and
partially from above by one thickness of netting, which was between
the plant and the sun and also between the plant and the prevailing
winds, yet did not prevent the access of bees and other insects.
The recaits of this experiment are shown in Table XX, in which the
results secured on unprotected plants at the same time and place are
also presented for the purpose of comparison.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 29

TABLE X X.—Pods and seeds formed on al aie plants at Pullman, Wash., in 1908 under
different conditions as regards shade and insect visitation.

Netae Number of seeds.

Number be ae Flowers

Plant. Conditions. of eae bearing
flowers. oped. pods. Total. eee

Per cent.
Flowers open to insects, sun, and wind... 869 207 23.8 574 2.77
No. 03 ... 160 35 21.8 53 1.51
No.03-A..|| shaded by one thickness of netting, in- m a 2g ch oe
No. 41... t oxeelhviGlavl 112 31 27.6 88 2.83
RS eset aac eee aa a ee aisvean eceo 99 22 2200, 43 1.95
No. 89-A } 71 18 25.3 41 2.27
LL a) 21) Nc cep oh i 513 VG ease eee AN) ee Sie
JAGR he oc DH Sa nC MaC EOL GED ODO AE AS ae aH AS Fl aeckicha ease POH EY ace Beueere 2.33
No. 03 . 141 14 9.9 19 1.35
No.03-A : 99 7 7.0 19 2.71
No. 41 ...|}Entirely inclosed in mosquito netting... _ 132 4 3.0 5 1.25
No. 89 .. 105 2 1.9 3 1.50

No.89-A 43 0 0 0 0

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As shown in Table XX, 23.8 per cent of the flowers which de-
veloped under natural conditions produced pods. The average num-
ber of seeds per pod was 2.77. On the stems where the flowers were
screened from sun and wind by one thickness of mosquito netting but
which were open to the visits of honey-gathering insects, 24.7 per
cent of the flowers produced pods, which contained an average
number of 2.33 seeds each. On the stems which were entirely in-
closed by one thickness of mosquito netting, thus excluding insects,
5.1 per cent of the flowers produced pods, which contained an aver-
age number of 1.7 seeds each.

In this experiment the proportion of flowers producing pods and
the number of seeds per pod were practically the same when the
flowers were screened from sun and wind by one thickness of mosquito
netting, which did not exclude insects, as when the flowers developed
under natural conditions. It is evident from these results that the
shade produced by a covering of one thickness of mosquito netting
had in this case no appreciable effect on the setting of pods.

PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TRIPPING.

The recognition of the efficiency of tripping in the seed setting of
alfalfa makes it possible to secure inbred seed whenever cross-poll-
nation is not desired. This can be accomplished by isolating the
plants to any degree that is necessary and then tripping, using such
artificial means as are called for by the extensiveness of the opera-
tions. ‘The observed increase of the seed crop thus obtained indicates
the possibility of adopting this method on an extended scale to secure
alfalfa-seed crops, especially where the plants are grown in cultivated

eee

30 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rows. It may be practicable to utilize some simple type of machine
that will artificially trip alfalfa flowers and thus increase the seed
crop. ‘This subject is at present under investigation. Another pos-
sibility lies in propagating such bees as are effective pollinators. It
might, indeed, be profitable to introduce into the United States the
bees that are most effective in the native land of alfalfa. .

TRIPPING IN RELATION TO SEED SETTING IN ANNUAL MEDICAGOS.

To determine the relation of tripping by insects to seed setting in
the annual medicagos, a number of the species were covered by cages
so made as to exclude all but very minute insects and left through
the flowering and fruiting period. The species which at Chico, Cal.,
formed pods readily and apparently as well as in the open are shown
in Table XX.

TasLe XXI.—Species of annual medicagos readily forming pods under cover of cages.

Plant designation. Species. Plant designation. | Species.
SSR2 To Nod0@oseee52- Medicago orbicularis. S. P. I. No. 17783.......| Medicago tuberculata.
S. P. I. No. 19433.......| M. hispida confinis. S. P. I. No. 26077.......| M. scutellata.
8. P. I. No. 22649......- | M. hispida denticulata. S. P. I. No. 28790.......| M. tuberculata aculeata.
S. P. I. No. 19449.......| M. turbinata. S. P. I. No. 9748.....-..- M. muricata.
S. P. I. No. 19442.......| M. rugosa.

Whether the flowers in any of these species set seed without trip-
ping can not be stated positively, but so far as could be determined
they became tripped before setting seed, and apparently the tripping
was automatic. However, this point could not be determined defi-
nitely in all cases. The flowers in some of the species have a very
short stamineal column. This makes it difficult to observe the trip-
ping process as readily as in species with a long stamineal column.

In two species (S. P. I. No. 30111, Medicago ciliaris, and 8. P. I.
No. 16874, Medicago echinus) pods did not form in as large numbers
inside the cages as outside, but even with these a number of pods
formed in the cages.

To determine whether artificial tripping is beneficial in Medicago
echinus, flowers of this species were worked as follows:

Six racemes, containing 28 flowers, were artificially tripped, resulting in three
pods forming.

Four racemes, containing 21 flowers, were left untripped as a check, and these set
one pod.

The number of racemes rather than the number of flowers should
be used as a basis of comparison, as not all of the flowers ever set pods.

In Medicago echinus there are five to seven flowers in a cluster, but
only one or two burs form from this number, even though all the
flowers in a cluster are tripped.

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 31
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

The numerous researches of previous investigators on the pollina-
tion of the alfalfa flower have resulted in somewhat divergent con-
clusions. In but few cases has any attempt been made to determine
the relation of pollination to the resultant crop of seed.

_ The opinion has prevailed that insect pollinizers are of vital im-
portance and that in the absence of these in adequate numbers the
resultant seed crop is necessarily small.

Tt has, however, been generally recognized that climatic conditions
are important, as practically all the commercial seed is raised in
regions having a semiarid climate, at least during the time the seed
crop is made.

Alfalfa flowers remain fully susceptible to pollination from the time
of opening until the petals wither. Pollination is ordinarily effected
when the elastic stamineal column has become ‘‘tripped.”’ No
evidence was found to favor Burkill’s theory that tripping effects
the rupture of the stigmatic cells and that this is an important factor
in fertilization. Flowers tripped in various ways to prevent any
stimulation or rupturing of the stigma by contact set pods equally as
well as those tripped naturally.

Flowers tripped artificially, and therefore self-pollinated, set pods
freely. In one series of experiments on 77 plants at 7 different places,
9,074 flowers set 2,784 pods when artificially tripped (a percentage
of 30.68), while 8,939 flowers on the same plants exposed to natural
conditions set 1,499 pods (16.76 per cent). The pods from artifi-
cially tripped flowers contained an average of 1.72 seeds each, while
those from naturally tripped flowers averaged 2.22 seeds each.

Pollination from a different flower on the same plant is no more
effective than self-pollination, but pollen from another plant increases
both the proportion of pods set and the number of seeds per pod. It
makes but little difference whether the pollen paved be the same or a
different variety.

Tripping in alfalfa flowers may be automatic or may be effected by
insects and other external agents. Untripped flowers form pods and
seeds only in rare instances. Automatic tripping is a normal phe-
nomenon. On two plants at Chinook, Mont., in 1909, 33 out of 57
marked flowers became automatically tripped on one plant and set
21 pods, and under the same conditions 64 flowers on the second plant
produced 16 pods from 36 automatically tripped flowers. The per-
centage of pods to flowers on the first plant is 36.84 and on the second
25. These are quite as high as normally occur under natural field
conditions. In a similar experiment at Pullman, Wash., in 1910, 60
flowers out of 775 on 9 plants became self-tripped, and 21 of these
set pods. In this case only 7.74 per cent of the flowers automati-

32 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cally tripped, of which 35 per cent set pods, while under natural
conditions the same season 13.15 per cent of the flowers developed
pods.

There is a wide range of variability in alfalfa plants as regards
the readiness with which the flowers become tripped, either auto-
matically or by the aid of external objects, and also in their ability
to set fruit when tripped. The number of pods set is not propor-
tional to the number of flowers, as a smaller proportion of pods is
produced on many-flowered racemes than on few-flowered racemes.

Automatic tripping takes place most frequently in hot sunshine.
Humidity is doubtless also a factor. Automatic tripping can readily
be observed by focusing a burning glass on open flowers or by sim-
ply brmging shaded flowers into the sunshine on a hot day.

Insects are the natural agents of cross-pollination in alfalfa, but
even where they are scarce, good crops of seed may be produced.
Bumblebees and leaf-cutting bees (Megachile) are the most efficient
insects to trip alfalfa flowers. Honeybees secure much honey from
alfalfa flowers, but trip only a very small percentage of the blos-
soms. Night-flying insects are of negligiblevalue. Butterflies have
never been observed to trip a flower during the course of these studies.

Rain or wind causes but few alfalfa flowers to become tripped.

Automatic tripping with consequent self-pollination. probably
results in the. setting of as-many pods as does tripping by insect
visitors, at least in the West. This conclusion is also in accord with
the observation that excellent seed crops are produced in sections
where bumblebees and other insects capable of tripping alfalfa flowers
are decidedly scarce.

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WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914

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